Chemistry Notes Chapter 1 Chemistry: The central science 1. 1.1 The study of Chemistry a. Chemistry : is the study of i.

Composition ii. Structure iii. Properties iv. Changes in Matter b. Matter : is anything that has mass and takes up space c. Atoms : smallest building blocks of matter d. Properties of matter depend on i. Kinds of atoms it contains composition ii. Ways atoms are arranged structure e. Millions of different materials are known f. They are made up of about 100 different known atoms g. Different kinds of atoms come from different elements h. Only 118 different elements are known i. Each element has a name and a symbol j. Symbol shorthand notation: 1 or 2 letters (First letter capitalized) k. Molecule 2 or more atoms attached to each other in a specific way l. Chemistry is an experimental science m. Knowledge of the facts of chemistry is obtained by i. Doing experiments ii. Making observations n. Our findings are called data or facts o. Data or Facts are systematically ordered p. Scientific law i. Summarizes what consistently happens in nature ii. Can be used to make predictions q. Scientists try to explain why and how something happens r. Hypothesis i. Tentative explanation of what is observed ii. Is tested by doing more experiments iii. May have to be modified and retested s. Theory an explanation that is extensively tested and generally accepted t. The scientific method : the way scientists i. Gather data from experiments and observations
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ii. Develop scientific laws, hypothesizes, and theories

2. 1.2 Classification of Matter a. Classification of matter i. By its physical state 1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas ii. By its composition 1. Mixture 2. Pure substance b. States of matter i. Solid 1. is rigid has a definite shape and definite volume 2. Molecules touch cannot move ii. Liquid 1. Has a distinct volume 2. But no definite shape 3. Molecules touch and can move iii. Gas 1. No fixed volume or shape 2. Can be easily compressed 3. Molecules far apart c. Mixtures and Pure substances i. Mixture 1. Consists of 2 or more pure substances 2. Have variable compositions 3. Can be separated by physical means 4. Each component keeps a. Its chemical identiy b. Its properties d. Heterogeneous mixture not uniform thoughout e. Homogenous mixture - uniform throughout also called solution f. To separate mixtures use properties of components i. Muddy water (Het. Mix.) filtration ii. Salt water ( sol.) distillation iii. Iron/sugar mix (Het. Mix.) magnet removes iron water dissolves sugar
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g. Pure substances have a fixed composition and distinct properties i. 2 classes: 1. elements 2. compounds h. Elements i. Composed of only one kind of atom ii. Cannot be decomposed into simpler substances iii. 118 known i. Compounds i. Composed of 2 or more atoms ii. Formed from elements in chemical reaction iii. Have constant composition 3. 1.3 Scientific Measurements a. A measurement consists of i. The measured number ii. The unit b. System of units i. British system ii. Used in the U.S. iii. Metric system iv. Used by the rest of the world v. International system (SI) vi. Subsystem of metric system vii. Used in the sciences

viii. Advantage of using metric units and SI systems 1. Smaller/ Larger units differ from each other by powers of 10

c. 3 temperature scales i. Fahrenheit scale water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F ii. Celsius scale water freezes at 0C and boils at 100C iii. Kelvin scale water freezes at 273 K and boils at 373 K 1. 2. ( ) 3. 4. d. e. f. g. h.
( )

i.

j.

Derived SI units obtained by combining basic SI units Volume space occupy an object SI unit: 1 cubic meter, 1 m3 very large 246 Gallons Smaller unit : 1 cubic decimeter, 1 dm3 = 0.1 m or 1 Liter Units to describe measurement i. cm3 for solids ii. mL for liquids to measure volumes we use: i. graduated cylinder ii. pipets iii. burets iv. Volumetric Flasks Density i. Indicates how heavy or light a substance is ii. Defined as mass per unit d =m/v iii. Other equations dv = m and v = m/d iv. Used to characterize and identify substances
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v. Changes with temperatures; usually given at 20C vi. Listed in tables for various substances 4. 1.4 The Properties of matter a. Physical and chemical changes i. Physical change 1. A substance changes a. Its physical appearance b. Not its chemical composition 2. Examples a. Melting ice b. Evaporation of water c. All changes of state ii. Chemical change or chemical reactions 1. Substances converted to chemically different substances 2. Examples a. Burning of hydrogen in air to get water b. Burning of natural gas or methane b. Properties of matter are used to characterize and identify substances c. Physical properties do not involve chemical reaction i. Melting point ii. Density d. Chemical properties involve a chemical reaction i. Oil burns ii. Iron rusts 5. Appendix 1 Scientific Notation a. Exponential notation b. Useful for: expressing a very small or very large numbers indicates the number of significant figures c. A number is written as a small number times a power of 10 d. Standard exponential notation is 1 digit term < 10 e. Adding and subtracting with scientific notation i. Convert to some power of 10 ii. Add or subtract the digit terms, keep exponent term iii. Facelift if needed f. Multiply with scientific notation i. Multiply the digit terms ii. Add the exponents iii. Facelift if necessary
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g. Dividing with scientific notation i. Divide the digit terms ii. Subtract the exponents iii. Facelift if necessary 6. 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement a. A measurement consists of i. The measured number ii. The unit iii. An indication of the uncertainty b. Precision closeness among a set of measured values c. Accuracy closeness of a measurement to the true average d. To indicate uncertainty in a measured value, we use significant figures e. Significant figures i. All the digits that are certain plus one that contains a slight uncertainty ii. How many significant digits are there in a number? 1. All non-zero digits are significant 2. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant 3. Zeroes before the first non-zero digits are not significant 4. Zeroes after the last non zero digit are significant 5. In the numbers without a decimal point: zeroes after the last nonzero digit may or may not be significant we use scientific notation to avoid ambiguity f. Calculations with significant figures i. Rule for multiplication/division 1. In the product or quotient keep only as many significant digits as there are in the term with the smallest number of significant digits ii. Rule for addition/subtraction 1. The last digit retained in the sum or difference should correspond to the first column that contains slight uncertainty iii. Rounding 1. Simply drop numbers smaller than 5 2. Increase the last digit if the first digit dropped is larger than 5 iv. Calculations involving 2 or more steps 1. For each step use the appropriate rule 2. Do not round intermediate results rather underline the last significant digit 3. Round the final result to the correct number of significant figures
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7. 1.6 Using units and solving problems a. Dimensional analysis or Factor label method or Unit factor Method i. Used to make conversions from one unit to another one ii. Advantages 1. Supplies numbers and correct units 2. Makes errors easy to spot b. Hints i. Design the conversion factor in such a way that units you want to get rid of will cancel out ii. Multiply and divide 1. Not only the numbers 2. But also the units iii. Check to see if your answer makes sense iv. Use a road map Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Atoms 8. 2.1 The Atomic Theory a. Daltons atomic theory all matter consists of atoms that are tiny invisible particles b. Elements composed of atoms of only one kind c. Atoms of i. The same element are identical ii. Different elements differ from each other d. In a chemical reaction atoms are regrouped atoms are neither created or destroyed this explains the law of conservation of mater or in a chemical reaction the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the starting materials e. Compound i. Formed when atoms of 2 or more elements combine ii. Always has the same relative number and kind of atom f. This explains the law of constant composition i. Any compound is always made up of the same elements in the same proportion by mass g. Dalton deduced the law of multiple proportions i. When 2 elements form more than one compound the masses of one element that are combined with a fixed mass of the other element ar in the ration of small whole numbers

9. 2.2 The Structure of an atom a. Subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons b. c. Particle d. Location e. Mass f. Range (amu) from the center g. Proton h. In nucleus i. 1.00725 =1 j. 1 k. Neutron l. In nucleus m. 1.00866 =1 n. 0 o. Electron p. Outside q. 0.00065 =0 r. 1 nuclei s. Nucleus i. At center of atom contains protons & neutrons ii. Has a positive electric charge iii. Contains most of the atoms mass iv. Characterized by the atomic number & mass number 10. 2.3 Atomic number, mass number, and isotopes a. Atomic number Z i. Number of protons in the nucleus ii. Number of electrons in a neutral element b. Mass number A i. The total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element 11. 2.4 The Periodic Table a. Created by Mendeleev 1869 and Lothar Meyer 1869 b. Tabular arrangement of the elements c. Consists of rows and columns d. Shows regular repetition of properties e. Originally i. Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic weight discrepancies f. Today i. Elements are arranged in order of atomic number g. Horizontal rows: i. Periods h. Vertical columns i. Groups or families of similar properties within a family i. A groups i. Main group of representative elements j. B groups i. Transition elements (all metals)

k. At bottom i. Inner transitional elements (all metals) 1. Lanthanides 2. Actinides l. Metals i. Most elements; 1. Conduct heat, electricity and have luster and shine 2. Also are malleable / ductile m. Nonmetals i. Only 22 at the top right of the periodic table n. Metalloids or semi-metals i. Along stair case shaped borderline properties of metals and nonmetals o. Group 1A i. Alkali metals 1. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr p. Group 2A i. alkaline earth metals 1. Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra q. Group 6A i. Chalcogens 1. O, S, Se, Te, Po r. Group 7A i. Halogens 1. F, Cl, Br, I, At s. Group 8A i. Noble gases 1. He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn 12. 2.6 Molecules and Molecular componds a. Chemical formula i. Shorthand notation for the composition of a substance b. Subscripts i. Indicate the relative proportions of the atoms of the elements in a compound c. Ionic compounds i. Consist of ions ii. Formed between metals and nonmetals

d. Molecular compounds i. Consist of molecules ii. Formed between nonmetals e. Molecule i. Group of atoms connected by chemical bonds ii. Electrically neutral iii. Smallest particle iv. Of an element or compound that has the chemical properties of element or compound f. Molecular formula i. Gives exact number of atoms of each element in a molecule g. Empirical or simplest formula i. Gives only relative numbers of atoms h. Structural formula i. Shows how atoms are bonded to each other in a molecule i. Chemical nomenclature i. The systematic naming of compounds j. Binary compounds i. Are composed of only 2 elements 1. Of a metal and nonmetal are ionic 2. 2 nonmetals are molecular k. There are 2 different systems for naming binary compounds one for molecular compounds a different one for ionic compounds l. Naming binary molecular formulas i. Follow order of the formula 1. First name of the element mentioned first (less electronegative) 2. Then name of the element mentioned last ending inside 1 Mono 2 Di 3 Tri 4 Tetra 5 Penta 6 Hexa 7 Hepta 8 Octa 9 Nona 10 Deca

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