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Nature of Solutions Solutions - Homogenous mixture of two or more substance that combine to form a single phase - Consists of a solute

dissolved in a solvent Mixtures - All solutions are considered mixtures, not all mixtures are considered solutions Solvation - Electrostatic interaction between solute and solvent molecules o Also known as dissolution - When water is the solvent, it is known as hydration - When new attractions are stronger than the original o Exothermic, process favored at low temperatures - When new interactions are weaker than the original ones o Endothermic, process favored at high temperatures - If enthalpy of dissolution = 0, it is an ideal solution Spontaneity of Dissolution - Not dependent on just enthalpy change - Also dependent on entropy change - Ultimately, Spontaneity is affected by Gibbs Free Energy o Decrease = Spontaneity o Increase = NonSpontaneity - Microstates determine amount of energy o More microstates result in more energy available o Less microstates mean less energy available Solubility - Maximum amount of that substance that can be dissolved in a particular solvent at a particular temperature - When saturated, dissolved state is in equilibrium with undissolved state - If you add solutes beyond saturation, precipitation of solute will occur - If proportion solute to solvent o Small = Dilute o Large = Concentrated - Large Negative Gibbs means solute dissolves spontaneously - Small Negative Gibbs means solute sparingly soluble salts - Positive Gibbs means solute dissolves nonspontaneously Aqueous Solutions - Solubility Rules o All alkali metal salts soluble o All ammonium salts soluble o All Cl-, Br-,I- soluble except Ag+, Pb2+, Hg22+ o All sulfate (SO42-) salts soluble, except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ o All metal oxides insoluble, except CaO, SrO, BaO

o All hydroxides insoluble, except alkali hydroxide and Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ o All carbonates, phosphates, sulfides (S2-) and sulfites (SO32-) insoluble, except alkali metals and ammonium All sodium and nitrate salts completely soluble

Ions Cations and Anions - Know your nomenclature Ion Charges - Cations have positive charge, anions have negative charge - Elements found naturally in charged or uncharged state o Different charged states exist too (Transition Metals) Electrolytes - Even though ions, solid ionic compounds tend to be poor conductors of electricity o Rigid lattice arrangement prevents particle movement - However, in aqueous solution ions freed and become good conductors o Solutes that enable solution to carry current: Electrolytes o Therefore pure water poor conductor, no ions - Solute is o Strong Electrolyte: If it dissociates completely into its constituent ions E.g NaCl, KI (Highly Polar Covalent Bond) o Weak Electrolyte: Dissociates incompletely into ion constituents E.g Hg2I2 determined by Ksp o Non Electrolyte: Does not dissociate at all, limiting their solubility Concentration Mass Percent - (Mass of solute/ Mass of solution) * 100% Mole Fraction - (Number of moles of compound/ Total number moles of all species) Molarity (M) - (Mols solute/ Liter solution) Molality (m) - (Mols solute/ kg solvent) - Special situations needed: Boiling point elevation, freezing point depression Normality (N) - (Number of equivalents of solute/ liter solution) - Reaction dependent - E.g 1M MnO4- accepts 5 mol electrons in acid, therefore 5N o But only accepts 3 mol electrons in alkaline, therefore 3N Dilution - M1V1=M2V2

Solution Equilibria - Solving Solution equilibria problems o Write out ionic dissolution equation o Set Ksp or I.P (like Q quotient) to the ion consituents o Solve using given values, and either obtain answer or compare to Ksp - Ksp increases with increasing temperature and pressure - Common Ion Effect o If ionic compound dissolves in a solution already containing its constituent, soluble decreases o Like Le Chateliers Principle whereby you add the products on one side already

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