Epistemology -is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge and is also referred

to as "theory of knowledge". -It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which any given subject or entity can be known. -Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification. -The term "epistemology" was introduced by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier Branches or 'tendencies' within epistemology Empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the senses. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical,[citation needed] while some regard disciplines such as mathematics and logic as exceptions. There are many variants of empiricism, positivism and realism being among the most commonly expounded but central to all empiricist epistemologies is the notion of the epistemologically privileged status of sense data. Idealism Many idealists believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is innatefor example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition". The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the human mind (as in Kant's theory of transcendental idealism), or they may be said to exist independently of the mind (as in Plato's theory of Forms). Rationalism By contrast with empiricism and idealism, which emphasize the epistemologically privileged status of sense data (empirical) and the primacy of Reason (theoretical) respectively, modern rationalism adds a third 'system of thinking', (as Gaston Bachelard has termed these areas) and holds that all three are of equal importance: The empirical, the theoretical and the abstract. For Bachelard, rationalism makes equal reference to all three systems of thinking. An example of abstract thinking is Pythagoras' concept of 'pure' geometric forms: perfect triangles, squares, circles, etc. Another example is imaginary numbers, in mathematics. Constructivism Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all "knowledge is a compilation of human-made constructions" "not the neutral discovery of an objective truth". Whereas objectivism is concerned with the "object of our knowledge", constructivism emphasises "how we construct knowledge". Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that form a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity

instead of the classical objectivity, and on viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivityconstructs can be validated through experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic; as Vico said: "The norm of the truth is to have made it." The regress problem "... to justify a belief one must appeal to a further justified belief. This means that one of two things can be the case. Either there are some [epistemologically basic] beliefs that we can be justified for holding, without being able to justify them on the basis of any other belief, or else for each justified belief there is an infinite regress of (potential) justification [the nebula theory]. On this theory there is no rock bottom of justification. Justification just meanders in and out through our network of beliefs, stopping nowhere." The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism. Socrates said, "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing." Response to the regress problem Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem. Self-determination theory: a framework for the recovery paradigm Anthony D. Mancini Abstract Recovery is an increasingly important concept in mental health services research and policy-making. However, despite burgeoning interest in the concept, no overarching theoretical or empirical framework has been offered to support its key ideas. Further, it is often unclear how recovery ideas translate into routine practices of mental health programmes and practitioners. In this article, a theoretical framework for recovery ideas is derived from selfdetermination theory, a widely researched and empirically validated theory of human need fulfilment. I discuss the conceptual overlap of self-determination theory and recovery ideas, and, using key motivational concepts, develop a typology of recovery-oriented practices for three hypothetical programme types (controlling, traditional/paternalistic and recovery oriented). I describe existing measures of recoveryoriented practice and consider the implications of selfdetermination theory for measurement of and research on recovery-oriented practice. Converging paradigms for environmental health theory and practice. Margot Parkes, Ruth Panelli, and Philip Weinstein Abstract Converging themes from the fields of environmental health, ecology and health, and human ecology highlight opportunities for innovation and advancement in

environmental health theory and practice. In this commentary we outline the role of research and applied programs that integrate biophysical and social sciences with environmental health practice in order to address deficiencies in each field when taken on its own. New opportunities for environmental health protection and promotion are outlined based on the three converging themes: integrated approaches to research and policy, methodological acknowledgment of the synergies between the social and biophysical environments, and incorporation of core ecosystem principles into research and practice. These converging themes are discussed in relation to their implications for new types of intervention to achieve health gains across different spatial and temporal scales at the interface between biophysical and social environments.