Learning for a New Leadership: The Collaborative Redesign of Lidera Programme

By Susana C.Simes Leal

Submitted to the University of Plymouth as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Sciences in Learning for Sustainability

The Sustainability Institute Education Faculty University of Plymouth

November of 2011

ABSTRACT
This study begins by reflecting on the growing complexity of the world and the multiple economic, geopolitical, social and environmental changes it is undergoing and the implications of these for business leadership in the 21st century. It reviews the opinions of various authors on the need to rethink business school teaching and the training of business leaders to prepare them for working towards a more sustainable planet. The case-study of the Lidera Program Lideranas Empresariais para o Desenvolvimento Sustentvel, is presented as a model of transformative learning for business leaders who wish to bring about sustainability in their local environment. Former participants in this program have recently experienced difficulties applying the knowledge they have learnt to the contradictions of the business world and have shown an interest in continuing their learning in networks with other former participants. The Program is also facing the challenge of training local facilitators. In view of these needs, an action research program was designed, using appreciative inquiry and collaborative learning, and mostly virtual tools, for a group of former Lidera participants, with a view to setting up a forum for the training future Lidera facilitators. This process showed many possibilities for the development of this objective and the use of the methodologies selected for similar programs. However, there were clearly challenges in developing such a program for businesspeople, given their hectic schedules and the level of commitment required for self-directed learning. It was also shown that the use of virtual resources still poses an obstacle to some participants and face-to-face meetings are still indispensible for such collaborative learning. A number of contradictions were also observed which can be used to strengthen relations in the group, when there is dialogue, transparency and selfawareness. The study concludes by noting the possibility of transforming this group into a learning community and a community of practice to provide support for future sustainable business action taken by the Lidera network.

Key-words: education, learning, leadership, collaboration, sustainability and business

Table of Contents
Abstract........3 Summary......4 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION............10 1.1. Background...........10 1.2. The Reasons for the Proposed Experience, its Objectives, Goals and the Structure of the Study.....................13 Chapter 2 .CORPORATE LEADERSHIP, LEARNING ANDSUSTAINABILITY........17 2.1 The world outlook....17 2.2 Development and sustainability.....................24 2.3. The Contradictions on Corporate social responsibility...................30 2.4. Business Schools and Education for Sustainability.........................42 2.5. Business leadership...............60 2.6. The Threshold of a New Leadership.........................69 Chapter3 - THE LIDERA PROGRAMME, LEARNING AND BUSINESS LEADERSHIP...82 3.1. The Brazil of Lidera...............82 3.2 Learning with Lidera...86 3.3. The Post-Lidera Challenge.....105 Chapter 4. LIDERA, ACTION-RESEARCH AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ....109 4.1. Collaborative Learning and Communities of Practice................110 4.2. An experience in Action Research and Collaborative Learning...............120 4.2.1. The Aims of the Action.....121 4.2.2. Methods................122 4.2.3. Creation and Profile of the Group.......................125 4.2.3.1. The Multiple Roles of the Facilitator...........126 4.2.4. Description of the Research and Collaboration Process......127 4.2.5. Analysis of the Process................143 4.2.5.1. What happened in practice........145 4.2.5.2. About Methods................161 4.2.5.3. About Facilitator..............163 4.2.5.4. The Use of Virtual Tools165 4.2.5.5. About Self-directed Learning...167 4.3. Discussion...169 Chapter 5. CONCLUDING REMARKS...181 5.1. The Findings.....181 5.2. Lessons Learnt from the Experience183 5.3. Possible Developments....190 List of Abbreviations..6 Acknowledgements.8 List of Figures Figure 3.1.1 The U Journey......90 Figure 3.1.2. The Learning Cycle...98 Figure 3.1.3 Lideras Dimensions of Learning100 Figure 3.2.1 Lideras Challenge106

Figure 3.2.2 The Transition of Lidera.107 Figure 4.2.4.1. Appreciative Inquiry 4-D Cycle130 Preamble.7 The document body....02 Annex : Ethical Protocol.202 Contents of pocket:...Last Cover Appendix CDLast Cover Appendix 1. Starting the Action documents Appendix 2. Basis for Action documents Appendix 3. Working on Lidera documents Appendix 4. Closing Action documents Appendix 5. Evaluation process documents Bibliography References.........................................................................................192

List of Abbreviations
AACSB International - The Association to Advance Collegiate of Business AEC- Instituto de Ao Empresarial pela Cidadania BNB - Banco do Nordeste do Brasil BNB/ETENE - Banco do Nordeste do Brasil/Estudos Econmicos do Nordeste CEIBS- China Europe International Business School EABIS - The Academy of Business in Society EFMD - European Foundation for Management Development HBOS - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBOS GA - Grupo de Aprendizagem (Learning Group) GDP -Gross Domestic Product GMAC- Graduate Management Admission Council GRI- Global Reporting Initiative GRLI - Globally Responsible Leadership Initiative IBGE/IDS - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica / Indicadores de Sustentabilidade INCA- Instituto Nacional de Cncer IPCC -Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MEB- Movimento Empresarial pela Biodiversidade MMA - Ministrio do Meio Ambiente do Brasil NMUE - Ncleo Minerva da Universidade de vora PAN-BRASIL -Programa Nacional de COmbate Desertificao e Mitigao dos Efeitos da Seca PRME - Principles for Responsible Management Education SEC-Securities and Exchange Commission UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UN - United Nations WBCSD-World Business Council for Sustainable Development WWF- World Wide Fund for Nature

What is education? It is not repression, but the opposite, expression, freedom. Neither is it imprinting, but, rather, sprouting, bringing forth. Still less is it the imposition of a form, but rather an unraveling of the deeper being of ones own form (Tagore, 1994. p.7).

Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to thank the Kellogg Foundation for twelve years of productive partnership and for the scholarship which enabled me to conclude this Master's

degree. Special thanks are due to Andrs Thompson for his sincere encouragement and support. I am also grateful to LASPAU- , especially Craig Hastings, Derek Tavares, Ryan Keane and Mary Helen Ybarra Johnson for providing me with this opportunity and furnishing vital support during the 16 months of the Masters course. I am very grateful to my teachers at the University of Plymouth, Alan Dyer and Robert Cook, for their support and understanding throughout the course. I am especially grateful to my teacher and supervisor, Roger Cutting, whose patience, wisdom and trust, helped me to discover my own way of learning. Thanks are also due to: Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania, in particular, its president, Pedro Pereira, for his unconditional support as a business partner during the 16 months of the Masters. To Paul Webb, Peter Ratcliffe, Talita Moura and Isaias Dias for their professionalism and vital support with the translation and layout of this document. To my travelling companions, Alexandre Merrem, Carmen Cardoso, Emanuella Xavier Ivan Rocha, John Freitas, Mrcio Waked, Saritta Brito, Sergio Ferreira, who did more than be present at one of the most important points in my journey; To my dear friends, Rebecca Simes, Flavia Amadeu, Marcos Feitosa, who were there for me in moments of uncertainty and whose support and guidance helped me to overcome this great challenge.

To all those who encouraged me with their words, deeds and prayers: my father, my mother, my brothers and sisters, my mother- and father-in-law, my brothers- and sisters-in-law, my cousins, and my friends, who are a gift from God and my greatest strength. To my beloved children, Victor and Maria Luiza, who make it worthwhile believing in and striving for a better world and whose love gives meaning to my life. To my friend, companion and beloved husband, Frederico, who, in 33 years of marriage, has taught me to believe in myself and that true love is that which brings the one we love to life. Finally, and most importantly, I am grateful for the mercy and love of God, my constant and faithful companion, who gave me life, purpose, and a reason to exist!

Appreciative Inquirywhen used in the right measure, provide a necessary and stimulating contrast for a group of individuals that are overloaded on a day-to-day basis by pragmatic concerns.

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background

In 1999, I made the decision to leave behind 24 years of professional life as a businesswoman and company executive, to move to a career that would broaden my horizons. Lots of things were going on at the same time and, in the midst of this process, I discovered the Ao Empresarial pela Cidadania project, which had been running in Brazil since 1998, with the support of the Kellogg Foundation and the commitment of five social leaders who were working in institutes and business foundations in four different regions of the country. This group believed that Corporate Social Responsibility was a key factor in changing Brazilian society. The main challenges faced were social inequality and changes in the environment in Brazil.

I joined this group and, in Pernambuco, we embraced the cause of Corporate Social Responsibility, at a time when the issue seemed to be far removed from the reality of the local business world.

After two years of engagement with a number of businesspeople and activists in the rea, the initiative was taken to set up the Instituto Ao Empresarial pela Cidadania Pernambuco (AEC).

At that time, the main objective of the movement was to raise awareness among businesspeople of the social reality they were embedded in and the role they ought to play in changing this. The main challenge at the time was to spark discussion of a range of unfamiliar or poorly understood concepts, such as corporate social responsibility,

10

private social investment, corporate citizenship and, at the same time, to raise awareness in the business community of the need for companies to adopt socially responsible practices.

At present, the AEC has 65 associate companies and has made progress in alerting the business community and bringing it to understand that the future of business is related to vision and corporate responsibility, when they invest both in the economic and the social and environmental field. These are investments which should follow the principles of balanced and sustainable development.

After five years of operation, the AEC identified one of the main reasons that companies to not relate the development they bring about with social equity and sustainability was that these topics were not addressed by schools of business and administration. Although they trained managers and businesspeople to generate profits for their companies, schools were not developing the skills people need to deal with these other issues or with the complexity and uncertainty of an increasingly less sustainable world. Thus, in 2005, the BACI sought the support of the Kellog Foundation to run a program for the development of business leaders. With the support of this organization, and later in partnership with the Fundao Avina and the C&A Institute, three editions of the Lidera Program were held, and a fourth is currently underway.

Lidera aims to bring together knowledge, content, experiences and reflections on the training of business leaders for sustainability, relating their role in the company with responsible action and solidarity in the political, social, and environmental context of

11

the region in which they work. Furthermore, the aim was to learn that their enterprises are related to sustainable development of the region, the country and the planet. The ultimate objective of the program is to put together a network of business leaders capable of acting together to bring about sustainable development in the Northeast region of Brazil.

The results achieved by the program so far suggest that the chosen path was the correct one. At present, 43 businesspeople have been through the Lidera program and the program is meeting the challenge of creating the means to strengthen their work within their companies and the wider business community, maintaining the connections between them and their process of self-development. The aim is also to ensure the future of Lidera by training a team of local facilitators. After heading the AEC for nine years, and having been part of the team that came up with Lidera and one of the facilitators for the first three editions of the program, along with the BACI directors, we faced the challenge of finding alternative ways of ensuring the future of Lidera. We therefore applied for a study grant for a Masters in Learning for Sustainability at the University of Plymouth, again with the support of the Kellogg Foundation.

This was the background to the experience that is presented in this dissertation.

It is important to tell this story in the introduction to a study that involves leadership, collaboration, sustainability and business, and not only because it is a story that brings together all these factors. The prevailing and most striking feature of this narrative is a

12

question: Can committed leadership drive action, even though the accomplishment depends on the collaboration of many others, who, jointly, make it happen

1.2. The Reasons for the Proposed Experience, its Objectives, Goals and the Structure of the Study
As will be outlined in Chapter 2, the world is currently going through a point of inflexion and has arrived at a point where change is irreversible. There are multiple reasons for this, including the Cartesian way of thinking of leaders, a self-centered economic system that is exhausting the planets resources, and the contradictions of a society that lead to injustice and conflict.

Meanwhile, people from very different parts of the world are beginning to discover that they are connected, not only by access to the Internet or other means of communications, but by exclusion, by the desire to have a say and awaken the potential to bring about change. Connectivity among the excluded is spreading around the world and telling the powers that be that it is time for change. The world is beginning to look for the causes of the crises it is going through economic, political, social, and environmentaland is finding in the economic sector and the way companies do business, one of the points where these crises converge. The background to this question is the way people think and the prevailing values of the education system and schools of business and administration, which train the leaders of the world economy. In view of this, the United Nations has begun a movement to change teaching practices in these schools, where ethics, sustainable development and corporate social responsibility are the vehicles of this change. A

13

series of initiatives is beginning to emerge that proposes innovation in the way sustainable business leaders are trained.

In this world context, Brazil is confronting the paradox of being one of the leading world economies, but unprepared to continue its development process with sustainable management of its natural resources and the necessary evening out of social and regional inequalities.

This local and international context gave rise to the Lidera Programme - Lideranas Empresariais para o Desenvolvimento Sustentvelwhich, with a new proposal for thinking and learning, carries out training courses for business leaders, with a view to contributing to more sustainable development in the region. This experience and its approach to learning will be discussed in Chapter 3.

Despite the positive evaluation of the first three editions of the Lidera Programme, recent research with former participants has identified the difficulty they have experienced when they have to confront a contradictory business environment under pressure from the market. Some business leaders have expressed a desire to continue to dialogue with their peers, and conduct self-directed learning as a way of strengthening their shared initiatives. There is also a need for the program to have its own team of local facilitators to ensure its future viability.

These are the events that gave rise to this action research proposal that aims to use collaborative learning and appreciative inquiry with a group of former Lidera Programe

14

participants, whose immediate, and challenging, aim is to revise the current program curriculum.

The overall aim of this objective: to set up a forum for the training of local Lidera facilitators, which could become a continuous learning unit capable of stimulating and providing support for the development of former program participants, thereby enabling them to take action together in networks.

This initiative aims to: 1. prove the viability of building up a learning community of business leaders; 2. find effective ways of creating a continuous learning process in the midst of the everyday activities of people with a heavy work load; 3. identify the opportunities and limitations of a training process that involves collaborative learning and self-directed learning, via the use of virtual tools; 4. identify factors that contribute to the training of a group of local facilitators for the Lidera Program; 5. understand that factors that help bring about a learning community of former Lidera participants for the purposes of strengthening networked action; 6. make it possible to revise the Lidera curriculum by way of collaborative learning. This process, which took four months and made use mainly of virtual tools mixed with occasional face-to-face meetings, will be described, analyzed and discussed in Chapter 4. This section will outline what was found that was different, contradictory or innovative and consider its implications for the training of a possible collaborative learning community that aims to bring together former Lidera participants. It also aims to examine the extent to which the content worked on during the process has been

15

assimilated and the opportunities for the strengthening of Lidera and its network of businesspeople on the basis of this experience. This chapter will also discuss the implications and repercussions of these results for the continuity of this learning group.

Chapter 5 will present final remarks on the study and summarize the relevant findings from the review of the literature and of the Lidera program that may help to train business leaders at schools of business and administration, along with the strengths and weaknesses of the action research that may help improve collaborative learning, and finally the relevant results of this study and its implications for the future.

16

Chapter 2 .CORPORATE LEADERSHIP, LEARNING AND SUSTAINABILITY

This literature review aims to explore how changes in geo-political, economic, social and environmental world outlook have led to changes in the business environment and the emergence of business leadership. It will reflect on the difficulties Schools of Business and Administration Schools encounter in training managers and leaders for this new world context, where the trend is to pursue sustainable development. It will also present possible paths which could be adopted by these institutions. This study also includes reflections on the evolution of the concept of leadership and seeks to characterize the emergence of a new profile for sustainability within business leadership. Finally, the study points to the importance and need for continuing development of leaders who want to act in a changing world.

2.1 A world outlook

We have reached a tipping point, an extreme point in time where change is inevitable (Sassen in: Folha de So Paulo, 2011).

At the time of writing, various chains of events are occurring in various parts of the world that draw attention to the importance of the global environment in determining the development paths leaders and their businesses must take. In Tahrir Square, in Cairo, in Puerta del Sol, Madrid, in Syntagma Square, in Athens, in Israel, in Chile, and, more recently, on the streets of London and other cities in the UK, thousands of peoplemost of them younghave invaded public spaces to protest the lack of civil rights and the right to vote, unemployment, rising taxes, the privatization

17

of public services and the like. These popular uprisings, whose immediate causes vary from political and economic issues to the way young immigrants are treated by the government, are occurring in countries with very different histories. However, there are signs that they all have the same origin. This is the view of the sociologist, Saskia Sassen, who argues in a recent interview in O Estado de So Paulo newspaper1 that "we have reached tipping point", that the world has come to a critical juncture. Sassen understands these recent events to be in some way related to the exclusion that is part of the logic of globalization. She adds that, for thirty years half of the worlds population has seen their income decline, and there is such a concentration of wealth at the top, that we simply can take no more. This is what has caused the explosions that we are now seeing in our cities ". In the same interview, Sassen notes2 that the street has become the political forum for those who do not have formal access to power. The sociologist believes that these acts go beyond merely protesting the existing regime and claims that all these demonstrations are united by the fact that they are part of a social struggle. She further suggests that these movements want to share power, not just protest against it. She argues that we are living in a world of extremes, where, abject poverty rubs shoulders with massive accumulation of wealth, where communicationon line and in real timeis exposing this situation and bringing it to a middle class, which, owing to the economic crisis, feels they have no place in the interests of those who decide how the world is run. She concludes that we have reached a tipping point, a point in time where change is inevitable (O Estado
1

This interview was published in O Estado de So Paulo newspaper on 13/08/2011 and can be consulted at http://www.estadao.com.br/noticias/suplementos,a-globalizacao-do-protesto,758135,0.htm. Last accessed on 20/09/2011 2 See note 1.

18

de So Paulo, 2011)3. These words show how the various crises are deeply interlinked and the complexity of the web these events are weaving and the challenge posed by finding answers to these demands ( Sassen in O Estado de So Paulo, 2011) . According to the reports contained in the United Nations Restructuring World Development the World Economic and Social Survey (2010), there are no easy solutions to the complex situation outlined above. What we can see in this word that is crying out for change is a series of interconnected crises. The economic crisis comes on top of a social onewhich has long been in placewhich is exacerbated by the climate changes that pose a clear and imminent danger, whose effects, such as more frequent and more severe droughts, excessive rain, earthquakes and tsumanis, to cite but a few, are felt all over the world. These are situations that, in a cyclical fashion, lead to multiple worsening crises and calamities that unfold simultaneously and expose the way the world is governed (UN, 2010).

Science shows that the climate of Planet Earth has been changing for thousands of years, but in recent decades has changed far more than expected and this has caught the attention of the world, putting it in a state of alert, in view of the large numbers of environmental disasters that have occurred. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007 p. 16) predicts that this situation could worsen and also that global temperatures may rise between 1.8 and 4 degrees centigrade by the end of the 21 st century. This would result in a rise in sea-levelsand growing risk of flooding in areas lying below sea-leveland problems with freshwater in many parts of the world,

See note 1.

19

leading to a reduction in agricultural production with considerable impact on human health. The Stern Report (2006) calls attention to the fact that climate change poses a threat to global society and thus requires an urgent global response. According to this report, the impact of this will be disproportionately felt in poorer countries. However, it will also affect rich countries and cause political, economic and social instability. Sterns remarks (2008) are corroborated by Fountain (1995) when she claims that: No matter where we live; we are all linked to other parts of planet. In our increasingly global society, places, events, issue and people are connected in a complex and delicately balanced web of relationships (Fountain,1995, p15 ). The global context thus reflects different complex facets of reality with multiple connections between governments, businesses, and societies, the private and public sector, culture, the environment and other aspects of an extremely complex and interdependent world system (Castells, 1999 p. 411-439). In recent years, this interdependence has been growing more and more, owing the degree of connectivity of the society of web users.

It would appear to be essential that business leaders reflect on such issues, since knowing how to read the worldto see the underlying political, economic, cultural and social dynamicsand how to act on this, is an indispensible leadership skill. According to Kahane (2010), the leaders of the 21st century are going to need to be ready to deal with these new social dynamics, if they want to create new realities. A transformative leader is open to and connected with him- or herself, with others, with

20

the surrounding context and with the demands that arise from it, according to the role he or she plays in the company, in society, and in the local community (Kahane, 2010). It would thus appear to be important for a leader to understand the dynamics of power that emerges from this new context.

None of us live in a terra nullius. We can pretend that our world is empty, but it is not. Our planet is getting fuller and fuller of people, buildings, cars and mountains of solid waste. Our atmosphere is increasingly full of carbon dioxide. Our society is getting fuller and fuller of voices, ideas, and cultures, which are powerful, diverse and often conflicting. This overloaded world is the main reason why, when confronting more complex social challenges, we cannot use power alone, but must also use love ( Kahane, 2010 p 35)

Wallersteins Word-Systems Analysis (2005) draws attention to the fact that the social reality of the world should not only be interpreted as a mere collection of different Nation States, but as a world-system that functions in an integrated fashion. A system is made up of a variety of institutions, including Nation States, corporations, and social and supra-national organizations. All of these are connected in a network, which, on the one hand, helps this system to function, but, on the other, generates internal conflicts and contradictions. In the dynamic of the modern world-system (Wallerstein, 2005), the authority of a State is based on various regulations, rules, laws and concessions, such as, for example, the permission to move capital, to work, for goods to cross frontiers, to own land and the like. This gives the State the power to influence the decisions of the institutions of which it is composed and those of other States. However, Gonalves (2002) calls attention to the fact that the State is not alone in this and notes the growing influence of corporations on this world system of governance, especially multinational corporations. He gives the example of companies whose

21

economic power has come to have a strong impact on the way the countries they operate in grow and develop. This power is increasingly bolstered by the flexibility that company structures have acquired through globalization. Gonalves (2002) argues that, in the 20th century, when companies were structured like pyramids, where the top level of the hierarchy controlled all production units, they had geographically fixed stages of production, while, in the early 21st century, they have started to operate as a network, with no single center of control. A system is thus installed, in which control is determined by the priorities and the interests of the sectors to which these companies belong. Although centralized control is exercised by the large-scale industrial oligopolies, production has been geographically decentralized and its stages of production distributed across regions and countries where costs are lower and profits higher, from the point of view of the global market. Cost-cutting, flexibilization and technological innovation, in addition to expertise in the management of financial assets have thus become the main objective of these corporations (Gonalves, 2002). Operating as a network, contemporary capitalism is increasing its influence over the Nation States with which corporations have dealings and large-scale economic groups are becoming a locus for the accumulation of capital and the accumulation of power (Gonalves, 1999 a: 3).

Thus, according to Stopford et.al (1995), the internationalization of corporations has expanded the economic power of these organizations and also produced a kind of authority that, in some cases, transcends that of the nation states they operate in. It has thus come to be understood that international relations are no longer guided by

22

diplomatic relations between nations and that the growing participation of corporations in this field provides adds another dimension to international relations, which are now said to be triangular: company to company; State to company; State to State (Stopford et.al, 1995). As a result, it can be concluded that global influence has been divided into various dimensions: the relations between companies, which spread out around the globe struggling for competitive advantages that ensure their domination of the world markets; the relations between States that are developing their own economies and striving to maintain or acquire advantages over other countries; and the relations between States and corporations, in which States enter into crucial partnerships with companies in order to advance their development projects. According to Stopford et al. (1995), this situation allows corporations to manipulate the interests of States and to obtain greater incentives and benefits. It can thus be concluded that this was the dynamics underlying the processes and decisions that have brought about changes in geopolitics, economics and life in society around the world. Stopford et al. (1995), however, call special attention to the fragility and contradictions of the relations that are produced by the different ways these stakeholders come together to make decisions. These relations alternate between cooperation, rivalry and confrontation, with the main issue being the interests of the parties involved (Stopford et al., 1995).

However, there are signs that this is changing. In recent years new stakeholders have emerged and are growing in strength, benefitting from the interconnectivity of new communications Technologies and the growing interdependence of global society. In

23

this context a diffuse stakeholder is emerging, who, in the words of Joseph Nye (2010) is typified by soft power and is gaining ground in organized civil society and multilateral institutions. These organizations lie outside the control of the State and 4corporations and are showing themselves to be increasingly capable of influencing the global agenda in a persuasive fashion. This is happening, according to Villa (1999), because of the growing incidence of what he calls global issues, such as environmental disasters, migrations of populations and complex crises that political authorities and market forces are unable to control. These are issues of interest to the collective that are decentralized and transnational in nature. There is thus growing influence on the part of civil society and organizations which are based on an invisible power that is diffuse and connected by social networks, as can be seen from the example cited at the beginning of this chapter. Villa (1999) adds that the power of these social forces and their organizations is based on a search for consensus and the mobilization of public opinion and direct joint action that has a qualitative and quantitative impact on all levels of power. Likewise, Sassen 4 argues that the global environment is becoming an increasingly complex and horizontal one, where power and decision-making do not simply stem from above but flow through all levels of thought, showing leaders new ways of moving forward.

2.2 Development and sustainability The changes the world is going through seem to herald the beginning of a new age, as Senge (2009) argues in A Revoluo Decisiva, (2009) no age, however far-reaching

See note 1.

24

its influence, can last forever. Here he is referring to the end of the industrial era which is underway, despite the fact that in the past 25 years, the world has seen an unparalleled rise in industrial production. There are no signs that this age is going into decline, but the growing interdependence of nation-states, the interconnectedness of environmental, economic and social crises, the ever greater quantities of toxic waste produced, the pressure caused by dwindling natural resources, and the deep gulf between rich and poor have all sparked political and social reactions that are of great concern to leaders around the world. According to this author, these events are bringing about a new awareness in individuals, corporations and governments, leading them to understand that the effects of increasing industrial production are unsustainable in a future that has already begun to make itself felt (Senge, 2009).

According to Capra (2002), many corporations which are governed by the metaphor of the machine are still loth to give up already out-dated methods and technologies. They thus continue to treat all goodsand not only air, water and landas if they were freely-available and inexhaustible, and to have a negative impact on the fragile web of social relations by promoting a kind of continuous economic growth that results in an environment that is unfit for life (Capra, 2002). It can thus be concluded that quality of life and well-being cannot be related to economic growth or to GDP (Gross Domestic Product) as Jean Gadrey and Jany Catrice argue (apud Dowbor in: Hoyos Guevara, 2009 p.19). For Dowbor (in: Hoyos Guevara, 2009) the only purpose of GDP is to measure the value of commercial goods and services produced annually, without revealing whether this wealth is accumulated in the hands of a few or whether

25

this is achieved at the cost of degrading natural capital. In this authors view, if governments and markets are regarded as successful on the basis of GDP alone, there is a tremendous distortion that needs to be corrected (Dowbor in: Hoyos Guevara, 2009 p.19). Concern in this regard led the United Nations Development Fund in the 1990s to begin to measure HDI (the human development index) as a way of combining economic indicators with others that assess the quality of peoples lives. The idea was that the HDI might provide a yardstick for genuine progress in society (Dowbor in: Hoyos Guevara, 2009 p.19). However, Capra (1997) suggests the sustainability in human communities should follow a different path. In his view (1997), there is a mismatch between economics and the ecology in so far as nature is cyclical, whilst our industrial and commercial systems are linear. He argues that corporate activities extract resources and transform them into goods and waste, sell these products to consumers, who, in turn, produce even more waste, once they have consumed them. Capra (1997) goes on to suggest that sustainable patterns of production and consumption need to be cyclical and to imitate the processes of nature, according to which nothing is lost and everything is transformed. For this to become reality, corporations need to profoundly rethink the way they operate and review their patterns of production and their economic and development models. According to Hawken (2000), there is a secret history behind every manufactured product: discarded materials, non-renewable natural resources consumed and environmental footprints. By way of illustration, the author cites the production of orange juice in Florida, where for every cup of juice produced two liters of gasoline and one thousand liters of water need to be consumed (Hawken, 2000).

26

In view of facts such as these, Capra (1997) reminds us that not all development processes can be considered sustainable. He argues that sustainability is a consequence of a complex pattern of organization that has five basic characteristics: interdependence, recycling, partnership, flexibility, and diversity. In his view (1997), sustainability does not lie merely in relations that aim to preserve or conserve the environment, so as not to threaten the availability of natural resources for future generations, or relations that seek to keep up the pace of continuous improvement of economic, social, cultural, political, institutional or territorial processes. Capra argues that sustainability is rather a complex function, which combines the aforementioned characteristics that are found in ecosystems (Capra, 1997).

Returning to the dilemma of development versus sustainability, Dennis L. Meadows and his team of researchers have raised other important questions regarding the relation between economic and ecological stability in their study of limits to growth. In this study, Meadows et al. (1972) advocate stabilizing world population growth and the growth of industrial capital, on the grounds that natural resources are limited, thereby re-awakening discussion of Malthuss theory, in his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, which warned against the danger of unchecked world population growth. However, the idea of freezing growth clashed with the philosophy of continuous growth of the industrial society of the time and was interpreted as an indirect critique of the theories of development on which capitalism is based. Scholars who were proponents of theories of economic growth were not slow to respond. One of these,

27

the Nobel prize-winning economist, Robert Solow, (1973 and 1974), vehemently criticized the catastrophic prognostications of the Rome Club, to which Meadows was associated. There were also criticisms from the opposite end of the spectrum, such as those of Mahbub Ul Haq (1976), who argued that rich countries, after a century of rapid industrial growth, had made it impossible for poorer countries to develop likewise and were attempting to use ecological rhetoric to justify this. This debate dominated the UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development - in Rio in 1992 and revealed the extent to which specialists disagreed regarding economic development, its environmental impact and the social imbalance it gives rise to.

Amidst this heated debate the concept of Sustainable Development began to emerge and gain in strength as an alternative to older theories of development. The concept emerged from the 1987 Brundtland Report, which defended the argument that development should meet the needs of the present without undermining the capacity of future generations to meet their own needs. The Brundtland Report was the result of the work of the United Nations World Commission on the Environment and Development (UNCED)s complex study of the causes of socio-economic and ecological problems of global society and advocated the inter-connectedness of economics, technology, society and politics, drawing attention to the need to adopt a new ethical posture characterized by responsibility for future generations as well as for individuals, governments, institutions, corporations and society at large. The report suggested the adoption of a series of measures by nation-states, including:

28

a) Limiting population growth; b) food security for the future; c) preservation of biodiversity and ecosystems; d) reduction in energy consumption and investment in technologies that use renewable sources of energy; e) stimulating industrial production in nonindustrialized countries on the basis of sustainable technologies; f) control of urbanization and integration of city and countryside; g) meeting basic needs. This report also sets goals at the international level, to be regulated by various international institutions, such as that: development organizations should adopt sustainable development strategies; the international community should protect supranational ecosystems, such as Antarctica, the oceans, and space; that war should be outlawed; that the UN should introduce a sustainable development program. (Brundtland, 1987)5 The Brundtland Report (1987)6 advocates growth in non-industrialized as well as industrialized countries and espouses the theory that overcoming under-development in countries from the Southern Hemisphere is linked to the continuing growth of industrialized nations. This view has further fuelled the controversy surrounding Meadowss thesis (1972) and the limits of economic growth that has been raging among specialists ever since.

According to Veiga (2010), some economists believe that redesigning the process of production in order to achieve greater eco-efficiency and lower energy consumption would make it possible to grow economically without exhausting natural resources. On the other hand, Tim Jackson (2009), in his report, Prosperity without growth? Economics for a finite Planet, questions this view and argues that growing production and consumption, even if it is eco-efficient, will not solve the problem of the exhaustion of natural resources and the problem of the impact on the environment (Veiga, 2010). According to Jackson (2009), the development of awareness and values
5 6

See note 4. See note 4.

29

regarding sustainability in contemporary society is occurring at a slower pace than global warming demands. All this discussion of growth and sustainable economic growth, fuelled by growing awareness of ecological issues and sustainability in the 1970s, 80s and 90s, were fundamental in rekindling another long-neglected debate regarding the extent to which corporations should be socially responsible.

2.3. Contradiction on Corporate social responsibility

In order to live as human beings, men and women need to agree on certain issues, coordinate certain activities, outlaw certain practices and develop collective expectations and projects ( Boff, 2003, p.27)

Corporate social responsibility is not a recent idea. Although it did not mean the same as it does today, it was considered the norm in Europe and the United States in the 19th century. In that time, the right to do business as a corporation was subject to regulation by the State or by the Monarch and was not considered a matter of purely private economic interest (Hood, 1998 and Ashley, 2005). According to these authors, governments authorized permits for open capital corporations that were committed to providing public benefits in return. Thus, when companies set up business, even in the colonies, they were expected to provide public servicesconstruction, transportation, infrastructure and so forthand the scope and nature of their business and capital structure were subject to regulation. However, following the declaration of independence, the United States changed the rules and corporations came to be

30

primarily concerned with generating profits for share-holders. This is the pattern that has now spread to the whole of the capitalist world. (Hood, 1998 and Ashley, 2005). However, the issue continues to be debated and developed in different ways depending on the stake-holders involved. One case that exemplifies the contradictions already surrounding this in 1919 was that of Dodge versus Ford. This dispute arose when Henry Ford, president and major share-holder of an automobile company, in the name of social objectives, was aiming to go against the interests of the share-holders and not pay out the expected dividends, so that he could pass them on to his workers as a pay rise, arguing that this was an investment in production capacity. However, the Michigan Supreme Court found in favor of the Dodges, ruling that corporations exist for the benefit of their share-holders and that the free-will of executive directors is limited to meeting this objective, and that therefore they may not use company profits as they please. This case would have a great influence on the debate regarding corporate social responsibility in the coming years (Hood, 1998 and Ashley, 2005). For Ashley (2005), the concept of corporate social responsibility has matured since then and grown in weight in the last three decades, both in terms of improved practices and greater regulation and assessment.

In fact, the concept of social responsibility, although on the face of it a simple one, has, for reason of the etymology of the words used and the numerous other concepts related to it, led to much confusion regarding its interpretation. The concept is often not understood in the same way by different companies and this has given rise to

31

misunderstandings or interpretations that are guided by self-interest (Marrewijk, 2002). According to Oliveira (1984 p.204), corporate social responsibility has already been interpreted in various ways: ...some take it to mean legal responsibilities and social obligations; for others, it is socially responsible behavior in keeping with ethical standards and, for others, it means nothing more than charity. There are also those who argue that social responsibility is confined to paying good wages and treating workers well. Of course, corporate social responsibility means all of these things, but it cannot be confined to these factors alone (Oliveira, 1984 p.204). In order to reflect on this authors comment, rather than theorizing about the various concepts and different interpretations that surround the subject, the presente study will seek to demonstrate how different levels of understanding of social and environmental responsibility are reflected in the concepts adopted by institutions and the practices they adopt when relating to others, which are sometimes beset by contradictions and shortcomings. Organizations that promote these ideas in business tend to stress a wide range of different aspects of the concept and interpret it in diverse ways. The United Nations, for example, expresses its understanding of corporate social responsibility through the Global Compact initiative7 . The United Nations seeks to base its understanding on its own Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the ILOs Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, the Rio Declaration on the Environment

More information on this initiative can be found at http://www.unglobalcompact.org/ . Accessed on 21/09/2011

32

and Development (UN) and the United Nations Convention against Corruption. The Global Compact thus defines social responsibility in terms of 10 principles.

Human Rights: Principle 1: Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights; and Principle 2: make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses. Labor Principle 3: Businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining; Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labor; Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labor; and Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation. Environment Principle 7: Businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges; Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility; and Principle 9: encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies. Anti-Corruption Principle 10: Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery. On the other hand, the Instituto Ethos de Empresas e Responsabilidade Social8 - a nonprofit organization that brings together 1,429 businesses in Brazil under the banner of corporate social responsibilities believes that Corporate social responsibility is a form of management that defines itself in terms of ethical and transparent relations between the company and all the stakeholders it has dealings with and in terms of the establishment of corporate goals that promote the sustainable development of society,

More information on the Instituto Ethos de Empresas e responsabilidade Social can be found at

http://www1.ethos.org.br/EthosWeb/pt/29/o_que_e_rse /o_que_e_rse.aspx

33

the preservation of environmental and cultural resources for future generations, with due respect for diversity, and the reduction of social inequality.

A third organization that promotes corporate social responsibility, which is led by 200 CEOs of global companies that combine business with sustainable development, is the World Business Council for Sustainable Development9. This association argues that "corporate social responsibility is an ongoing commitment on the part of businesses to contribute to economic development, improving the quality of life of workers and their families, as well as the local community and society at large. There are certain similarities in the way these three organizations view corporate social responsibility, despite differences in emphasis. Two of them explicitly include concepts relating to sustainable development, social justice and ethics in business relations. However, one of them, the WBCSD does not explicitly state its view of business ethics, an issue that has been shown to be crucial for corporate social responsibility in theory and practice.

There is much debate at all levels and business ethics is full of contradictions. This becomes clearer when we compare what some companies say with what they actually do. One of the most controversial cases is that of the tobacco company, Phillip Morris. This company has a specific department for corporate social responsibility10 and claims to

More information on the WBCSD can be found at http://www.wbcsd.org/templates/TemplateWBCSD5/layout.asp?MenuID=1

10

More information on the companys social responsibility initiatives can been found on Philip Morriss web site: http://www.pmi.com/eng/about_us/company_overview/pages/company_overview.aspx . Accessed on 21/09/2011

34

understand the term as follows. For us, responsibility begins with the product. For this reason, we are committed to communicating the health risks associated with smoking tobacco in an open and transparent manner and in supporting the regulation of tobacco wherever our products are sold. They add that we also support initiatives in the local communities where our staff-members live and work and those where our tobacco is sourced. We focus on five critical social issues: hunger and extreme poverty, education, environmental sustainability, domestic violence, and disaster relief. At present, our charitable contributions program is making a difference in communities around the world. The companys vision of social responsibility does not, however, make it fully explicit that it is concerned with the statistics produced by the Associao Mdica Brasileira and the Agncia Nacional de Sade Suplementar, which, in its Clinical Guidelines for Supplementary Health11, states that burning a cigarette produces 4,720 substances, 15 chemical functions, 60 of which have been shown to be carcinogenic and others are known to be toxic.12 Furthermore, according to data presented by the Observatrio da Poltica Nacional de Controle do Tabaco run by the Brazilian Ministry of Health, in partnership with the Instituto Nacional de Cncer (INCA)13 the harmful effects of tobacco are not confined to the direct or indirect consumer. There are also consequences for the tobacco plantation workers, since, during harvesting, their skin comes into contact with the tobacco leaves and absorbs a large quantity of nicotine, which may cause the so-called
11 12 13

More information on this can be found at http://www.projetodiretrizes.org.br/ans/diretrizes/71.pdf

See following footnote. Information onf the Instituto Nacional de Cncer and the Observatrio de Controle do Tabaco can be

found at http://www2.inca.gov.br/wps/wcm/connect/observatorio_controle_tabaco/site/home

35

"green tobacco leaf disease". The symptoms of this range from dizziness and nausea to loss of sleep and appetite, which, researchers claim, may lead to depression.

Another company that has recently attracted media attention regarding corporate social responsibility is the clothing outlet group, ZARA14. In its communications on social responsibility the company says that it believes that Through its business model, ZARA aims to help promote the sustainable development of society and the environments with which it interacts. This commitment to the environment is part of the Inditex groups corporate social responsibility policy. On its website, the company explicitly outlines practices that contribute to sustainable development, such as: energy saving by eco-efficient management of stores; a policy of reducing waste and promoting recycling; using biodegradable paper or plastic bags, and the like. However, the company does not clarify its vision of relations with its stakeholders. On this count, Zara was recently involved in scandals relating to the use of slave labor15 in its supply chain.

The contradictions and inconsistencies of these two companies are not isolated examples. According to studies carried out by Global Compact16 forced labor is found frequently in the supply chains of other companies, especially transnational ones that use labor from countries where people are living in extreme poverty. This study

14

More information on the Zara Groups corporate social responsibility program can be found at http://fashiongear.fibre2fashion.com/brand-story/zara/commitments.asp accessed on 21/09/2011 15 See Reuters News http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/08/17/zara-brazil-idUKN1E77G18N20110817 accessed on 21/09/2011 16 Study carried out by Global Compact on corporations and forced labor http://human-rights.unglobalcompact.org/dilemmas/forced-labour/ . Acessado em 21/09/2011

36

suggests that it is common practice for such companies to contract the services of small-businesses in countries with high levels of poverty, which in turn take on hundreds of workers without any legal obligation to register them or to meet agreed standards. However, nowadays, with civil society increasingly well-organized and markets interconnected in real time, companies can be monitored and requirements regarding moral conduct are becoming the norm. Cohen (2003 p.35) corroborates this view when he argues that, in this context, ethicsdefined as transparency in relations and concern regarding the impact of ones activities on societyis now coming to be seen as a kind of prerequisite for company survival...

Despite the shortcomings noted above, it cannot be denied that some progress has been made in understanding of the concept of social responsibility and socially responsible behavior, even though this has been limited by the challenges faced. There have been palpable changes in relations between corporations, civil society and the environment, as is noted in the study, In Search of Sustainability: The Road to Corproate Social Responsibility in Latin America (Korin, 2011). According to this study, there has been a genuine increase in the number of companies who measure corporate social responsibilitypresenting reports modeled on the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)17all over the world. The study shows that between 1999 and 2009, companies produced a total of 4,745 reports using the GRI methodology, and there is a tendency for number to continue to rise.

17

For more information of GRI, see http://www.globalreporting.org/ReportingFramework/ReportingFrameworkOverview/ . Accessed on 21/09/2011

37

Korin (2011) also reports that, in recent years, the concept of corporate social responsibility has broadened and companies have adopted the concept of sustainability as a way meeting a larger number of demands. The study argues that corporate social responsibility has begun to be fueled by issues such as inclusive business, fair trade, responsible consumption and sustainable cities, among others, in such a way that companies have come to understand that corporate social responsibility is a means and sustainability the end (Korin, 2011). Corporate sustainability is thus playing a determining role in the success of business and their understanding of corporate social responsibility. According to Daniel Domeneghetti (2009), this issue has gained ground in companies based on the triple bottom line. Corporate sustainability is a term that was coined by the British social scientist, John Elkington18, a specialist in the field for 30 years and founder of SustainAbility, a consultancy agency specializing in sustainable business. According to Savitz & Weber (2007), The Triple Bottom Line captures the essence of sustainability, in so far as it measures the impact of the activities of organizations on the world. When this is positive, it adds value to the company, both in terms of profits and the wealth of share-holders, and in terms of social, human and environmental capital. For Domeneghetti (2009), this index has become increasingly highly valued by shareholders and clients and has become imperative for the success of a company. The idea is thus spreading in the business world that a sustainable company is one that generates profit for shareholders at the same time as protecting the environment and

18

For more information on SustainAbiliy see: http://www.sustainability.com/company . Accessed on 21/09/2011

38

improving the quality of life of the people whose lives it touches. (Savitz & Weber 2007). In the view of Dias (2006), a company can only play a viable role in society if it is economically viable and that this too is a fundamental aspect of corporate sustainability. However, Leff (2006) points to the contradictions that remain in understanding of the issue, talk about sustainable development aims to bring together in the same field of interest the various expectations of a great diversity of stakeholders engaged in activities that exploit natural resources. Furthermore, this author draws attention to the fact that the concept of sustainability includes the idea of creating the ecological conditions for nature to be able to renew itself in a natural cycle and in its own time, which clashes with the idea of development as continuous process of growth. It can thus be seen that there is a contradiction in this view of sustainability that accepts continuous economic development at the expense of the preservation and renovation of natural processes (Leff, 2006).

In fact, as can be seen from the opinions expressed by the authors cited above, as with the concept of corporate social responsibility, there are misunderstandings regarding the concept of sustainability, especially when it is linked with the concept of development. Such misunderstandings suggest a lack of discussion and investment in education in this field.

Despite the valid concerns of those who consider these issues, pragmatic companies tend to address them as a way of developing more efficient management processes.

39

They seek eco-efficient practices, clean production, strategies that increasingly diminish the environmental impact of their processes, products and services, as a way of avoiding or reducing the short- and long-term risks for human beings and the environment (Dias, 2006). On the other hand, it is clear that much more needs to be accomplished in terms of raising awareness in the business community of the real meaning of their role in achieving global sustainability.

We live in a world that is much more complex than it was twenty years ago and less complex than it will be ten years from now. Technological progress, interconnectivity, the agility of the dynamics of international relations in the face of the multiple crises that are emergingtogether with the need for urgent changes in political, economic, social and environmental relationsrequire a kind of leadership whose thought paradigm is different from that of the leaders who brought us to this state of affairs. This is echoed by Voltolini (2010) when he writesin an article on the website of Idia Sustentvel magazine19--that: "The paradigm shift that is so much needed if we are to achieve sustainable development depends on social cohesion, a state in which individuals action is moved by a common interest. Thus, by catalyzing this process of mobilization of society, leaders in various spheres, have an important role to play in building sustainability" (Voltolini, 2010)20 . Evidence that this paradigm shift is already under way can be seen in the behavior of some companies and the declarations of some business leaders. For example, Julio Moura (Voltolini, 2010) president and CEO of Grupo Nuevadeclares that:
19

Voltolini (2010) Sustentabilidade em srie: os quatro desafios complexos. Idia Sustentvel http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/2010/03/os-quatro-desafios-complexos/. Published on 23 March. Accessed on 21/09/2011 20 Idem.

40

global warming, the energy crisis, the future water crisis and poverty are huge issues for humanity in which leaders should see challenges and opportunities. They thus need to understand all the variables involved. In addition to the overall culture, consistent values and solid ethical conduct, it is important that they be pro-active and innovative, with a long-term vision and a capacity for perseverance (Moura apud Voltolini, 2010). The co-president of the Conselho de Administrao da Naturaa Brazilian cosmetics companyGuilherme Peiro Leal ( apud Voltolini, 2010), recognizes that: the need for change has never been clearer. The world needs to be redesigned. The way we live, produce and consume needs to be revised or will not have any more life, business or products. This is a fantastic opportunity. The leader should be heavily involved, passionately involved, in efforts to transform difficulties into opportunities (Leal apud Voltolini, 2010). Fernando Almeida (apud Voltolini, 2010) former president of CEBDS - Conselho Empresarial Brasileiro para o Desenvolvimento Sustentvel categorically states that: companies who do not adopt sustainability as a business strategyand not just in name, which is already the case, but, above all, in the presentation of resultswill be out of business in, at most, fifteen years. It doesnt matter how big they are. Those that do not reinvent themselves will disappear (Almeida apud Voltolini, 2010). In view of these opinions, Voltolini (2010) concludes that the fear that the multiple crises that have erupted around the world will worsen, both the environmental ones and the social and economic ones, has led to a rethink of business leadership with regard to models of production and the natural resource economy, with the adoption of alternative energy sources in place of fossil fuels. He realizes that these changes have proved to be slow in coming when compared to the needs of the plant, although a growing number of companies have already started out on the path towards change (Voltolini , 2010).

41

The dynamics and increasing velocity of social, political, economic and cultural change in modern society have led to significant changes in the way human beings live that could require at least a generation to establish themselves. However, these changes are gradually picking up speed and become more predictable and this pace has an impact on various aspects of human existence. Knowledge is one of the areas most powerfully affected and the education sector has struggled to keep up with this process and often failed in its role of forming a bridge between the past, the present and the future. In view of this, as we shall see below, Business Schools are being confronted with the indispensible need to question the way they teach and the curricula they follow, in an attempt to review their role and accompany these changes.

2.4. Business Schools and Education for Sustainability

"An intelligence that is incapable of perceiving the context and the planetary complex remains blind, unconscious, and irresponsible. (Morin, 2003 p.15)

According to Paulo Freire (1979) change must be something conscious and consistent, it must be assumed by an active, committed subject who understands his or her history and the reality of which he or she forms a part to the point of being indistinguishable from it. According to this author, change only takes on meaning, when the subject is sufficiently critically aware and self-conscious, when he or she is sufficiently grounded in the present to be able to project ideas into the future, when one knows that ones own actions should be committed to people other than oneself, when there is a sense of serious moral duty. (Freire, 1979). In other words, when one takes action that is committed to change, one is capable of reflecting on who one is

42

and what one does and making a personal commitment based on reflection on the reality one is familiar with. Freires way of thinking shows that a truly transformative education needs to foster self-consciousness, a feeling of belonging and the awareness of the place one occupies in the world.

Accepting and broadening Freires insight, Jane Nelson (apud Voltolini 2010)21 director of the University of Harvards Corporate Social Responsibility Initiative in an interview with Idia Sustentvel says that universities and companies should create an educational system that favors understanding of global systems, develops systemic thinking is capable of recognizing, identifying and valuing interdependence; that encourages entrepreneurship, innovation, leadership, and the convergence of knowledge from different segments of society (Nelson apud Voltolini 2010) This recent reflection of Nelsons (apud Voltolini 2010) acquired renewed significance, when, a few years ago, Harvard University came under severe criticism and was held indirectly responsible for the business scandals and crises sparked by the behavior of its alumni. One example of this is an article written by Broughton (2009) for the UK Sunday Times22, in which he recalls the 2002 Enron scandal and remarks that this was a company stuffed with Harvard Business School graduates, starting with its chief executive, Jeff Skilling. In the same article, he notes that Enron was not the only case

21 22

See footnote 19. Broughtons Sunday Times article can be accessed at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/education/article5821706.ece

43

of mismanagement where Harvard Business School graduates were involved and cites other examples, such as Stan O'Neal and John Thain, the last two chief executives of Merrill Lynch, and Andy Hornby, former CEO of HBOS who came top of his class. Broughton (2009) cites other illustrious names and comments that to add further luster, the list also contains the names of George W. Bush, Hank Paulson, former US Treasury Secretary, and Christopher Cox, former president of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), a remarkable trinity, who more than fulfilled the mission of their alma mater of teaching leaders who make a difference in the world." The author concludes with irony that Harvard University was certainly not expecting to produce this kind of difference in the world. Broughton (2009), who himself is a Harvard graduate, claims that business schools have shown a remarkable capacity for avoiding the blame for the economic catastrophes that have unfolded before their very eyes.

Another article on the subject could be considered more of a self-criticism, since it was penned by a former professor and published in the March 2009 edition of the Harvard Business School Review Magazine. It is an article entitled "Are Business Schools to Blame?"23 in which Joel M. Podolny comments that the US economic crisis has produced many casualties, especially among the MBA programs whose alumni were involved in the financial corporation scandals. The author admits that business schools provide students with many technical skills, but little or nothing in terms of values, responsibilities, and accountability. Wondering how things came to this, Podolny
23

This article can be consulted at http://blogs.hbr.org/how-to-fix-business-schools/2009/03/are-businessschools-to-blame.html

44

(2009) describes the traditional MBA curricula as dysfunctional, in that they only provide a brief overview of leadership without going into the difficulties raised by the challenges and responsibilities of being a leader. The author argues that working with leadership means defining a vision and setting an agenda. However, the approach adopted by MBA programs means that the students leave school convinced that the essential work of a leader can be accomplished without consciously needing take values and ethics into consideration. Podolny (2009) also criticizes the paucity of selfevaluation and contrition on the part of MBA programs in relation to the crisis and concludes that business schools need to rethink what they teach and how they teach it (Podolny , 2009 p.66).

However, in order to shed more light on how business schools arrived at a theory of teaching that allowed them to assume the critical position that Harvard Business School symbolically occupies today, it is necessary to understand the kind of thinking that has guided it until today.

The paradigm of scientific administration emerged at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, with the work of Taylor, Fayol and Ford (Burrel & Morgan, 1979). According to this approach, administration involves controlling the process of production itself, presupposing the need for precise monitoring of all stages. According to these authors, know how is the capacity to accomplish a task in accordance with standardized results within a planned time-frame.

45

According to Podolny (2009 p. 63 e 64)24, fifty years ago, two US foundationsthe Ford Foundation and the Carnegie Foundationcommissioned independent studies of the teaching of management in the United States, since they considered the quality of knowledge in the area to be very poor. Both studies conclude by recommending that faculties of administration incorporate traditional academic disciplines that place more emphasis on quantitative methods, such as economics, statistics and operational research. These suggestions were adopted by most faculties at the time and nowadays the number of teachers who use quantitative methods and mathematical models far outstrips that of those who opt for qualitative, inductive, humanistic approaches (Podolny, 2009).

Thus, the quest to measure and divide up all manner of things gave increasing power to mechanistic ways of thinking in the business world. Any problem increasingly came to be managed by taking elements in isolation, using a fragmented vision, based on the idea that analysis of the parts allows one to understand the whole (Wheatley,1993). According to Wheatley (1993, p.2), in the past three centuries... we have broken up, planned, forecast and analyzed the world. We are addicted to cause and effect... Edgar Morin (2001,p.13) likewise argues that: There is one singular problem, which is always overlooked, which is the need to promote knowledge capable of grasping global and fundamental problems in such a way as to incorporate partial and local knowledge in them. The supremacy of fragmented knowledge in accordance with the traditional disciplines frequently impedes the formation of links between the parts and the whole and should be replace by a form of knowledge capable of understanding all subjects in context, in their full complexity, and as a whole. There is a need to develop the natural aptitude of the human spirit to put all this information in
24

This article can be consulted at http://www.livecontent.in/roomreading/accenture3.pdf

46

context. There is a need to teach methods that will enable us to establish mutual relations and reciprocal influences between the parts and the whole of a complex world."

Thus, although Podolny (2009) and Cortese (2003) argue that the emphasis on quantitative methods has brought greater rigor to the teaching of management, this way of thinking leads to fragmented, increasingly specialized management, that is disconnected from the organization as a whole (Morin, 2001; Wheatley, 1993). Cortese (2003) recognizes that the emphasis on individual learning and competition results in professionals who are not prepared for collaboration, which is a skill that is increasingly in demand in a world of growing interdependence. Reflection of the complexity of the contemporary world and the fact that business and administration schools are unprepared for this, one must agree with Orr (in Sterling, 2009) when he argues that the old educational model needs to be revised and new paradigms introduced that move education in the direction of an ethics of sustainability based on a holistic view of the world and democratic and ecological practices, rather than the strict, instrumental, centralizing and standardized model of traditional education.

Albert Einstein said that "no problem can be solved by the same kind of consciousness that created it. We have to learn to see the world anew (apud Sterling, 2009 p. 12). Cortese (2003) likewise understands that future business leaders need to undergo a profound and transformative change in their thinking, values, and way of acting, in such a way that they incorporate a new more systemic, holistic and collaborative view of the world. Orr (2009) agrees when he says that:

47

"there is a myth that the purpose of education is that of giving you the means for upward mobility and success... The plain fact is that the planet does not need more "successful" people. But it does desperately need more peacemakers, healers, restorers, storytellers, and lovers of every shape and form. It needs people who live well in their places. It needs people of moral courage willing to join the fight to make the world habitable and humane. And these needs have little to do with success as our culture has defined it. (Orr, 2009 p.12) Criticizing the way the concept of sustainability has been misunderstood and, at times, re-invented by the business sector to suit its own interests, Delyse Springett (2010) remarks, in a comment on the work of Hawken (1993)25, that there is no subject more important for business schools than sustainability, since the leaders and business managers of the future need to become agents of a turn towards sustainability. She also argues, citing Levy (1997)26, that recognizing the influence that businesses have on the way society at large thinks and the way it is planned, through their hegemonic coalition with governments and other elites, only lends yet more weight to the argument that education for sustainability should be an integral part of the business studies curriculum.

In the wake of events and global crises involving the world of business and the emergence of a systemic form of thinking that leads to change, there is a clear need for connections that go beyond the interests of governments and markets, if way business administration is taught is to be changed. Thus, with the Global Compact (2007)27, the United Nations has started a movement to support business schools,

25

Hawken, P. (1993) The Ecology of Commerce: How Business Can Save the Planet", Harper Collins, New York, NY 26 Levy,D.L.(1997) "Environmental management as political sustainability, Organisation and Environment, Vol 10, no 2, pp. 126-127 27 See footnote 7.

48

universities, companies, governments, and civil society organizations interested in building up a global view of business education and training effective business leaders. The United Nations has thus adopted an initiative entitled Principles for Responsible Management Education (PRME, 2007)28. The aim is to encourage the teaching of responsible management, research into new paradigms and new business thinking around the world. According to Manuel Escudero (in: Alcaraz & Thiruvattal 2010)29, of the United Nations Special Council and Executive Director of the PRME initiative, there are serious reasons for the UN to undertake this initiative, which include the following: (a) the recent food and energy crises have raised awareness that we live in an overpopulated world whose natural resources are stretched to the limit, although many still insist on continuing economic growth, which has resulted in new crises related to the scarcity of these resources; (b) the recent financial crisis and economic recession that has infected the whole world and attendant problems has led to need to rethink the way capitalism works; (c) the emergencies of a multipolar world with new nations as partners has brought a new way of conducting international relations that is more conducive to this scenario onto the agenda. We all thus face huge changes in terms of international relations and foreign policy and this raises the question of whether business school curricula can afford to neglect all this complexity. Can these schools claim that they are teaching and preparing their students for this new kind of world, for a future in which social and environmental issues will certainly have to be faced?
28 29

For more information see http://www.unprme.org/ See interview with Manuel Escudero at http://www.unprme.org/resourcedocs/AnInterviewwithManuelEscudero.pdf

49

Taking these considerations as their starting point, a meeting was held with the United Nations, AACSB International, EFMD, the Aspen Institute for Business and Society, EABIS, GMAC, GRLI and Net Impact institutions that have taken some of the main educational initiatives in responsible management around the world to launch the PRME movement. This project has given a new impulse to schools of business and administration, bringing them into line with international values, such as those outlined in the United Nations 'Global Compact. The PRMEs work with six principles for responsible education and management, based on values that may have an impact on learning and education, as well as business school practices. These principles are:

Purpose: We will develop the capabilities of students to be future generators of sustainable value for business and society at large and to work for an inclusive and sustainable global economy.

Values: We will incorporate into our academic activities and curricula the values of global social responsibility as portrayed in international initiatives such as the United Nations Global Compact.

Method: We will create educational frameworks, materials, processes and environments that enable effective learning experiences for responsible leadership.

Research: We will engage in conceptual and empirical research that advances our understanding about the role, dynamics, and impact of corporations in the creation of sustainable social, environmental and economic value.

50

Partnership: We will interact with managers of business corporations to extend our knowledge of their challenges in meeting social and environmental responsibilities and to explore jointly effective approaches to meeting these challenges.

Dialogue : We will facilitate and support dialog and debate among educators, students, business, government, consumers, media, civil society organisations and other interested groups and stakeholders on critical issues related to global social responsibility and sustainability.

In December 2008, 170 business schools and other academic institutions from 43 countries participated in the first PRME forum at the United Nations head-quarters in New York, to re-affirm their commitment and decide on concrete action, especially in research and the redesign of curricula, reports and learning methodologies (Alcaraz & Thiruvattal, 2010). Three years later, in 2011, the PRME Summit (2011)30 in Brussels received more than 220 deans and professor from major world-class academic schools and business and business departments responsible for implementing PRME in schools and universities. At this event, academic debaters and participants showed the progress their teaching institutions had made both in management and aligning their curricula and research with responsible management practices. The event pointed to the good practices of the British University of Exeters One Exeter Planet MBA in partnership with the international WWF; the learning from experimental courses run by Nyenrode Business

30

Mais informaes sobre o evento no link : http://www.unprme.org/resources/displayresources.php?cid=13 assessado em 22/11/2011

51

University, in the Netherlands, by the Brazilian Dom Cabral Foundation, and the China Europe International Business School (CEIBS), along with the best practices in aligning academic activities with the values of corporate responsibility developed by Bentley University, in the USA, Audencia Nantes School of Management, in France, and others. Apart from this, they discussed the progress being made with the introduction of an anti-corruption curriculum by the PRME network of faculties. Harriet Jackson, 2011 president of Oikos International, also reflected on the large number of students who had come to demand more from management schools in terms of the inclusion of corporate responsibility in MBA programs (PMRE 2011).

The study by Jacobi et al. (2011) Education for sustainability on business courses: a reflection on paradigms and practices, using Tilbury and Wortmans conceptual framework (apud Jacobi et al., 2011) proposes three principles as the basis for incorporation of sustainability in business courses: The first principle concerns systematic thinking: the teaching of the concepts of sustainability should be included in the compulsory curriculum for management training and should also be part of extracurricular activities, if the teaching institution aims to provide its students with a holistic and strategic view of sustainability. This strategic and holist view is the way in which any topic, not just those relating directly to sustainability, should be addressed by decision-makers in business. The second concerns interdisciplinarity. The science of administration originated in an interdisciplinary structure applied to the practical challenges of management, which allowed different areas to complement one another and harmoniously coexist. Schools of management thinking should therefore seek ways of including issues relating to sustainability in such a way that discussion of them forms part of the development of this science per se and no longer as part of a movement adopted by some teaching institutions to differentiate themselves from others

52

If the knowledge generated by finance must be consistent with that of other areas, it should also seek to be consistent with the questions raised by the challenges of sustainability. The third principle concerns the three pillars of teaching sustainable development for decision-making. According to UNESCO (2005), environmental education should consider the three dimensions of sustainabilitysocial, environmental, and economicsince this allows people to develop the necessary skills, knowledge and views to make decisions that will improve the quality of life at all levels. And this can only occur, if the teaching of administration, in all areas, is simultaneously in accordance with such aspects of sustainable development (Jacobi et al., 2011 p. 33). Agreeing with Sterling & Tilbury, Jacobi et al. (2011) are of the opinion that the changes needed for the inclusion of sustainability in higher education will require commitment to sustainable practices on the part of the universities themselves, rather than just revision of teaching curricula or the signing of international declarations. This, however, will require profound changes, not only in what is being taught in these schools, but also in the learning environment (Jacobi et al., 2011).

On this question, Sterling (2009) adds that the intended changes in teaching will only be possible if a new paradigm of education is adopted which is able to make the important distinction between the different levels of learning already in existence and their potential for promoting change. He begins by addressing a first order type of change, which occurs in the field of adaptive learning where fundamental values go unquestioned and unaltered and there is no revision of existing values and beliefs. This is the traditional kind of learning that involves basically "having knowledge of things", using instruction methods associated with the transfer of information. Senge (2006) believes that this model, which has been adopted in most business schools, does not

53

produce learning. He argues that information in itself may help people learn something and collaborate with the understanding of a subject, but does not go beyond this and does not mean that students will adopt it as a value. Sterling (2009) also mentions a second order of critical and reflective learning. At this level, the students come to examine the presumptions that influence their understanding and to achieve more depth than they do at the level of knowledge and absorption. According to this author, this is a way of learning to learn or "thinking about the way we think, and involves the student in a process of construction and appropriation of meanings. Senge (2006) argues that, at this stage, people need to believe in something that has personal significance for them, adding that, if a student is not personally engaged, the learning process does not extend into the long term. However, in addition to the two levels of learning mentioned above, Sterling (2009) argues that, in order to arrive at a sustainable level of learning, one needs to move on to a deeper level of understanding and true incorporation of knowledge, which involves a third order of learning and change. At this level, students are capable of seeing things in a different and more creative way, of involving themselves consciously and profoundly in the search for knowledge as a way of achieving a new vision of the world that is conducive to Discovery and different ways of doing things. The author adds that this level of learning significantly alters the capacities of the people involved (Sterling, 2009).

Senges (2006) studies of the learning process in a business context reinforce Sterlings view and exemplify this level of learning that involves taking on great challenges and

54

making a commitment when one encounters something beyond oneself that can provide a sense of purpose. People are not in this way learning for the sake of learning, but because they really want to do something different and better, which makes sense of their lives.

Senge (2006) interprets the new paradigm in learning and thinking in terms of five disciplines: (1) a shared vision conducive to the building up of collective long-term commitment; (2) new mental models that help people to see the shortcomings of the present model used to view the world; (3) collaborative and group learning as a way of developing the ability to see beyond ones own individual interests; (4) self-mastery as a way of realizing the potential of the individual; and (5) personal motivation to continue learning on the basis of ones own experiences and the way they affect oneself and the surrounding world.

The arguments raised by the authors cited above also lead us to conclude that the crisis in the business school education system stems not only from the fragmented way in which schools teach, but also with the traditional education systems lack of concern for or encouragement of personal competences and the students capacity for selfdevelopment. These authors point the way to a teaching model that guides students in the direction of self-regulation and becoming more autonomous and active in relation to their own learning process, in such a way that they know how to use it, both personally and professionally, throughout their lives. This view is also shared by Simo (2002, p.14) who remarks that:

55

"Academic learning is known to be fundamental for the social integration and development of individuals. The schools job is not merely to transmit knowledge, but, above all, to encourage the independence, autonomy and creativity of students through a kind of learning based on real comprehension... (Simo,2002 p.14)

Beyond being a source of information, the school has as one of its fundamental tasks to provide students with strategies that enable them to re-elaborate, transform, contrast and critically reconstruct the knowledge they have acquired. This means developing a form of knowledge of ones own free-will that is strategic for oneself. Various studies have aimed to show that students perform better, in terms of their understanding of content and construction of personal meanings, when they are consciously in control of the learning process or when they regulate themselves (Silva et, al., 2004; Simo, 2002).

Likewise, Goleman et al. (2002) notes that self-directed learning is more effective and long-lasting when the learner comes to understand the process of change she is going through and thus the steps needed to achieve it. This kind of learning is guided by intentional development and the consolidation of the factors involved in attaining awareness of who the individual involved is, what they want to be, what they want to do, and what their place in the world is. This requires a clear view both of the ideal ego and the true ego of the person involved. This author shows us that learning that involves successful and lasting paradigm change needs to be a continuous process and to depend on resources that are not necessarily developed in a linear, orderly and harmonious fashion. Such learning also requires dedication and effort on the part of

56

those involved, and sometimes needs to change behavior. This change, generally, has a profound impact on the life of the subject, influencing their dreams and aspirations. For Goleman et al. (2002) this is a kind of cycle of development and adaptation which tends to last a life-time.

Self-directed learning is fundamental for the development of leadership skills, since the development process needs to be continuous and is now being adopted both in schools and businesses. The idea is to create communities of practices, as a way of broadening the rationale behind learning by emphasizing collaborative methods. According to Wenger (1998), these communities are groups of people who share the same interests, concerns, objectives or passions about something that they already do together or that they intend to do, in terms of learning or perfecting their knowledge through regular interaction. People who are members of such communities organize collective action, debates or discussions of specific issues, provide mutual support, exchange information and learn from one another (Wenger,1998). Terra & Gordon (2002) add that, although people in these communities forge informal ties by way of a shared interest, practice, or received opinion, they are strongly committed as a group and their relations are based on trust and a collective sense of purpose.

Wenger (1998) thus points to the importance of learning for the social nature of human beings and of learning from ones own experience of participation in the world. He also calls attention to the disconnect in the current education system, which

57

generally regards learning as an individual process unconnected to personal life experiences and not social in nature.

Learning from others is perhaps one of the most challenging aspects of learning, since it involves being open to knowledge that comes from the world. Listing the seven kinds of knowledge needed for the education of the future, Morin (2001) stresses the importance of human understanding and bemoans the fact that the existing education system "never teaches people how to understand one another, how to understand our neighbors, our relatives, our parents ". Morin (2001) traces the Latin origins of the word comprehension, which comes from the verb comprehend ere, meaning to bring together all the elements involved in a desired explanation. He thus also shows that the path towards true human comprehension lies in the diversity of information to which one has access, and "not having a single explanatory element, but various" (Morin 2001). He also notes that we live in an individualistic society which plays down the participation of others and this leads to a one-sided view and a failure to see the complexity of the human beings and the world in which we live. This suggests that it is important to build up a collective kind of knowledge that involves collaborative learning, thereby legitimizing the practices and learning processes that already exist in communities.

In view of these reflections on the main issues of the teaching of business and administrationwhich ultimately derive from the crisis in higher educationMorin (2003) believes that universities have two missions: to adapt to societys demands and to create something that induces society to adapt to its proposals. He also points to

58

the complementary and antagonistic nature of this dual role, where one is linked to the other in a cycle that tends to be highly productive, arguing that it is not only a question of modernizing culture, but also one of "culturizing" modernity.

However, Voltolines studies (2010)31 and those of other specialists and business leaders show that the formal education system has not evolved at the same speed as the rest of society. Likewise, Jane Nelson (apud Lopes, 2008) remarks that: Around six years ago, global warming did not have the high profile it does today. It is only in the past two years that the world has woken up to the problem. However, most universities still do not have research programs and classes that deal with climate change. There are not enough specialists to take on this task, because it is a completely new field. Scientists, politicians and business people are having to learn as they go along .(Nelson apud Lopes, 2008)32 Hargreaves & Fink (2007 p.11) suggest a number of reasons why the education system has not made progress: It is easy to propose change in education, but difficult to introduce it and extraordinarily difficult to sustain it. Pilot-projects make promises but are rarely transformed into successful system-wide changes. Innovations easily attract early enthusiasts, but it is more difficult to convince more skeptical educators to make a commitment to the hard work of implementing them. (Hargreaves & Fink, 2007 p.11) These authors strongly urge the education system to recognize its own alienating nature and to stop simply mirroring what is dictated by the market and understand the importance of looking at nature and the ecosystems that create the life of human beings and of the planet as a whole ( Hargreaves & Fink 2007).

31

According to reports from Idia Sustentvel on line at: http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/2010/03/osquatro-desafios-complexos/ 32 According to reports from Idia Sustentvel on line at: http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/2008/09/especialeducacao-e-inovacao-para-sustentabilidade-parte-1/

59

In the introduction to their book Sustainable Leadership Hargreaves & Fink (2007) sum up a view that seems to be shared by many of the authors cited in this dissertation, when they quote Wangari Maathai deputy-minister of the environment and natural resources in Kenyawho, paraphrasing Victor Hugo, said that Recognition that sustainable development, democracy, and peace are indivisible is an idea whose time has come. In other words, in view of what is happening in the world and the fast pace of change and profound transformation of society, which has disturbed the established structures at all levels, there is a need to recognize the emergence of new paths, and more than this, to be prepared to follow them. The time has come for business leaders to adopt a new way of thinking and the capacity to interpret the unpredictable and dynamic modern world which cannot always be grasped by formal education systems in time to pass them on quickly enough. This context will require changes in leadership that are sometimes radical. These leaders will need to be ready to analyze problems, take decisions and seek creative and innovative solutions, using skills and abilities that go beyond the received knowledge provided by business schools. These leaders will need to go beyond the limitations of their time.

2.5. Business leadership

We are always hearing about the revolution going on around us: revolution, revolution, revolution. Revolution is not destroying something, but creating it. If you spend all your time thinking about what you are attacking, you become negatively linked to that. We must find enthusiasm and bring it out. This is what you are given: a life to live. Marx blamed society for our weakness; Freud blamed the parents; astrology blames the universe. The only place we should look for blame is inside ourselveswe have not had the courage to create our own full moon and to live the life that held our potential (Campbell, 2008 p.127).

60

The idea of business leadership emerged in the 20th century alongside the industrial era and was consolidated by the development of studies of business administration and new forms of organization. However, different conceptions of leadership have emerged. Each age has been marked by styles of management in keeping with the different ideas and ways of managing businesses of the time and these have persisted to this day (Duluc, 2000).

Two ancient writers have had a powerful influence on the way we think about business leadership today. The first is Tzu Sun (2001), whose "Art of War" is now bedside Reading for every business leader. The first lesson of this book is that the first battle a leader has to fight is against himself. Tzu (2001) goes on to note that leadership is acquired by nobility of spirit and that there are five virtues that a leader must cultivate: wisdom, integrity, kindness, courage, and discipline. According to the ancient Chinese general, in carrying out his mission, the leader must first understand his own strengths and weaknesses, as well as the field of operation and the obstacles to be overcome, and, seek to work in collaboration with the people he leads (Tzu, 2001). Tzu (2001) says that the main aim of a leader should be to unite the people he leads around a common objective, and the greatest wisdom is to obtain everything he wants from his adversary, transforming his acts of domination into ostensible benefits for the opponent. Finally, Tzu reveals that every war is based on trickery and a good commander always hides his real situation as a way of deceiving the enemy and paving the way for victory (Tzu, 2001).

61

Another thinker who has weathered the passage of time and influenced business leadership is Maquiavel (1513). In his famous book, "The Prince"33, Machiavelli presents a study of human nature devoid of preconceptions or ethics, which leads the reader to analyze these factors and set them against the back drop of contemporary reality and the context of business corporations. One of his ideas that has had a broad influence among business leaders concerns the way a leader behaves before the people he leads. Machiavelli argues that: "Therefore a prince, so long as he keeps his subjects united and loyal, ought not to mind the reproach of cruelty... Nevertheless he ought to be slow to believe and to act, nor should he himself show fear, but proceed in a temperate manner with prudence and humanity, so that too much confidence may not make him incautious and too much distrust render him intolerable... Upon this a question arises: whether it be better to be loved than feared or feared than loved? It may be answered that one should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, either must be dispensed with. (Maquiavel, 1513) Machiavelli justifies his position on the grounds that friendships that are created by moneyor power--are bought, and thus cannot be relied on in ones hour of need. Human beings are motivated by self-interest and have less scruple in denying their support to friends than to those they fear because there is a constant fear of punishment."(Maquiavel, 1513 p. 66)

In fact, Machiavellis aim was to alert leaders to the essence of human nature, showing that people are not always noble and good and that human weakness tends to prevail. However, in the same text, albeit in passing, he makes it clear that a leader who is

33

E-book published on the home site of the Brazilian Ministry of Education: http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/download/texto/cv000052.pdf,

62

loved "for the nobility of his soul", may be surprised by the friendship and loyalty of the people he leads. This would appear to be a loose link in Machiavellis argument that is relevant to leadership in the 21st century. Since antiquity, then, the role of leadership has been discussed and there have been various theories regarding the best way to lead a group, whether it be a shared and collective process or one of choosing people capable of assuming command (Rego, 1998).

It was initially believed that a leader was born a leader and thus genetics determined beliefs about leadership and it was assumed that it could be handed down from father to son (Montana & Charnov, 2003). A similar idea, albeit based on the scientific theories of psychology, argues that great men are born with personality traits that set them apart from their fellow men. According to Vergara (1999), this theory established some ideal traits, some physical (such as appearance, stature, and physical strength), some intellectual (such as adaptability, enthusiasm, self-confidence and a high intelligence quotient), some social (such as cooperation, interpersonal and administrative skills) and others relating to personal ambition (such as drive, perseverance, and initiative). Being born with certain characteristics may signify the ability to achieve greatness as a leader, Vergara suggests. Nowadays, this approach based on traits, although still accepted in some human resources departments, is no longer held in great esteem by scholars in the field (Gil, 2008).

63

As people continued to study leadership, the idea began to arise that the potential for leadership is not based on personal traits alone, but on behaviors that can make leadership more effective (Gil, 2008). Studies emerged of styles of leadership that lay great emphasis on production and more democratic ways of leading (Vergara, 1999). Later, Fred Fiedler (apud Gil, 2008) suggested that the style of leadership is dictated by the situation in which the leader finds him- or herself, and this gave rise to the idea of leadership being contingent, or defined by circumstances. This theory focuses more on the phenomenon of leadership and not on the individual leader and calls attention to the importance of those who are led and the way power is exercised (Gil, 2008). Three fundamental pillars are established for successful leadership: the leader, the situation, and the followers (Vergara, 1999). Starting out from the premise that the situation is relevant for the leadership process, leadership must be considered situational and it can therefore be concluded that, for each situation, there is a recommended style of leadership (Maximiano, 1995).

However, over time, leadership has undergone significant alterations and changes which have shifted it from the old ideas of hierarchy and formal positions, which were related to military chains of command, to new ones involving influence. The leader has now come to be a coordinator rather than a task-master (Tannebaum; Weschler; Massarik; Jacobs; Katz; Kahn; Rouch; Behling; apud Bergamini, 1994). Kotter (1990) argues that there is a difference between leadership and administration, suggesting that the latter is related to the control of processes and routines, while the former involves promoting change.

64

Companies today still require their leaders to be good managers, but, in the face of the changes that are emerging, Scharmer (in: Alonso, 2009) lays emphasis on something that, in his opinion, is one of the main challenges faced by leaders today. "Whatever area we look at, from education to sustainable development, we find the same challenge of leadership. It is the challenge of collective leadership, which we can sum up like this: together we have created a situation that produces results that no-one wants and yet none of the leaders involved feels capable of or enthusiastic about changing things. This is the challenge of collective leadership that we face with the financial crisis, but also in other sectors" (Scharmer in: Alonso, 2009). Another challenge business leaders now fact is that of speeding up the transition to a sustainable world. According to Ricardo Voltolini a journalist and consultantin his recent book Conversations with Sustainable Leaders (2011), these leaders are truly capable of bringing these changes about. He explains how his studies clearly show the importance of the person who occupies a strategic position for this agenda of change. "...in companies where this concept is more advanced compared to others there is a leader sitting in the presidents chair who has a strong affinity for and interest in the issue. This research has shown that leadership is a fundamental variable. If there is a leader, he or she normally trains other leaders and is a spokesperson for the issue. The leader sets the agenda for the company and has the courage to propose change and persevere with daily efforts to bring it about, because these things are never easy " (Voltolini in: Camargo, 2011). Although he does not deny the importance of those who are in the forefront of initiatives and take responsibility for them, Senge (2009) draws attention to the importance of collaboration and sharing through collective leadership. Releasing the power of organizations and networks of all kinds to promote the change needed in coming years will require millions of dedicated leaders of all kinds, many of whom will not come from obvious circles of power or have the formal authority to lead. This does not mean

65

that the leadership exercised by authority figures is unimportant, but that it is insufficient. (Senge, 2009 p. 357-358)

On this point, Capra (2002) notes that collective leadership tends to produce more sustainable initiatives. He starts out from the idea that changes in the social system of any kind are interventions that are unsettling and give rise naturally to positive or negative reactions. He argues that our living systems always choose what to pay attention to and how to react and respond, including resistance. Thus, he goes on if we involve people from the outset, they will choose to be unsettled, because the process will be significant for them (Capra, 2002, p.123-124). There is, therefore, no choice but to invite people to join from the outset, or rethink, re-design and restructure what is being proposed. Ignoring the need for people to participate may generate negative reactions, while involving them makes them feel that they are making a future of which they themselves are a part (Wheatley & Kellner-Roger in: Capra 2002).

Defending collective leadership, the aforementioned authors point to the need for new business leaders to be prepared and trained to deal with the new power structures of the contemporary world system (Wallerstein, 2005), as outlined at the beginning of this chapter. Capra (2002) thus argues that sustainable leadership should seek to understand what is going on in terms of power relations, and to note that they are changingfrom the old style of domination and controlinto relations involving cooperation and partnership. He suggests that:

66

in recent years, biologists and ecologists have swapped the metaphor of a hierarchy for one of a network and come to understand that partnerships the tendency of organisms to associate with one another, establish ties, cooperate and enter into symbiotic relationshipsis one of the characteristic signs of life... the change from domination to partnership corresponds to a change from the power of coercionwhich uses the threat of sanctions to impose obedience to ordersand compensatory powerwhich offers incentives and financial remunerationto conditioned power, which uses persuasion and education and seeks to make instructions meaningful (Capra, 2002 p.125). Although this vision is the basis of many contemporary theories of leadership, Peter Drucker (1996, p. 162.) reminds us that a leader needs to be alert to the needs of the moment: In a crisis, there is no shared leadership, when the ship is sinking, the captain cant hold a meeting to listen to people; he has to give orders. This is the secret of shared leadership: knowing which situations require one to act as a boss and which require one to act as a partner. Likewise, Kahane (2010 p. 199), argues that leading means making headway, and that, although it is known that, amidst the complexity of the social challenges of contemporary society, no headway can be made with a single leader in power, it is not possible to get very far collectively, or very quickly, unless one is able to walk alone, on ones own two feet. Kahane thus argues that, in order to contribute to the co-creation of new social realities, a leader must be aware that he or she is the initiator of action and change.

However, Capra (2002 p.135), referring to a world in constant change, reminds us that as power is incorporated into all social structures, the emergence of new structures always changes power relations. He thus points to the importance of distributing power and strengthening the collective by providing support for a leader in achieving the objectives. However, he also notes that this does not mean that various

67

individuals simultaneously take the lead, but that various leaders present themselves when needed to help with the various stages in the emergence of the new. In other words, leaders who facilitate the emergence of the new use their own power to give power to others. And, finally, like Peter Drucker (1996), he explains that different situations require different types of leadership. (Capra, 2002 p. 135).

The evolution of business leadership and the various studies of this phenomenon and the different styles, personality traits and specific characteristics it involves should not be overlooked. Theories that enrich this field are also of great value, because understanding these may aid understanding of the kind of thinking that brought us where we are today. However, this dissertation and the case-study that follows will seek to focus on understanding a new kind of leadership that is emerging from the complexity of the contemporary world.

It can be seen from the words of some of the authors cited above that a new kind of leadership is emerging. A form of leadership that has yet to be fully characterized, which retains some of the facets of the old style of leadership, which is still not yet benefited from the changes in education and training, but is, nevertheless, a kind of leadership that is responding to the world and being forced to act by the environment. There is still no standard or fixed concept for such leadership, although some call it sustainable leadership, leadership for sustainability, leadership for positive challenges, generative leadership, or host leadership. It is clear, however, that the definition of a concept is less important than what this type of leadership means.

68

This dissertation aims to reflect on the kind of leadership that is emerging to confront the complexity of the challenges of the 21st century. It thus first aims to identify the point of view of some authors regarding the profile of these emerging leaders and then to present a case-study and to remark on how it is possible to contribute to the development of awareness among these new business leaders. Leaders are not led by the nose, they do not serve the needs of today at the expense of tomorrow. And they care for children. They do not talk of accountability, while poisoning the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink. We need to work towards a vision of leadership that begins with selfknowledge, respect for life, and a new concept of duty. It moves on stepping towards the big issue of our time , striving for balance, facing up to moral choices, inspiring, caring, coaching, and always remembering that work and life are not separate. (Macartney, 2007, p.126)

2.6. The Threshold of a new leadership

In their book, Sustainable Leadership Hargreaves & Fink (2007) cite Nelson Mandela as an example of what in their view is one of the main principles of sustainable leadership. They report how, when he was imprisoned on Robben Island, Mandela spent long stretches of time in solitary confinement, deprived of contact with other human beings, exercise, and even food. Mandela would later comment on this experience that: the human body has an enormous capacity to adjust to adverse circumstances. I found a person can bear the unbearable, if they succeed in keeping their spirits up, even when the body is going through an ordeal. Strong convictions are the secret to surviving privation: your spirit can be whole, even when your stomach is empty (Mandela apud Hargreaves & Fink, 2007 p.32).

69

In this declaration, Mandela reveals that, in times of crisissuch as those we are living through todayspirituality is fundamental for remaining focused on ones goals. Hargreaves & Fink (2007 p. 31) point to the importance of having, from the outset, a strong and unflappable sense of moral purpose, and remark that: the central meaning of sustain is to keep oneself upright; to support weight, to be ready to support it without collapsing... it is having inner conviction, unshakeable faith, a hopeful and inspiring sense of purpose that extends beyond ones self these are the unalienable elements of a moral character that can truly sustain people in times of crushing adversity and almost unbearable suffering (Hargreaves & Fink, 2007 p.31). Arguing that a leader should be a person whose actions demonstrate values that serve as a point of reference for others to follow, Capra (2002) brings a pragmatic perspective to his view of leadership, when he contests that a good leader needs to understand the interdependence of planning and instability deriving from complexity and spontaneous development. In other words, apart from being capable of keeping a vision in mind, clearly formulating it and communicating it with passion and charisma, a good leader should know how to use authority to facilitate the emergence of the new. This means stimulating creativity and a culture of learning, building confidence, and, finally, creating the conditions for others to exercise their capacity to achieve things and their own power (Capra, 2002). This style of leadership results in an organization or a community where power and leadership potential are widely distributed. However, the author notes that this model should not be taken to suggest that various people can simultaneously take on a leadership position, as remarked on above (Capra, 2002).

70

Peter Senge (2009) begins his description of his vision of leadership for sustainability, as involving awareness of complexity and the needs of the current world context, as well the impossibility of dealing with all of them. However, the leader should be fully aware that one cannot stand on the sidelines waiting for change (Senge, 2009 p.56).

The author outlines the profile of an individual who is seeking solutions that lead to a sustainable planet, conscious of the disorienting and, often, frightening effects (Senge, 2009 p.42) of a world of inescapable mutuality which is hurling everyone into a truly unknown future (Mieko Nishimizu apud Senge, 2009 p.42). He claims that there are thousands, maybe millions, of people like this searching for innovative ways of building a more sustainable world (Senge, 2009 p.42), According to this author, these leaders show they have dominated three areas: the ability to see the broader systems of which they are a part, to collaborate across borders, and to build the desired future. Of these three abilities Senge (2009) argues that collaboration is imperative and points out that acting at this level requires three other abilities: the ability to organize, to listen, and to foster joint commitment (Senge, 2009).

To describe the essence of this type of leadership, Senge (2009) notes the etymology of the French word, animateur to remind us that, in his view, the meaning of leadership is having anima, life and soul. In other words, a leader for sustainability should be someone who gives their soul, who has a new way of thinking, of viewing the world and of interacting with it in way that is capable of creating a focus and generating energy (Senge, 2009 p.46). He reminds us of the Latin origins of another

71

word that defines this kind of leadership, inspiration, which comes from Latin inspirare, meaning to breathe life into (Senge, 2009 p. 46).

For Sara Parkin, author of The Positive Deviant: Sustainability Leadership in a Perverse World (Parking, 2010) there is a difference between leadership for any kind of thing, and leadership for sustainability. In this authors view, leadership for sustainability is connected with the world, or operates locally, while aware that it is part of a larger whole; its actioneven though it is localgoes beyond the boundaries of the locality in which the individual lives. In the authors own words: Leadership for sustainable development (SD) is definitely about imagining a better future, but not one that is constrained by organizational or geographical boundary, as most leadership is. It is for something far greater than an individual, his or her organization, or even family or country. It is for a greater good that embraces all life on Earth, including all humanity and future generations. (Parking, 2010 p.4)

Parkin (2010) calls this kind of leadership positive deviance, because these are leaders who are trying to do the right thing for sustainability, despite being surrounded by structures and institutions that are doing the wrong thing and people and processes that stubbornly refuse to cooperate. These kinds of leaders, according to Parkin, generally tend to cultivate four kinds of ways of thinking: a) They strive to be resilientin terms of preparing themselves to suffer the impact and the stress of crises without losing their essence, their structure and their capacity to react, preserving their identity, values and basic principles, without being overwhelmed in the midst of a crisis. The author remarks that personal resilience depends on the number of connections you have with other people and she argues that the more personal connections one has, the better prepared on is to cope with adversity. b) They foster relationshipscreating and maintaining good and varied relationships at all levels, which sustain them both as individuals and within the

72

various systems they form part of. This characteristic involves strengthening oneself in a climate of interdependence. The more numerous and better quality these relationships, the stronger the leader will be in the community or institution of which he or she is a part. c) They devote time to reflectiongoing back over and reflecting on actions and experiences and learning from them, and using the lessons learnt to build a better future. d) They have reverencei.e. they have a deep respect and admiration for nature and for their fellow human beings. They recognize the interdependence of even the most apparently insignificant creatures within an ecosystem, value diversity and reject discrimination (Parking, 2010). In Jaworskys view (2005), in the Western world, people tend to believe that the profile of a leader is related to the qualities and abilities that exist in specific individuals. Generally speaking, we look for special individuals with the potential for leadership, rather than developing the potential for leadership that exists within us all ( Jaworsky, 2005 p. 16). He goes on to warn of the pit-falls of this kind of thinking that focuses on the leader as hero. For example, we let ourselves be distracted by what this or that leader is doing or not doing, and also by the power games that surround them, where some people support the leader while others try to defeat him. We expect everything of these perfect leaders and blame them when we are going through a crisis, charging them with not being capable of making our dreams come true, and thereby shirking off our own responsibilities. When the situation worsens, we find ourselves waiting for another savior of the nation to come and set us free. And, in this way, we lose sight of the main question: what are we collectively capable of doing? (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 16-17).

In their preoccupation with following the trajectory of leaders and the ways they interact with the surrounding environment, people forget that leadership is about

73

learning how to lead and shaping ones own future (Jaworsky, 2005). For this author, Leadership exists when people are no longer the victims of circumstances but participants in the creation of new circumstances (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 17). He goes on to explain that this is the domain of generative leaders, who are those who, through on-going daily learning, finally become capable of allowing life to unfold through them. Thus, in Jaworskys opinion leadership has nothing to do with the position one occupies, or what one does in this position; leadership means creating a sphere in which human beings are continually deepening their understanding of reality and becoming increasingly capable of participating in the development of the world. In other words, in the final analysis, leadership is about creating reality (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 17).

Like Jaworsky (1998), Wheatley & Frieze (2010) in their article, "Leadership in the Age of Complexity: From Hero to Host"34 begin by stating that "For a long time, many of us have been hypnotized by heroes" and that this attitude conceals a desire "to be saved" and perhaps our disinclination for "hard work", which leads us to prefer to "trust someone to find things out for us. These authors argue that we are constantly relying on "politicians who present themselves as heroes" as if they were able to resolve all our problems and make them go away. For Wheatley & Frieze, there people have a tendency, and it is a very tempting one, to think that "there is someone somewhere who will make everything better... someone who is a visionary, inspiring, brilliant, worthy of our trust, whom we will all happily follow" (Wheatley & Frieze, 2010). But

34

See http://www.margaretwheatley.com/articles/Leadership-in-Age-of-Complexity.pdf

74

they argue that "it is time for all the leaders to go home" and they remind us of William Staffords view (apud Wheatley & Frieze, 2010) that it is time to leave behind us the kind of hopes and expectations that generate and perpetuate dependency and passivity rather than providing solutions for the challenges that, in the final analysis, belong to each and every one of us.

For these authors, the illusion of leadership as heroic control rests on the underlying illusion that it is possible for someone to be in control. However, we live in a world of complex systems that are inherently uncontrollable. They argue, on the contrary, that No-one is in command! These systems are emerging phenomena and the result of thousands of small-scale local actions that converge to create powerful systems with properties that may bear little or no resemblance to the smaller-scale events that gave rise to them. These are the systems that dominate peoples lives todayas in the case of the civil society movements that are breaking out in various countries mentioned at the beginning of this chapterand these will certainly not be changed by more daring visions on the part of more heroic leaders (Wheatley & Frieze, 2010).

In this article, Wheatley & Frieze (2010) invite us all to understand that, in order to be capable of making these complex systems work better, we will have to relinquish our belief in the leader as hero and see the leader as a host. In other words, supporting leaders who are aware of the complexity of these systems and are honest enough to realize that, in order to understand them, they will need to invite all interested parties to participate and contribute their own views and activities. According to these

75

authors, these people seek incessantly for certain skills and abilities that are in the people within the organizations and communities they work in that can help lead to a solution to the problem that faces everyone. These leaders are sensitive enough to be able to find people who are searching for this and to re-activate them, breathe life into them and their proposals, and invite them to join them in a common purpose. These are leaders who are open to others, who invite people to sit down beside them and talk and who trust in the abilities of each individual (Wheatley & Frieze, 2010). According to these authors, these leaders offer the people they lead: the conditions and the processes for building up a good group and carrying out work together; their own time, the scarcest resource of all; a way of learning from experience; unequivocal support; leadership for creativity, free of bureaucracy. Furthermore, these leaders play defense against those who want to maintain control, reflect with others and regularly report back on the work the group has done and help to measure what each individual is doing in terms of visible progress. These are leaders who stimulate the group spirit (Wheatley & Frieze, 2010).

Finally, the authors state that a 'host leader is fully aware that she is surrounded by people who, like her, want to contribute, who also have ideas, who want to help others and solve their own problems. Because they conclude that, "If the truth be told, nobody ever needed a hero to rescue them from anything" (Wheatley & Frieze, 2010).

However, taking the lead is not a simple process. Describing his own journey towards a vision in which he believed he could contribute to bringing about the changes he wanted to see, Joseph Jaworsky (2005) notes that, at first, he, like many other people,

76

felt insecure and fearful about taking on the responsibility of leadership. In other words, conscious of the difficulty and responsibility of standing up to the established system, people feel incapable of taking on the commitment to making a difference and thus do not see the opportunities that lie before them. Using his own decision as an example, this author remarks that: part of this struggle was with my own fears and my own denial of my ability to make a difference in the worldthe who? Me? syndrome... And somewhere deep down I knew that cooperating with destiny brought great responsibility and I was afraid of responsibility... This was disturbing, very frightening. (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 96 and 103)

According to Jaworsky (2005), through this definitive commitment, the vision of the future desired by the leader evolved to the point where it merged with his own identity. In his own words, this vision began to invade every part of me. I became the vision, and it became me... it was at this point that my words became actions (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 97). At this point, according to this author, an important change occurs, a persons sense of identity is altered and it comes to form a part of the generative process as a whole. In this state of being the leader takes on his or her own mandate, as if there were no other option. At this level of commitment, the leader is ready to take on greater challenges that had hitherto seemed impossible (Jaworsky, 2005).

In the business world, there are some examples of leaders who seem to have gone through the same experience of commitment that Jaworsky (2005) refers to. This level of commitment is seen in those who take radical positions in relation to their

77

companies and assume a level of commitment that goes beyond personal interests or those of the market. One case that has become an international point of reference in leadership for sustainability is that of the chairman of InterfaceFloor, one of the most successful global carpet makers with 4,000 employees and a presence in 110 different countries. According to Voltolini (2011)35, Ray Anderson is an unquestionable example of leadership for sustainability. On the other hand, Anderson himself acknowledges his initial complete lack of awareness of what his responsibility would be in contributing to a more sustainable world. We never accorded any importance to the fact that company annually consumed enough energy to light and heat a city... Nor that we process more than a billion pounds of raw-material every year (most of it derived from oil)... Neither were we aware that, every day, just one of our factories disposed of six tons of carpet waste in local landfills. We didnt have the slightest idea what was happening to all that waste. Why should we? That was someone elses problem, not ours. (Ray Anderson in: Voltolini, 2011).

However, when he read Paul Hawkens "The Ecology of Commerce"which both holds companies responsible for doing great damage to the environment and lauds the potential of these organizations to lead a large-scale process of changeAnderson (apud Voltoline, 2011) began to become more conscious. According to Anderson, in this book, he himself was accused of "pillaging in the Earth" (Anderson, 2009)36. Thus, shortly before the companys 21st anniversary, he challenged his leaders, saying: "if Hawken is right and companies and industry must deal [with change], who is going to lead these companies and industries? Unless someone takes the lead, no-one will.

35 36

See http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/tag/ray-anderson/ Ray Andersons lecture can be viewed on TED at http://www.ted.com/talks/ray_anderson_on_the_business_logic_of_sustainability.html

78

Thenwhy not us? And, thanks to the people at Interface, I became a reformed former pillager (Anderson, 2009) 37.

The result of this challenge was the 'Zero Mission' project, which aimed to eliminate environmental impacts by 2020. According to Anderson:

Fourteen years ago, when I dared to tell some friends the aspirations that were motivating me to put together the business model we have today, they told me that it was impossible. What was impossible has now been translated into the highly efficient use of oil (energy and raw materials) for making carpets, with a reduction of 88%, in absolute terms, in emissions of greenhouse gases and of 80% in the use of water, compared to 1996. We did all this against a backdrop of a two thirds rise in sales and a doubling of revenue (Anderson apud Voltolini 2011). Anderson lists the seven stages he adopted in order to transform InterfaceFloor into one of the most sustainable carpet manufacturers in the world: 1) eliminating industrial waste and cutting waste in the use of resources; 2) involving the suppliers in efforts to reduce carbon emissions; 3) striving for energy efficiency and replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources; 4) redesigning processes, recycling and re-using materials; 5) greening the transport network; 6) changing the internal culture to comply with an environmentally responsible model of production; 7) reinventing commercial activities and the market itself, establishing new ways of living with the biosphere and the technosphere (Voltolini, 2011). Anderson also left as his legacy a model of successful leadership for sustainability, the recipe for which included: 1) believing in the value of and the reasons for change; 2) hard work, determination, firmness of purpose and decisiveness on the part of the leader; 3) having a moral

37

Idem.

79

compass; 4) 'coming down from the mountain top' and engaging all ones colleagues; 5) having a plan of action and strategies for overcoming the obstacles to change (Voltolini 2011). Ray Anderson died 30 days before the time of writing this dissertation and leaves this reflection as his legacy. "We are, each and every one of us, part of the web of life. The continuum of humanity, for sure. But, in a broader sense, the web of life itself. And we have a choice to make during our short stay on this beautiful blue and green living planet. Harm it or help it. Now its over to you, the decision is yours." (Anderson, 2009)38. As Vaclav Havel said, (apud Capra 2002) "Education is the ability to perceive the hidden connections between phenomena." From this perspective, this literature review has shed light on the phenomena and issues related to the challenge of training business leaders for the 21st century.

It has therefore sought to show in this literature review a world context where the successive intersecting crises in various dimensions and how this has been reflected in a world of constantly changing systems. It was also considered important to discuss the need to adopt new ways of thinking which respond to complexity and also the role and responsibilities of Schools of Business Administration in training business leaders for this emerging world of sustainability.

In addition, it has presented the profile of the business leader which the world needs today and what type of training is required from Business Schools to prepare this leader for sustainability, focusing on the changes that need to be made to this training process.
38

Idem to note 37

80

Therefore, front of the ineffectiveness of traditional patterns of education and training for a new leadership capable of acting in this environment of complexity and permanent dynamic, we will present below the experience of Lidera Programme as a possible model of learning and self-development for business leaders which intends to meet demands from context presented here. Besides reflecting on the methodological approach of this programme and on challenges faced by former students for the practical application of learning in their daily lives, the next chapter also will seek reflect on the reasons why the Business Action for Citizenship Institute solves stimulate the creation of a learning community, and on the emergence of an action-research initiative in this regard. Next chapter, it will also presented this research's initiative and the results analysis.

81

Chapter3.THE LIDERA PROGRAMME, LEARNING AND BUSINESS LEADERSHIP

Never think that small group of conscious and interested citizens isnt capable of changing the world. In fact, this is the only way to do it, according to Margaret Mead. We would add: depending on their capacity to build extensive networks (SENGE, 2009)

3.1. The Brazil of Lidera The Lidera ProgrammeBusiness Leaders for Sustainable Developmentemerged in 2005 as a way of addressing the contemporary needs outlined in the review of the literature and contributing to the development of conscious business leaders committed to the history and the future of the region in which they operate. There are three levels to this initiative. The first, described in the previous chapter, concerns the complex modern world, with its constant political, economic, environmental and social changes, which is looking for ways of guaranteeing a viable future for later generations. Secondly, there is the situation in Brazil, a country which now has one of the most promising economies on the planet and is likely to be one of the leading nations in the world by 2050 (MacKinnon, 2011), but which is still beset by massive contradictions that may impede progress towards a sustainable future. Third there is the immediate local context in which the Lidera Program works, which is the Northeast Region of Brazil, which is one of the poorest and most unequal in the country, coming 12th in a ranking of different parts of Brazil (Lavinas, 2011). Brazil is an enormous country the size of a continent whose economic inequality divides not only the people but whole geographical regions into rich and poor (IBGE/IDS 2010). This inequality is currently Brazils greatest problem, since it slows

82

economic growth, generates high levels of criminality and insecurity and is detrimental to the countrys social capital (BBC Brasil, 2010).

The Brazilian government is aware of this problem and, in the past 10 years, has been investing considerable resources in the Northeast Region as a way of bringing its economic development into line with that of the rest of the country. However, according to studies conducted by Banco do Nordeste (BNB), even though this investment has boosted GDP growth in the region to around 1% above the national average, it is still regarded insufficient to bring the region up to the same level as the rest of the country within a reasonable time-frame. According to these studies, meeting the intended target would require a substantial increase in public investment in the region that would bring regional GDP growth up to 3% above the national average for the requisite period of time. Only thus would it be possible to bring the Northeast Region into line with other regions of the country within a period of 16 years (BNB/ETENE, 2010). However, it is important to remember that it is not just any kind of investment that will allow this region to achieve sustainable growth. Apart from investment in basic infrastructure, there is also a need for investment in mitigating or resolving the serious social and environmental problems faced by the region. For example, there are the areas prone to desertification that currently account for 74.46% of the region. Of these, 48.65% have soil that is considered to be in a severe or high state of degradation (MMA,2004). Moreover, the process of global warming is tending to exacerbate the situation, according to the Programa de Ao Nacional de Combate Desertificao e Mitigao dos Efeitos da Seca - PAN-BRASIL, run by the

83

Brazilian Ministry for the Environment and Water Resources (2004). Even though there is no general consensus as to the consequences of the phenomena brought about by this warming, it is predicted that the coming years will see a rise in average temperatures worldwide (IPCC, 1990), leading the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment to conclude that: "...global warming will probably also give rise to other important changes: more variable rainfall patters and a greater frequency of extreme events (droughts and floods). As in the case of warming, there is some uncertainty about this and heated debate, but this should not obscure the fact that these events are already occurring in various parts of the world. The aggregate effects of these changes can still not be fully evaluated. However, by analogy, anyone can predict that the Northeastwhich is already vulnerablewill be subjected to higher temperatures and even greater irregularity in rainfall patterns and occasional intensification of droughts (and floods). Socio-economic losses will probably be greater and, inevitably, biodiversity (including human beings) will be affected, by way of degradation or adaptation to the new conditions." (PANBRASIL, 2004 p. 58-59).

The climate situation in the Northeast region has led successive waves of migrants to move to other parts of the country and has exacerbated poverty in the region. This has led the government to intervene, although, in the view of Brazilian Senator Ldice da Mata, in a recent statement39, while there are various factors suggesting that such problems will have to be confronted in the region, there are still no public policies to help the people of the region to overcome such problems. She goes on to argue that we need, above all, to study ways of life, how people survive in a semi-arid region, and

39

Statement made by Senator Ldice da Mata in the Brazilian Federal Senate House on 20/06/2011 at 18h08 http://www.senado.gov.br/noticias/lidice-da-mata-analisa-politicas-publicas-para-combater-apobreza-no-semiarido-nordestino.aspx

84

possible cultures that might ensure such survival and, in this way, generate new solutions...(Da Mata in: Senado Federal do Brasil, 2011)40 Brazil has a vast territory with an abundance of natural riches, which means that it can play an important role as guardian of the planets natural resources (WWF41, 2011 p.8). Thus, according to Goldman Sachs (2007), the most important development strategy for this country may be to take care to preserve its precious reserves of water and fauna and flora. According to studies carried out by this institution, it is expected that these resources will tend to take over from petroleum as the most sought-after resources in the world in the near future. In view of this, it can be concluded that the value of Brazils natural capital (water, soil, biodiversity and so forth) will increasingly be considered when drawing up the countrys development policies. The private sector in Brazil is thus beginning to come together to preserve this natural capital, leading some companies, in October 2010, to set up the Movimento Empresarial pela Biodiversidade (MEB) [Business Biodiversity Movement] with the aim of: promoting mobilization of the Brazilian private sector around the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and promoting dialogue between government and business in order to improve the existing legal and regulatory framework, with the participation and support of civil society organizations.(MEB, 2010)42 In the view of the leaders who founded this movement, since Brazil has a high level of biodiversity it will face huge challenges and opportunities and have a special

40 41

See note 1. Relatrio Anual 2010 WWF Brasil http://www.wwf.org.br/natureza_brasileira/questoes_ambientais/desenvolvimento_sustentavel/

42

MEB - Movimento Empresarial pela Biodiversidade.Accessed athttp://www.mebbrasil.org.br/

85

responsibility in the future. It is therefore important to build up an economic model that integrates production, consumption and conservation (MEB, 2010). It can thus be concluded that the private sector needs to prepare itself to adopt this new view and to know how to deal with the opportunities and challenges that businesses involved with the use and preservation of these resources will provide.

3.2 Learning with Lidera This outlook, along with the aforementioned shortcomings of schools of business and administration, has led to the emergence of initiatives such as the LideraBusiness Leaders for Sustainable Development and its attempt to build up a network of business people capable of dealing with emerging challenges. Designed by the Instituto de Ao Empresarial pela Cidadania43 (AEC), an organization that has been working for more than ten years in the State of Pernambuco (in the Northeast of Brazil) and whose mission is to bring companies together and to influence their practices regarding citizenship in the business environment as a way of contributing to the sustainable development of Pernambuco. AEC is an association of 65 companies and is currently running the fourth edition of the Lidera Program.

I have been involved with Lidera since the beginning and have participated in the design, coordination and running of the program, bringing together know-how, information, experience and reflection regarding the role of the business leader, both within the company and in the socio-environmental context of the region in which the

43

See site of Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania: www.acaoempresarial.org.br

86

company operates, as a way of guiding them in the direction of initiatives that promote sustainable development.

Lidera involves an immersion course divided into five modules following the theories and methods of Anthroposophy-based Social Pedagogy44, and Action Learning for Development (Taylor, Marais & Kaplan, 1997) and Theory U (Scharmer, 2010). At the time of writing it has trained 43 leaders and has set up a network of former participants to take joint action.

The Lidera Program is structured around the principles of Theory U (Scharmer, 2010) and was designed as a way of developing a new type of business leadership over a period of around twelve months, with five modules and intervals of around two months between each. In accordance with the U movement, which involves a year of activities repeated in each module, the Lidera Programme takes place in a specific social field that takes into consideration the three dimensions of the world, the country, and the region, as outlined above.

The Lidera Program begins its journey with its participants with a quotation from Vclav Havel (apud Scharmer, 2010 p. 1) to the effect that: ...[we are all going through] a transitional period, where one thing is disappearing and another is painfully being born... as if something were falling apart, in decline, running out, while another still indistinct one is being born in from the rubble (Vclav Havel apud Scharmer, 2010 p. 1),

44

See site of the Associao de Pedagogia Social de base Antroposfica no Brasil :http://www.pedagogiasocial.com.br/home/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=22&Itemid =29

87

In this way, Lidera proposes to the participantsfrom the first module to the lasta journey of self-discovery and self-development which aims to help them understand the sources from which the contemporary world is being continuously forged (Scharmer, 2010) and how they can contribute to creating a more sustainable world, country, and region.

In Scharmers view(2010), the challenges presented by this environment have led people and institutions to seek to renew and reinvent themselves. In this search, taking Theory U as his basis, the author argues that there is a development journey that must be completed and this should begin with a central question: what is needed in order to learn how to act on the basis of an emerging future? (Scharmer, 2010 p. 11). In this authors opinion, during the journey he proposes, other questions arise, such as: Who are we?; What are we here for?; What do we want to create together? (Scharmer, 2010 p. 11). To understand this journey, Scharmer (2010) argues that each participant needs to establish a structure of attention and observation that will help them to reach the level of consciousness needed to bring about the desired change. This journey requires three fundamental tools that make it possible to understand both phenomena occurring in the external environment, and those inside each one of us. These tools are: an open mind, an open heart, and an open will (Scharmer, 2010 p. 11). On the Lidera Programme, the experience of descending the U takes place over five modules, each of which is considered a learning journey whose aim to form part of a grand journey towards change. Each module goes in-depth into a certain reality

88

through a process of exchange of knowledge. In the course of the Programme, it is considered essential that small exchange groups be formed, in addition to the large learning group, which will meet for four days, every 2 months, over the twelve-month period to keep up the conversation and experiences that will lead them to learn together about issues relating to: the development of human consciousness; selfdevelopment; social ecology; sustainability; corporate social responsibility; the context of the world, the country, and the region and how these contexts are related to one another and to each individual; new leadership skills; relating to others and to oneself; and planning to act in an emerging future. The whole journey takes place in a setting where everyone is prepared to listen to everyone elses point of view regarding the past, the present and the future. This collective experience is regarded by the program coordinators as fundamental for the knowledge that will grow out of this meeting, not only for individuals, but for the group as a whole. According to the coordinators, the journey that each Lidera module involves begins with a process of slowing down and reconnecting with the present moment, practicing listening and feeling so as to facilitate the descent and the ascent involved in the U process that will occur during each module and that will allow each to act on the basis of his or her downloading (established patterns) and be open to the moment that has begun. The aim is, in this way, to allow a new universe of possibilities to emerge and to open up space for what Scharmer (2010) calls prototyping, or, giving future possibilities concrete form, learning to transform intentions into actions. In this way, Lidera seeks to create the possibility of the future emerging from the action of each one on of us in the world.

89

The U Model adopted by Lidera, was first propounded by Scharmer (2010), and is a learning model that encourages an open mind, heart, and will so that people can arrive at moments of discovery and the deep mutual understanding that lies within the reach of every one of them. The diagram below illustrates the movement and the stages in the U journey.

Figure 3.1.1 Based on U Journey( Scharmer, 2010)

On the Lidera Programme, this process of diving deep into oneself, into the other and into the context of an emerging world is expected to produce important insights that give rise to innovation in the lives of the participants. This journey begins with the search for self-knowledge, through perception of the environment in which one is embedded as a way of taking action in future that may contribute to changing the existing world context.

90

During the modules, experiences and assignments related to music, story-telling, poetry, theater, visual arts and cooking are used to help the participants to review the knowledge they have acquired and open themselves up to new knowledge. This method aims to encourage people to download old patterns and suspend habitual judgments, slowing down the processes that are at work in order to learn to listen in a deeper, more open and collective manner, to the source that can lead to the emergence of self-awareness and self-knowledge.

According to Scharmer (2010), U theory provides a new lens through which we can examine leadership and management and is also a method that deals with the development of this kind of leadership and the associated social skills in a profound way, which not only takes into account what leaders do and how they do it, but also the setting in which they operate. In other words, the focus is on the impact of the quality of attention on the life and work of the leader or on the future evolution of a certain situation based on each individuals contribution to it.

The root of this, according to Scharmer (2010), lies in the assumption that, if we dive down to a deeper level of attention, as human beings, we will reach the conclusion that every one of us is in fact two people. The first person is the one we have become as a result of our life-history, the ego with a small e. The other is the one that may come to be as a result of a path built up consciously in the direction of the future. This is the Ego with a capital E that considers the possibility of a future built up around a broader proposition. The central tenet of U theory is based on the idea of

91

these two egos begin to listen to and echo each other. According to the program coordinators, a similar process occurs on the Lidera Programme, with the support of the learning group functioning as a kind of coaching, where each participant listens to the story of the others and attains deeper knowledge of him- or herself in relation to the other (Scharmer, 2010).

In this complex world, where growing efforts are being made to collaborate across sectors and to develop innovations, leadership must achieve a deep level of selfknowledge and recognition of others. This leads to the need to access deeper sources of learning that, in Scharmers view (2010), should be associated with the capacity to presence, that is, to feel and perceive intimately, and to integrate with the object that is the target of change and be a part of the change itself (Scharmer, 2010 and Senge et al. 2007).This ability derives from having a mind, a heart and a will that are fully open not only to learning from prior experience, but also to building a practical vision of the future. In this process, the transformation of mental models is essential, and this explains why it is necessary to dive into the deepest spaces of perception to provide an openness to the future than one desires to emerge (Scharmer, 2010 and Senge et al. 2007). To complete this view, Senge et al. (2007) argue that most people act in a reactive, and sometimes instinctive way, where the predominant impulse is fear and anxiety. This leads the individual to act like a reptile, following fight or flight instincts individually or as a group. This way of acting, according to these authors, also influences the way we learn and limits us to reacting to knowledge or circumstances that we ourselves did not create (Senge et al. 2007). They argue that reactive learning

92

is dominated by recovery (downloading) of our habitual modes of thinking and seeing the world. According to Senge et al. (2007), we feel threatened by novelty and try to keep to our comfort zone and disregard interpretations and actions that different from those we are familiar with or which we trust will serve our own interests. In other words, in the best of cases, we perfect what we have always done. We feel secure in the cocoon of our own view of the world, isolated from the greater whole of which we form a part (Senge et al. (2007).

The authors also argue that all learning combines thinking and doing, and thus all learning concerns the way we interact with the world and the capacities we build up on the basis of our interactions (Senge et al., 2007). This is the idea that sustains the importance of developing a deeper perception of the world and the information it generates, of going beyond surface events and everyday happenings to reach levels of thought that reveal the causes of these. We can thus arrive at a deeper level of consciousness that produces a real perception of the ego and how it forms part of theworld context (Senge et al. (2007).

However what is really different about this theory and Lidera is not the process of individual introspection, but the collective appropriation of the change that is sought through social innovation. Or, as Senge et al. put it (2007) a process in which we learn to presence everything that arises in order to turn ourselves into what George Bernard Shaw called a force of nature.

The first three Lidera modules bring about a sort of awakening. The group is invited to reflect on certain issues and make contact with reality as a way of seeking answers based on the collective experiences and discoveries. This process picks up in the third Lidera module, when the group is invited to meet and spend time together in an extremely underprivileged community in the semi-arid part of the Northeast region

93

that is receiving help with development from a non-government organization (World Vision Brazil45).

Apart from Theory U, which is a methodological hallmark of Lidera, the program also adopts methods related to Anthroposophy-Based Social Pedagogy (ABSP), which seeks to help people to deal with social questions in an autonomous and adult manner(Bos, 2004). According to Bos, this means learning to deal with oneself, with others and the with the issues that are emerging in the world, in such a way that the actions of each and every individual enable healthy self-development, development of others, and development of the environment in which one is embedded.

ABSP also sees human beings as adapting to the world in which they find themselves in such a way as to accommodate themselves to and familiarize themselves with it and with the phenomena they learn how to deal with. They thus succeed in leading a life that, although it may seem conscious, does not reach a level of consciousness that provides the necessary autonomy for them to be masters of their own destiny. Bos (2004) argues, however, that there are moments in peoples lives when they are confronted with limitations and that this leads to a powerful awakening. He compares this to bumping up against a brick wall we havent noticed before (Bos, 2004 p.4) and being awakened by the shock. Lidera uses the ABSP method to use questions as a teaching resource to help people deal with their limitations, confronting the limits of their own knowledge and their own capacity of action, which they would not be able to understand alone. This is the
45

See http://www.visaomundial.org.br/

94

reason, for example, for using biographies set in the social context of each individual, with a view to revealing the laws of ones own development. During the program, these biographies are shared in small groups as a way of broadening self-knowledge. Hearing each others stories helps the program participant to understand that there is knowledge to be gleaned from the life-histories of others, and that this can help one to review ones own life.

According to the coordinators, the questions worked on in these meetings and those that arise from the process itself and intimately linked to each individual, leading us to see that, since they are involved in the questions they formulate, they are also part of the solution. The aim is for this understanding to bring about awareness that the external limits of each individual can be overcome, so long as there is an inner drive to do so. In the words of Bos (2004): ...the person is awakened to the limits he or she confronts with resistance. Resistance in terms of understanding, living and dealing with situations. This gives rise to the still unconscious notion that these external limits are connected to internal limits and that I can only overcome this external obstacle, if, within myself, I can overcome the inner obstacle. ( Bos, 2004 pp.4-5) Working at this level provides awareness of one of the great difficulties relating to the depth of change, the need to move on from ratiocination to action. When Bos (2004) says that people have a natural tendency to try to solve questions using external resourceswhen for example they request the help of specialistshe also argues that this occurs because they start out from the assumption that they themselves do not need to change in order to solve the problem (Bos, 2004 p. 5). In his own words:

95

things should be organized so that they stay out of the line of fire. And often, the questions are put in such a way that they are not ones own, but those of ones boss, of the environment, of society and that the human being is not linked existentially to the answer to these questions (Bos, 2004 p. 5). Lidera thus works with questions as a way of leading people to relate to themselves so as to bring them to acknowledge that This is my question (Bos, 2004 p.5) , and once they feel that they are the owners of the question they can feel jointly responsible for the other underlying questions that have given rise to it (Bos, 2004). This pedagogical process is derived from action that promotes awareness. Formulating and providing answers that reflect the questions they are dealing with helps people to remember where, when and how they came up against the limitations that led them to ask these questions, what they have felt inside them and how they confronted that situation. Through this process, people can find within them the ways out of the limit situations that they are living (Bos, 2004). In addition to Theory U and Anthroposophy-Based Social Pedagogy, Lidara also uses Action Learning for Development (Taylor, Marais & Kaplan, 1997). In action learning, learning is made possible by concrete experience, trial and error, discussion groups and the use of paths of discovery. It is a process in which the participants work with real questions and problems and take on real responsibility under real conditions (Taylor, Marais & Kaplan, 1997). Using this methodology, Lideras coordinators claim that the Program seeks a more conscious and autonomous way of learning based on learning from ones own experience, making things happen and living ones own reality. Thereby cycles are formed that conclude with each learning module, in which everyone puts themselves

96

in the process based on their own actions and reflects on what went wrong and what went right as a way of learning the lessons of lived experience and applying the learning to the re-planning of future actions. This method is used by Lidera especially during the process of drawing up the self-development plan on which the participants work throughout the program.

The action learning method also gains relevance for Lidera when the experience of the participants is given priority over formal sources of knowledge. This leads to respectful collaborative learningboth on the part of the facilitators in relation to each participant, and on the part of each participant in relation to him or herself and to others. This form of learning contrasts with the traditional teaching found in Schools of Business and Administration, where teaching is provided by professors and experts. According to Sterling (2009), traditional learning basically involves "knowing about things", using a method associated with the transfer of information.

Lideras learning proposal seems to seek a higher level of understanding, by aiming to incorporate knowledge, using what Sterling (2009) calls a third order of learning and change. At this level, based on ones own experience, the learner is more consciously involved in the search for learning by discovering new and alternative ways of doing things. This level of learning is also related to the paradigmatic challenges that leaders take on in order to find solutions to questions that seem to elude their grasp. According to Senge (2006), such processes reinforce peoples sense of purpose and are conducive to a kind of learning driven by the desire to really do something different and better, which is meaningful for the learner.

97

When one starts out from the central idea that learning for self-development must help people to become more independent and walk on their own two feet, the action learning methodology is a fundamental way of building up knowledge based on practical experience, and making learners less dependent on specialists in acquiring knowledge or orientation.

In the view of Taylor, Marais & Kaplan (1997), helping people to become more conscious, confident and qualified and able to learn from their own lives should be a central part of the process of leadership development. According to these authors, the capacity to learn from ones own experience is of fundamental importance for a leader, since leaders need to be continually developing in order to deal with a world that is constantly changing (Taylor, Marais & Kaplan 1997).

Figure 3.1.2 Based on Learning Circle.(Taylor, Marais & Kaplan, 1997).

98

Although Lidera aims to place value on the personal history of its participants, it does not under-rate other stories that can provide useful learning experiences. The program uses story-telling, in the belief that stories and myths from different cultures can be vehicles for reflection and metaphors of contemporary reality. Likewise, ideas, concepts and theories from books, teachers, specialists and facilitators can be useful in confronting the lived experience of the participants, by way of reflection on the way the theory applies to the practice of each individual. This is the way in which conceptual dialogues are dealt with by the Programme.

According to its coordinators, Lidera values critical thinking based on reflection and dialogue and believes that learning is more profound if knowledge is seen in a broad sense and different ways of incorporating new understanding are provided. One example of this is the incorporation of the methodological triad outlined above and the use of art, music, painting, drama, poetry and story-telling as a way of generating knowledge and interpreting the reality, concepts, meanings, and metaphors of internal and external "worlds" that give rise to new insights and perspectives.

It can thus be seen that the dynamics of a program module involves three dimensions of learning: the cognitive (thinking), the emotional (feeling), and the volitional (wanting). For each of these dimensions, the program works with a group of complementary activities. As can be seen from the diagram below, the passage from the thinking dimension to the wanting dimension is mediated by the feeling dimension. Hence the importance of artistic activities for the program me.

99

Figure 3.1.3 Lideras Dimensions of Learning (Guerra et al, 2007)

The use of art, according to the program coordinators, serves to make a connection between the cognitive and volitional dimensions, using this dimension to work on perceptions related to the feelings, contradictions, and binary oppositions between thinking and acting. Tio Guerra, one of the Lidera facilitators explains his role when he uses music as a methodology: In music workshops, in which one learns to play the recorder and sing in unison, each element of these two activities can be linked to leadership phenomena. Music comprises four basic elements: rhythm, melody, harmony and style. These are all interrelated, melody is composed of notes arranged by rhythm; harmony is composed of the superimposition of two or more lines of melody and so forth. Each element affects and serves the others, in an intrinsic way. Who leads whom among the musical elements depends a lot on who influences whom. There is always a flow of leadership in music; now it is the rhythm, now it is the melody that stands out.(Guerra et al., 2007, p.21 )

Another activity used by Lidera is observation. This has its origins in Goethean observation of reality. For Goethe, the 19th century German scientist and poet, the phenomenon contains the whole possible revelation, although it is only visible to the attentive and educated eye (Goethe apud Guerra et al., 2007); I would add to the interested and cultivated, developed eye (Guerra et al., 2007, p.21).

100

These exercises aim to develop sensory abilities since the perception of reality is the first step towards its transformation. In other words, in the reality I am embedded in, I am the first element to be transformed; my view of reality also forms part of the reality I want to intervene in" (Guerra et al., 2007, p.21).

Another experience the program provides that touches on the inner dimension, in so far as it encourages critical discernment and confrontation of other realities, is the experience that the group undergoes in the third module, when it goes into the field to live with a highly under-privileged community. Describing the purpose of this, Guerra et al. (2007) argue that: Seeking the coherent methodological thread of the program, in this third module, we want the participants to put themselves in this complex place, beyond feeling guilty about the abject poverty in the world or being saviors, we want them to find themselves as individuals who are humanly involved in what they experience. It is as simple as that. (Guerra et al., 2007, p.26) For the Lidera program coordinators leadership for sustainability training goes beyond training in business and social practices or teaching people how to conserve natural resources and conduct business in such a way as to achieve sustainable development. They argue that the program seeks to encourage a life in harmony with the environment in which one is embedded and allows one to take responsibility for oneself and for the whole. This also entails helping people to achieve personal equilibrium and equilibrium with others and with the planet. It also helps people to find meaning in what they are and the place they occupy in the world, as a way of understanding their own destiny as a conscious human being. Francisco Gutirrez

101

(apud Gadotti, 1999) suggests that this level of consciousness helps the individual to take control of his or her own life, arguing that: moving in a certain direction means, above all else, giving meaning to what we do, sharing meanings, filling daily life practices with meaning and understanding the meaninglessness of many other practices that openly or surreptitiously impose themselves upon us (Gutirrez apud Gadotti, 1999). In his reflection on the importance of investing in training the individual to bring about change in the surrounding environment and a more sustainable world, Gadotti (2008) argues that the sustainable development of a society is reproduced, in the final analysis, when each individual chooses a more sustainable style of life. In other words, a more sustainable society depends on changing each one of us and the way of life of each one of us; changing the system means changing people and vice versa (Gadotti, 2008). However, it is not possible to mold the life of an individual unless he or she truly and consciously wants this to happen and is ready to fight for it. Regarding the scale of this challenge Fritjof Capra (2002) reminds us that: Peoples behavior is molded and limited by their cultural identity, which, in turn, reinforces the feeling of belonging to a larger group. Culture is embedded and remains deeply rooted in peoples style of life and this tends to be so deeprooted that we may not even be aware of it most of the time (Capra, 2002 p.99). Allan Kaplan (2005) points to the great insecurity people feel and calls attention to the importance of self-determination in a process of individual change, in which it is necessary to be ready to struggle against the dark forces that emanate from the social environment. He uses the following metaphor to make the point:

102

Like drug addicts, we may even agree that we need to change, but we succumb to the first temptation. Scared to death to let go without having something else to grow attached to, we cannot gain access to the new until we let go of something so we cannot free ourselves... (Kaplan, 2005 p.183) The Lidera coordinators say they are aware of the limitations and challenges involved in the programs capacity to intervene in society as a whole. On this point, Kaplan (2005) reflects that the whole blocks access to that which moves in the depths, since it fears that, once the thread has been discovered, the only alternative will be change and this is always frightening. Recognizing the challenge posed by the innovation that the program seeks to bring about and in an attempt to be consistent with the Action Learning method, the BACI directors state that it is important for Lidera to be a field for research into social intervention and change. The program thus aims to provide different kinds of analysis and learning processes such as: systematizing its methodology (Guerra et al., 2007), evaluating its three editions with former participants (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010) and being the subject of academic research (Cavalcanti, 2007 and Cox, 2010). The aim of all of this is to interpret and appropriate the narrative that the program is writing, improving its performance and broadening its possibilities.

The Lidera Programme coordinators are aware of the intangible nature of the change that the program aims to bring about in its participants and cite the words of Kaplan (2005) when he reflects on the inaccessibility of this process to the effect that the point of metamorphosis remains mysterious...the point where the butterflys wings grow, in the dark of the cocoon... we cannot bring about the moment when it occurs

103

(Kaplan, 2005 p.184).

This leads the program coordinators to acknowledge that

Lideras role in this process is that of ...sustaining and protecting, providing the conditions to make this transformation possible..., and, beyond this, just waiting for the birth of the new to occur of its own accord, and at that point make people recognize that the time has come (Kaplan, 2005 p.184).

However, the program has already produced some visible results. This can be seen in the behavior of some business leaders who have participated in the program and gone on to introduce changes such as BioFairtrade46 and Revertbrasil47 or social initiatives such as Observatrio do Recife48 and Movimento Nossa So Lus49. Another visible sign is the setting up of the Lidera Network, which signals a coming to be, and a making it happen in the Northeast of Brazil, which goes beyond the limitations of the individual or individual company by bringing together networks of companies to take action to make a difference.

Kaplan (2005), uses the image of pebbles in the lake to demonstrate the scale of the challenge and the complexity one confronts when one aims to bring about social change: Like the circles that grow out and overlap when we throw pebbles into different parts of a lake, stories spread out from different centers, bolstering or diminishing others, creating competing eddies, affecting the overall pattern. But, in the depths, the tide pushes and pulls between moon and Earth and waves are formed and break in response. (Kaplan, 2005 p. 181)

46 47

See http://www.biofairtrade.com.br/ See http://www.revertbrasil.com.br/ 48 See http://www.observatoriodorecife.org.br/ 49 See http://www.nossasaoluis.org.br/

104

According to the image used by Kaplan (2005), and, in the view of the coordinators, the aim of the Lidera Program is to throw pebbles in at different points in the lake and provide support for the movement they create, in full awareness of the complexity of the challenge presented by the opposing currents that affect it.

So, as a way of providing the conditions for such a change to be possible... (Kaplan, 2005), the directors of the Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania have decided to set up a Learning Community to strengthen the movements that emerge from Lidera, which, ultimately, will also influence the future of the program by way of the development of a network of former participants.

This is how the idea of action-research outlined below came about. The study deals with a collaborative learning experience with former Lidera Program participants, whose immediate aim is to review and redesign the program with a view to subsequently developing a learning community.

3.3. The Post-Lidera Challenge

In 2010 the Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania took the initiative of carrying out an evaluation of the Lidera Program that involved participants in its first three editions, as a way of reflecting on the results produced, both in personal terms and in the business activities of the former participants. They were also interested in hearing how the group understood the methods, content and meanings adopted as a way of understanding what could be added to encourage these business leaders to continue

105

their process of self-development and translate everything they have learnt into concrete action. Furthermore, there was an underlying concern to strengthen the program and ensure its future continuity, as well as to put together a more extensive network of former participants.

Among the many conclusions this evaluation came up with, one is especially interesting in so far as it reveals the obstacles and contradictions with which the participants were confronted on leaving the Lidera Programme. The study showed that, once their participation in the program had come to an end, the challenges the former participants faced on the outside, were even greater, because they were no longer able to communicate with the other members of the Program group (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010).
REAL WORLD

LIDERA WORLD

Figure 3.2.1 The Challenge of Lidera (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010) The study revealed the concern of the former participants to retain the vision they had acquired when on the Program and their desire to use it in real life and turn it into concrete action. It also pointed to the importance the group gives to remaining in

106

touch and growing in strength by taking action as part of a network. This was explicit in the comments of some former Program participants: No-one wants to live in a retreat cut off from the real world; the great challenge lies in our everyday difficulties; the real world gets in the way of the Lidera world, we lose our focus We cant get distracted, we have to concentrate our efforts in order make change meaningful (former participant in the 2nd edition apud Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010).

The study thus showed how the group sees leaving Lidera as the start of a process of transition. In practice, the desired sustainability, both in their personal and working lives, is something that needs to be built up as part of a process, where each individual needs to find their own way forward, even though the importance of keeping in touch with the group is understood.

LIDERA WORLD

REAL WORLD

Figure 3.2.2 The Transition of Lidera (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010) Therefore, continuing the exchange of experiences, the process of learning and selfdevelopment, taking action in partnership with others, and setting up a space for collective learning and doing is fundamental for the sustainability of the transition process for the group as a whole (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010). This need gave rise to the idea of the Lidera network as a way of integrating these two worlds, and

107

giving rise to new opportunities (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010). Nevertheless, to bring this about, there needs to be a sponsor, who encourages the use of the network for collective learning and action. This gave rise to the learning community.

108

Chapter 4. LIDERA, ACTION-RESEARCH AND COLLABORATIVE LEARNING

In order to create a forum for collective learning and bring about developments that strengthen the Lidera Programme and network, an action-research project was designed to set up a learning community. The idea is to connect with the possibilities that may emerge in future and, at the same time, to experiment with the future one aims to bring about. Or, to use Scharmers terms (2010), to create the opportunity to take part in, or 'prototype', a learning community.

The concept of prototyping, used in Theory U (Scharmer 2010), involves exploring the future through practice and experimentation. 'Prototyping' means putting a product into practice even before its final format has been decided on, and thus learning from the practical application of the 'idea' and being able to adapt it to immediate feedback from experience. In order to prototype efficiently, Scharmer argues (2010) that, one needs to combine three types of intelligence: the intelligence of the mind, the intelligence of the heart, and the intelligence of the hands. However, he warns that one should be alert to the pitfalls of action without reflection. In this case, reflection on action is a commitment taken on by the action research. However, another danger which Scharmer (2010) draws attention to is that of reflection without action. He argues that this depends exclusively on the possibility of the group keeping in touch and their desire to make the future happen. However, in his experience, Scharmer (2010) claims that the production of an initial prototype helps to create enthusiasm and commitment on the part of all involved in the process.

109

It was thus decided to conduct action-research into a collaborative learning community, which is described in the next section.

4.1. Collaborative Learning and the Community of Practice According to Capra (2002), who we are, how we perceive the world and how we live are questions that involve self-knowledge, including understanding how we think, how we express our thoughts and also how we produce our world(Capra, 2002 p.78). Going further, Maturana & Varela (apud Capra, 2002) argue that the world we create is not exactly the real world, but a world that is made up of abstract thoughts, concepts, beliefs, mental images, intentions and self-awareness (Capra, 2002). In the view of this author, human consciousness is not just a biological, but also a social phenomenon organized around relationships, communication, and culture (Capra, 2002 p. 66). This can be seen, for example, in a conversation between two people, where concepts, ideas, emotions and movements are joined together in a choreography of behavioral coordination which, according to Maturana (apud Capra, 2002) goes beyond the mere transmission of information and is transformed into a series of mutual interactions that can trigger changes simultaneously in both people involved (Capra 2002).

It is through a process of exchange and conscious reflection that people come up with concepts, values, beliefs, objectives and strategies, which, when integrated into the collective through communication, bring about a shared social and cultural world. This system of common shared values and beliefs creates an identity that takes root in

110

peoples lives and shapes their behavior (Capra 2002). According to this author, this tends to go so deep that we remain unaware of it most of the time (Capra, 2002 p.99). It can thus be concluded that the members of a living community continuously produce and transform one another, creating new connections (ideas, projects, ways of thinking and acting), and these changes guide their future behavior.

Capra (2002) also argues that continuous structural change caused by contact with the environmentfollowed by continuous adaptation, learning and developmenthas been a constant feature of human history (Capra 2002 p.50, 51). This means that there is a whole of which we form a part. This whole of which we are a part, which may constitute a community or a wider universe, entails a feeling of belonging and being a part, which gives deep meaning to peoples lives (Capra, 2002).

In general it is implied that learning only occurs as a result of teaching, separated from the rest of everyday life, and that the process has a beginning and an end (Wenger, 1998 p.3). However, the simple fact of being alive as human beings implies that we are constantly engaged, or in search of initiatives of all kinds, as a way of ensuring our physical survival or producing something meaningful in our lives. Thus, as we work on these initiatives, we interact with the environment in which they occur, and act in harmony with others and the world. We learn through this relational process, or, in the words of Lave (1993) "learning is present in every activity we are engaged in, although it is often not recognized as such" (Lave, 1993 p.5).

111

Thus, according to Barkley et al. (2005), in the middle of the 20th century, people began to realize that knowledge cannot be simply transferred from teachers to students. Students need to build up their own knowledge by way of the assimilation of information and based on their own understanding. In other words, meaning only comes about in a personal way, with active engagement on the part of the learner (Barkley et al., 2005).

Learning thus gains in importance as one moves from the individual to the collective plane, and ceases to value the work of each alone to give importance to the exchange and construction of knowledge in a group through collaborative processes. On this point, Pallof & Pratt argue that collaborative, group learning provides more in-depth knowledge and, at the same time, teaches people to be less individualistic and to act collectively in an interdependent fashion. These are fundamental abilities for todays world (Pallof & Pratt, 2002) and collaborative learning is now increasingly used in education.

Marta Kohl (1997) argues that the great educational theorist, Vygotsky tried to understand the origin and development of the psychological processes involved in learning. He discovered that contact between the individual and a certain cultural environment may make it possible to arouse internal development processes. For Vygotsky (apud Kohl, 1997), the levels of development may be: real, when referring to things that a person has already achieved, what has already been learnt and mastered, which indicates that mental processes have already been established with mature

112

functions; and potential, when referring to that which a person is capable of doing with the help of another.

Between real development of the individual and potential development, there is the proximal development zone (PDZ), which defines those functions that are still maturing, that will mature, or are still in an embryonic state. Vygotsky (apud Kohl, 1997) wants to draw attention to the fact that this becomes especially significant in the education of children, since, even with the intermediation of adults, children are not prepared for certain tasks. However, we can go further argue that it is no different when adults are learning, given the huge learning potential to be developed in the course of a human lifetime.

In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences Gardner (1994) states, right at the beginning of the book, that: ". . . There is persuasive evidence of the existence of various human intellectual skills that are fairly autonomous, which shall henceforth be abbreviated as 'human intelligences'. These are the 'structures of the mind' I mention in the title. The exact nature and extent of each individual structure has not as yet been satisfactorily determined, nor has the exact number of intelligences been established. It seems, however, to be increasingly difficult to deny the claim that there are at least some intelligences, that these are relatively independent from one another, and that they can be shaped and combined in a multiplicity of adaptive ways by individuals and cultures" (Gardner, 1994, p. 7). Gardner thus suggests the importance of continuous learning throughout life to build up peoples skills, as they are stimulated by the context of their own learning and by life experiences. However, with his theory of the PDZ, Vygotsky stresses that he is proposing learning activities that lie outside of this zonewhen too many abstract

113

concepts and demands are interacting or when information contradicts established beliefs and values. This may be unproductive if the multiple intelligences the learner might have are not taken into account (apud Kohl, 1997). In a situation like this, pedagogical intervention may open the way for playfulness and the promotion of learning that separates the object of study from its direct meaning (Kohl,1997).The PDZ theory combines with the primordial instance of acts of mediation, which leads to the growing choice of collaborative learning for development processes, especially when working with adults.

Apart from aspects related to teaching proper, there are others that led to choice of collaborative learning as the method to be adopted by the action research we carried out with the group of former Lidera participants.

According to Gardner (1994), interpersonal intelligence, which involves the ability to work in cooperation with others in a group and an aptitude for verbal and non-verbal communication, builds the capacity to perceive more than is revealed by the standard patterns of communication. For example, the capacity to note changes in other peoples moods, temperament and the motivations and intentions of others. The development of these skills even makes it possible to read things that others are trying to hide, such as desires and intentions, bringing about empathy with the feelings, fears and beliefs of others (Gardner, 1994). From another perspective, these features are also valued by Barkley et al. (2005) when they argue that the growing diversity of global society will increasingly demand that its

114

citizens engage in different kind of relations. At the same time, more challenges at local, national, and global level will require collective, interactive responses. Thus, learning to listen carefully, think critically, participate in a constructive way, and collaborate productively to solve problems that are common to many will be the vital components of education for the citizens of the 21st century.

Collaborative learning was thus chosen for this study, in the belief that it is a way of leading the group to the intended future, given that: Collaborative Learning can be defined as a set of methods and learning techniques for use in structured groups, along with strategies for developing mixed skills (learning and personal and social development), where each member of the group is responsible for his or her own learning and for the learning of the others (Ncleo Minerva, 2001). It is worth pointing out that there are authors who work on this subject who draw a distinction between collaboration and cooperation. For example, Ted Panitz (1996) distinguishes the two concepts, arguing that Collaboration is a philosophy of interaction and a personal style of life, while cooperation is structure of interaction designed to facilitate the attainment of a final objective. However, he adds that collaboration, apart from being a philosophy of interaction and a personal style of life, is a kind of group relation where individuals are responsible for learning acts that respect the sills and contributions of peerssharing authority and accepting joint responsibility for the actions of the group (Panitz,1996). Thus, according to this writer: The underlying premise of collaborative learning is based on a consensus achieved through cooperation of members of a group, in contrast to competition, which encourages the existence of individuals who are more capable than others in the group (Panitz,1996).

115

So, although there are subtle differences in these definitions, they all seem to move in the same direction towards a learning process where the learner is an agent and where shared action and mutual aid are encouraged as a way of building up collective knowledge. Principles relating to both concepts are therefore adopted here, even though we have chosen to use the expression collaborative learning.

After reading various authors on the factors that led to the choice of collaborative learning for this action, an affinity was found with the approach adopted by the Ncleo Minerva da Universidade de vora (2001) - NMUE at a time when knowledge is seen as collective construction in a climate of participation, interaction, collaboration and evaluation.

Thus, in alignment with the proposal that promoting group development entails creating a space that is rich in opportunities (NMUE, 2001), we started out from the principle that collaborative learning seeks: Interdependence each member of the group is responsible for his or her own learning and for helping other group members learn. All the members interact and contribute to the success of the activity. The researcher, who is also a member of the group, has the additional function of drawing up the documents to be worked on and the strategy to be followed in using them. Interaction encouraging group relations as a way of developing the abilities of the group to work collectively in a collaborative manner. Responsiveness each group member must assume their task and make space and time available to share their discoveries with the group and, in turn, to receive and interact with the contributions coming from the group. Convergence none of the members of the group should place themselves ostensibly in the position of a leader or specialist, but must be conscious of

116

the equal standing of all in terms of competence and knowledge. Activities are designed in such a way as to promote collaboration and convergence. Evaluation - this is carried out periodically to observe the functionality of the group, to seek methods for analyzing the process and its results by way of a series of questions, observations regarding group interaction, and individual interviews or group dialogues. In view of the factors suggested above, which sum up the arguments made by the NMUE (2001) and the research conducted by Barkley et al. (2005 p.14-25), we can assume that collaborative learning adds value to development processes. It can thus be said that this method: 1. makes it possible to achieve results that are qualitatively richer in content since it works with a diversity of information, suggestions and solutions coming from the group; 2. stimulates positive interdependence among group participants being responsible for ones own learning and that of others enabling interaction and awareness of ones responsibility for oneself and others; 3. encourages people to value others and to identify and use the groups preexisting talents and experiences; 4. stimulates interest, commitment and trust among the participants, by bringing them closer together and exchanging ideas that already exist in the group; 5. transforming learning into a social activity and developing relationship skills; 6. Autonomous production of knowledge increases the satisfaction of the participants with what has been produced. 7. encourages critical thinking and an open mind; 8. reinforces the idea that each member of the group can take on the role of instructor; 9. helps to counter shyness and fear of criticism and boosts self-confidence and self-esteem;

117

10. Strengthens feelings of solidarity and mutual respect. 11. Encourages self-criticism, in so far as the group is encouraged to evaluate its own work. However, Barkley et al. (2005) also note some points raised by research that has shown the need to take special care with regard to collaborative learning processes, including the following: 1. The design, planning and monitoring of the processes should facilitate group study as much as possible. 2. Different levels of knowledge in the group require in-depth discussion and the participation of all members, if learning is to occur. The size of the group can thus determine the quality of the exchange of information and the results achieved. 3. Different rhythms and levels of commitment regarding work may lead to some members of the group taking on more work than others. This may lead to discontent. 4. The lack of objectivity of some members may lead to distraction in discussions and inefficient use of group time. Barkley et al. (2005) note that there are almost no studies of unsuccessful groups, although they point out that there is strong evidence that collaborative learning brings various advantages to the processes of acquiring and mastering knowledge in wellstructured and monitored groups.

When these collaborative processes reflect both the search for individual interests and social interests, the result is a stimulating relation, which, over time, produces the necessary link for building up a community that aims to continue the joint undertaking

118

they have started work on. This relation may thus give rise to the existence of communities of practice (Wenger, 1998). Communities of practice, according to Wenger (2007) are: groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and who want to learn about how to do it better by way of regular group interaction(Wenger, 2007). The characteristics of these communities of practice vary. Some turn into organizations, others are more flexible and informal. However, their members are united by mutual interests, common activities and by what they are learning through their contributions and interaction during activities (Wenger, 1998). It is important to note that, although communities of practice may be everywhere, not every community can be considered a practical community. (Wenger 1998, 2007).

According to Wenger (2007), three key elements need to be combined for a practical community to occur and these differentiate it any other kind of group or community. These are: The domain - when the community is defined by shared interests and possesses its own identity. Its members feel committed to the focus of interest of the group and to sharing their skills with the group. This is different from a member of any other type of group of people interested in a subject. Facebook, for example, would not be considered a practical community. The community active members in search of a common focus, engaged in shared activities and discussions, helping one another mutually to exchange knowledge and information, and building relations that allow them to learn from one another. Although interaction between members who are learning together is a fundamental characteristic of a practical community, there is no need for daily interaction. The author gives the example of the Impressionist painters, who met in cafs and studios to discuss the style of painting they were developing together, even though each one painted alone and had his own identity.

119

Practice It is not enough to be a group of cinema-buffs to become a practical community. The members of this kind of community are actual practitioners, which means that they build up together a repertoire of experiences, histories, tools and ways of approaching recurrent problems. This kind of interaction is built up over time and in a continuous fashion (Wenger, 2007). By developing and bringing together these elements a practical community is created. (Wenger, 2007).

Taking these theoretical factors as the guide for evaluation, the experience presented in the following sections will allow us to see in practice the challenges and opportunities that arise from the creation of a collaborative learning community.

4.2.

An experience in Action Research and Collaborative Learning

The proposal for setting up a collaborative learning group that would also review the current Lidera Programme curriculum led to action research with former program participants with a view to creating an opportunity for integration around study and reflection on the content of the curriculum. Through collaboration and the exchange of experiences a dynamic learning process emerged, which continuously came up with new ideas in the course of four months, with the involvement of all. The group was able to see Lidera in different ways and get a new take on its vision, mission, and objectives and be aware of a new dimension of the program, to which they had not previously had access. This process gave rise to new questions that guided the review of each program model, the choice of new content, and helped the group to discover subjects that better fit the new mission and established objectives. In the end, in addition to promoting self-directed learning and training the group, this experience

120

also suggests new ways forward for Lidera, with the possibility of forming a group of local facilitators by way of a learning and practice community. This chapter outlines the details of this action research experience.

4.2.1 Aims of the Action The overall objective of this initiative was: To set up a forum for training of local Lidera facilitators, which could become a learning unit capable of stimulating and providing support for former program participants, allowing them to take joint action as a network. The specific objectives were thus: - to prove in practice the viability of a learning community involving business leaders; - to find effective ways of enabling a continuous learning process to take place alongside the everyday activities of people with a heavy work load; - to establish the possibilities and limitations of a training process that involves collaborative learning and self-directed learning with the use of virtual tools; - to identify what is needed for the setting up of a group of local facilitators for the Lidera Program; - to understand how the existence of an active learning community comprising former Lidera program participants might strengthen networked activities.

121

4.2.2. Methods In the search for answers to these questions and with a view to generating practical knowledge and solving the problems arising, it was decided to carry out actionresearch, of an applied and qualitative nature. The aim was to use the process itself, the meanings, the relations and the whole environment created as a direct source of data collection, interpreting this information in an inductive and descriptive manner. The investigation also sought to identify the determining factors or those that contributed to the phenomena that emerged during the activities, taking into consideration the experimental character of the group formed. It was established that all participants, learners and the facilitator/researcher be actively involved in the process as equals.

The rationale behind this research is not linear, since it is understood that, nowadays more than ever, science does not arise from the predictable and the visible. There is therefore no single logic capable of dealing with the complex world of scientific investigation, especially in the social sciences (Feyerabend, 1989; Popper, 1993). It was thus important to use a combination of methods that could broaden opportunities for analysis and production of answers to the research questions posed. The basis was Hegels dialectic (Kojve, 2002), in which contradictions are considered relevant and a solution is sought in the interpretation of the dynamics of the real world. It was thus considered that the facts could not be interpreted if they were detached from the context in which they occurred. Furthermore, according to Husserl (1990), socially constructed phenomena are understood to be those that are communicated and

122

interpreted and an attempt was thus made to be alert to the various possible interpretations, bearing in mind that there are as many realities as there are ways of interpreting and communicating. The importance of the subject in the knowledgebuilding process is thus acknowledged (Gil, 1999; Trivinos, 1992). Phenomenology thus plays an important role in the interpretation of the research data.

Starting out from these principles, we also, as a way of conducting the process, used a combination of two methods: appreciative inquiry and collaborative learning.

Appreciative inquiry (Coperrider & Whitney, 2006 ), was used especially in the first and second stages, fulfilling the role of involving the group in a procedural and systematic form of instruction that motivated and encouraged them to build up knowledge based on positive situations that could be more effective. This was especially useful in establishing new directions for the program. According to Coperrider & Whitney (2006), this way of working lays stress on the route of investigation, innovation and imagination, highlighting positive aspects rather than evaluating, criticizing, or carrying out diagnoses. The method uses positive questions to strengthen the capacity of the group to assimilate and predict and to stress their potential (Coperrider & Whitney, 2006). We thus started out on the assumption that each member of the group would have different sources and resources deriving from tacit knowledge, which "tells" of its own capacities, and has the power to bring about innovation and changes in the group. This method seeks to exploit the positive potential of these sources and resources and to encourage change in the group (Coperrider et al. 2009).

123

Appreciative inquiry uses a four-stage process: 1) DISCOVERIES (identification of organizational processes that functioned well in the past); 2) DREAMS (projection of what could function well into the future); 3) DESIGN (planning and prioritization f processes that could function well); 4) DESTINATION (implementation and execution of the project proposal. According to Evans (apud Forgaty, 2007), although Appreciative inquiry seeks to bring out positive stories and ask questions that involve the imagination of the participant, it does not overlook the tensions. Tensions and challenges are identified by the "facilitators", who consider these in terms of "what could be done to make them better?". For Bushe (apud Forgaty, 2007), this way of carrying out an investigation deals with social and psychological reality as a product of the moment, opening the way to a process of continuous reconstruction. Forgaty points out that a combination of action research and the appreciative method of investigation leads to the involvement of participants as co-researchers, which expands the emancipatory character of action research (Forgaty, 2007). On the same point, Troxel (2002) remarks that Appreciative inquiry stimulates the generative capacity of action research and challenges the assumptions that guide the existing culture, encouraging a re-thinking of received wisdom and thus throws up new initiatives. He goes on to argue that Appreciative inquiry provides the members of an organization with the opportunity to retell the story of the organization in a way that looks to the future. In other words, making the future of the organization emerge from situations that have occurred or are occurring in the life of the organization itself (Troxel, 2002).

124

These were the reasons for choosing to use this method for this research. During the research process, Appreciative inquiry was combined and alternated with Collaborative Learning, a method that acts as a guiding thread, according to the methodology outlined in the first section of this chapter.

4.2.3. Creation and Profile of the Group The group initially comprised a dozen former participants in the first three editions of the Lidera Program, including students, facilitators and coordinators (directors and executives from the Instituto Ao Empresarial pela Cidadania). It was a fairly mixed group, comprising men and women of different ages, with different educational backgrounds and work experience. There were businessmen and women, liberal professional, consultants and executives. These people were mostly based in the city of Recife in the Northeast of Brazilthough some of them lived in other cities and one in another country. The research activities were carried out alongside an intensive work agenda, including travel and everyday activities, continuously, over a period of four months.

The characteristics of the group, made up people who are demanding and highly selective in their use of time, meant that there was a constant need to find ways of working that fitted their needs and limitations, while at the same time facilitating their participation as much as possible.

In order to meet our ethical obligation of protecting the confidentiality of all those involved, this dissertation will refer to the participants using the following code: P1;

125

P2; P3; P4; P5; P6; P7; P8; P9; P10; P11; P12;

4.2.3.1 The Multiple Roles of the Facilitator As is the practice in action research, the researcher also played the role of facilitator and participant.

Furthermore, in an effort to ensure transparency and the ability to analyze her own position in the context, it is important to note that the researcher was one of the cofounders of the Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania and was among those who designed, coordinated and facilitated the Lidera Program. This naturally implies that the researcher had a pre-existing relationship with the participants and an interest in the expected results. It is therefore important to demonstrate the challenge of this position and the strong commitment to rigorous and crucial analysis of the data and the program practices that was required.

126

4.2.4. Description of the Research and Collaboration Process The project began in early March 2011 with the sending of an e-mail invitation to the 48 participants in the three editions of the Lidera Program. Of these, eleven showed an interest in participating and a group of twelve was therefore formed, including the facilitator/researcher.

Given the profile of the group, outlined above, efforts were made to use virtual resources, in particular, e-mails, SMS and Skype. E-mail was the main means of communication, with SMS as a backup, and Skype was used for one-to-one or group meetings. There were also occasional face-to-face meetings at the conclusion of the main stages in the process. Group activities were divided into four stages and concluded in the first week of July of the same year.

In the first phase, an attempt was made to set up the group and establish the bases for action. An initial e-mail was sent to the group, with instructions on the first part of this phase.

The group task for this first step was the reading of documents on the methods to be used, sent in attachments to the initial e-mail. The group was also asked to answer some questions that would help to characterize this initial phase of the project, recording their expectations and establishing some accords. The responses sent by each participant were put into a spreadsheet to build up an idea of the expectations and the accords that had been agreed by the group, which would guide the project from that point on.

127

The group also drew up and approved a timetable of activities and a document containing a detailed plan of all activities.

In the second part of this phase, a communication was sent to the group suggesting the division of the group into subgroups of three or four participants. The aim of this was to simplify the scheduling of face-to-face meetings, to divide up tasks, and to enable in-depth discussion and a more efficient learning process. The idea was that the tasks and discussions be carried out, face-to-face in the subgroups, discussed in depth, and the results brought for final discussion and consolidation with the group as a whole. The final results would be drawn up in a meeting of the large group, which could be face-to-face and/or via Skype.

The idea was accepted in principle and three groups were formed: two of four people and one of three. However, this came up against practical difficulties and the group suggested returning to the model used for the first part of this stage. It was thus proposed that each participant produce his or her contributions individually and then share/discuss and consolidate these with the group as a whole. The role of the facilitator would be to act as an intermediary and produce documents summing up the findings at the end of each stage.

This was an extremely important phase for deciding how the group would work and how the project would progress. Everybody made an active contribution, with the exception of only one member of the group. However, at the end of this stage, two participants voluntarily left the group, P11 and P12, and the group continued with ten

128

members.

This phase also established an agreement with one of the members of the group, participant P1, to the effect that would help the facilitator with planning and drawing up the documents and the steps to be carried out in each phase. This agreement was kept and remained in place right up to the end and was of fundamental importance in making the research project viable.

The content and procedures used for the first phase are presented, in the original Portuguese version, in Appendix 1.

In the second phase, an initial e-mail was again sent containing instructions on the next steps and procedures that would lead the group to establish the guidelines to be followed in reviewing all the Lidera Program content. Supporting documents and guidelines on the methodology to be used (Appreciative inquiry) and on course curriculum design were attached. Using appreciative inquiry, this phase sought to establish guidelines for analysis and planning of Lidera program content, by way of stimulating the collaborative capacity of the group. The approach used was to ask positive questions as a way of encouraging the existing seeds of change to sprout in each member of the group.

As mentioned above, this process was initially planned to be part of the work in small groups, to be consolidated with the group as a whole. However, after the first week schedule for this activity passed, the participants began to find it difficult to hold the

129

envisaged small group meetings. As a result, the group itself suggested using a methodology similar to that used in the first stage. Procedural documents were immediately adjusted for the new process, which was subsequently adopted.

The aim of this phase was to complete three of the four steps in the Appreciative Inquiry cycle. 1) Discovery; 2) Dream; 3) Planning; and 4)Destiny. (Cooperrider et al. 2009)

Figure 4.2.4.1. Appreciative Inquiry 4-D Cycle based on Cooperrider et al.(2009, p.181)

The first step in this phase was to understand which elements enlivened the Lidera Program and to discover the values that led Lidera to successfully complete three editions. This would lead to the drawing up of possibilities for the future.

Each member of the group was invited to look at the discoveries and pick out the key factors for success in the past and, in an innovative manner, seek to identify

130

opportunities and possibilities that the future might bring for Lidera and translate them into dreams. These dreams were put together into a vision for the future of the program and an attempt was made to design a way of achieving it. Each member thus drew up his or her own proposal for the Programs vision and mission.

Subsequently, these individual plans sought the means that would make the dream now translated in a vision and a mission possible. In other words, they sketched out (designed) objectives and goals capable of making the dream come true.

This exercise resulted in a spreadsheet containing the discoveries and dreams of the whole group, which was summed up in a face-to-face meeting, to serve as a tool for building up the groups collective vision and mission for the Lidera Program. A two-hour meeting was insufficient to conclude this work, although it did give rise to the key ideas that would be used to establish Lideras Vision, Mission, and Objectives. This was done by setting up a small group comprising the facilitator and participants P1 and P8.

The second step in this phase involved drawing up the guidelines established in the small-group meeting to build up the programs vision, mission and objectives. This was then ratified by the larger group on-line. Thus the basis was built up for the third stage, which involved the review of the Lidera program content. It also created the necessary conditions for achieving the envisaged Destiny, the final objective of the cycle of appreciative inquiry, seeking to ensure that the expected results are achieved. Activities aiming to achieve this Destiny were carried out in the fourth phase.

131

In the second phase, important changes were made to the methodology as a way of meeting the demands of the group. These changes would have an impact on the learning of the group throughout the process, but would allow them to continue participating.

This phase was fundamental because it established the direction that the following stage would take. The content and procedures for the second phase are presented, in the original Portuguese, in Appendix 2.

In the third phase, the group began reviewing the Lidera Program curriculum. As the program is organized into five modules, the aim of this phase was to understand using the guidelines established in the previous phasethat the content, understandings, views, values and abilities could be developed by the Lidera participants during each module. The aim was also to imagine what outcome we wished to produce for the participants in the course of the five modules, and this helped us to build upstep by stepeach module of the program.

As outlined above, the Lidera Program works with its participants on: thinking, feeling and wanting. However, given the logistical and methodological limitations of the process, it was only possible to work on the thinking section. This was a decision taken by the researcher, after realizing that thinking is the point of change and that the guidelines that are established at this stage can easily be reworked for the others.

132

This phase began in April and was scheduled to conclude at the end of June. However, with only two months to work on five modules, it was found to be impossible to produce the required in-depth analysis of all the program contentincluding reading and discussion of the documents and booksas well as mastering any new content. The researcher thus adopted a strategy that enabled the group to acquire a general idea of the new content, in view of the fact that they were already familiar with the program content, since they had participated in it themselves. It was thus necessary to prepare the group for a more dynamic reading, providing information on how to read academic writing and apply critical thinking skills. Furthermore, for each module, a bibliography was supplied to guide the participants in the direction of reviews and articles on the recommended books on the Internet. As a supplementary document, the participants also received texts summing up the main themes to be worked on in each module as a way of bringing the group into alignment in conceptual terms. At the end of the process, the group would no longer, therefore, be expected to build up a new agenda for the Lidera content, but mere suggestions for a possible future revision of the program agenda.

As Theory U is the guiding thread that connects the Lidera modules, Otto Scharmers Theory U: Leading from the future as it emerges (2010) was the main text used. Starting out from the given questions, the work of each module began with individual and face-to-face or virtual group meetings (by e-mail and Skype) to discuss and consolidate the suggestions proposed for each module.

133

For each module, the first step was to establish the proposal for the stage, reflecting with the group on the following questions: What do the Lidera Vision, Mission, and Proposals require for this Module? In light of this, what questions should guide this Module? Which ideas answer these questions? What is the purpose of this Module?

The group worked on these questions individually and sent their ideas to the facilitator, who put them all in a spreadsheet, which was shared, discussed and consolidated into a proposal and guiding questions for the module.

Then, in the second step the participants read the materials on the books and texts suggested for the module. The group was then invited to reflect on the old agenda for the module, in light of the guiding thread that links the modules and focusing on the content. This led to evaluation of the content of each module in light of the following questions: 1. What content meets the needs of this Module? 2. What parts of the old content are fully in keeping with the proposals and should be retained? 3. What parts are partially in keeping with the proposals and need to be modified? What can be changed? 4. What new content might meet the new needs of the module? 5. In light of these suggestions, what recommendations can be made for this module in the future?

134

Once again, all the responses were sent to the facilitator who put them in a spreadsheet, which was finalized at a face-to-face/Skype meeting to discuss the directions that each model could take.

In this phase, in addition to producing recommendations for possible changes to the five Lidera Program modules, the group also created the conditions for familiarizing themselves with the program content and its methodology. This process varied from person to person.

The materials and procedures used for this third phase are presented, in the original Portuguese, in Appendix 3.

The process was finally concluded in the first week of July 2011. For this fourth phase a face-to-face group meeting had originally been planned for the group to use the material produced in the previous phases to draw up recommendations for the future Lidera Program curriculum, to evaluate the process as a group, and to plan the continuation of the learning process of those interested in becoming Lidera facilitators. However, due to a number of timetabling problems in the third phase, it was necessary to add one days work with the group in order to conclude the work on Module 4 and move on to Module 5.

This two-day meeting was supposed to be conducted by an external facilitator. However, in the end, the group decided to facilitate the meeting itself. The two days were thus divided into activities coordinated by five members of the group.

135

The meeting began with re-evaluation and redesign of the document containing Lideras Vision, Mission, Objectives and Expected Results. This document underwent important adjustments, which made it clear that the limitations of the Programme regarding promoting change were understood. It was thus fundamental that the wording of the Lidera vision, mission, and objectives expressly stated that the results would depend on each participant and their degree of commitment to the activities to be carried out.

The group then worked on Modules 4 and 5, concluding the activities of the third phase and completing the cycle of recommendations for the future program curriculum. After this, there was an overall evaluation and the group as a whole was given the opportunity to discuss the following question: What did this four-month process of revision and construction bring for Lidera?

Reflection on this question guided the next activity, which involved establishing possible guidelines for the continuity of the group.

The tangible results of these two days and of the four months of collaborative work with the group of former Lidera Programme participants were as follows:

1. A document outlining the Lidera Programmes: a) Vision for 2016 - To be a point of reference as a successful transformative program for business leaders who join forces with other sectors of society in a network to take effective action to bring about sustainable development in the Northeast region of Brazil.

136

b) Mission To develop business leaders who join forces in a network with other sectors of society to take action that aims to transform society and introduce sustainable development. c) Objectives To promote the development of views, knowledge and understanding (Thinking) relating to: - A view of Human Beings, their historical evolution as Political Beings; - Social, economic, and environmental settings. - A contextual view of the world, the country, and the region (crises and demands); - Ecology and (personal, corporate, social, political, economic, and environmental) sustainability and corporate social responsibility; - Understanding corporations, their economic and social functions, their profit motive, and the difference between economic growth and sustainable development. - Concepts relating to: equity, social justice, and new dynamics of economic business relations. - Social initiatives, partnerships, inter-sector cooperation, and networks. d) Expected Results: - To have raised awareness of the role of the leader as a protagonist and agent of social transformation; - To have inspired the participants to make changes in their companies; - To have provided knowledge of how to adopt more sustainable practices; - To have developed skills that aid the establishment of relations with other sectors of society; - To have fostered a commitment to a new way of working in the field of sustainable development; - To have fostered convergence and engagement in the Lidera Network. 2. Document containing the following guidelines and recommendations for the Lidera Program: a) Module 1: - Purpose: To understand the history and the context of the world, the country and the region in which one lives; to become aware of ones relation to oneself and to others, and our

137

interdependence with the whole, with all people and ones role in building a more sustainable future. - Guiding Questions: What are the history and the context of the world in which we are embedded? Where are we going? What connections are there between me and this world? What is my purpose and role in this? Who am I? What do I do and how do I do it? How do I relate to myself and to others? What does development mean for me? What is my development path? b) Module 2: - Purpose: To broaden the vision of the leader and his or her role in integrating individual action with that of the company and of society, with a view to bringing about changes that lead to sustainable development of the region. - Guiding questions: How does a leaders vision influence the life/development of his or her company/organization? How do I influence the relation of my company with and operation in diverse sectors in an interdependent society? How can the work of the organization influence the sustainable development of the region? How does sustainability suggest that business be conducted or done differently in my company? c) Module 3: - Purpose: To provide the participant with an experience and understanding of the social and environmental reality in which he or she is embedded. To provide an opportunity to awaken a desire for change; a capacity to be resilient; awareness of interdependence; and commitment to contributing to the transformation of the social and environmental context of the region. - Guiding questions: What is the context I am embedded in and how does its development dynamics work? How is this reality related to me? And my business? What lessons can I learn from this experience for a more sustainable personal and professional life?

138

d) Module 4: - Purpose: to awaken participants to a new sustainable way operating in the world. - Guiding questions: How to bring about changes in beliefs, values, policies and practices in myself and in my business? How to address social, environmental and economic interests? How can my practices be more sustainable? 3) Module 5: - Purpose: To foster commitment to a new agenda for working in the field of sustainable development and engagement in the corporate responsibility movement. - Guiding questions: How can I take what I have learnt at Lidera out into the world? What is my commitment to continuing my learning? What motivates me to continue on this path? What is the word we want and what kind of world can we bring about? The purpose of these guidelines is to establish the content and the methods to be used for each program module in the future. The group also produced a document outlining the action that will be taken to provide continuity for the learning process of those interested in becoming Lidera facilitators and also some initiatives that we intend to carry out to strengthen the Lidera network, as presented below. Self-Development Plan and Preparation for Lidera 5 Given that: 1) LIDERA aims to foster sustainability in all the senses of the word; 2) The GA(learning group)participants wish to become ongoing LIDERA facilitators and/or collaborators; 3) There is a need to produce content focusing on LIDERA, both for internal purposes and for society at large; We propose a self-development plan for people from the GA, which will involve the following:

139

Initiative 1:

i) ii)

iii)

iv) v)

Each participant will select a study topic from the list drawn up for Lidera and from a bibliography. At the end of each focused study session, participants will produce or recommend the texts to be used by the participants during the seminar and write a monograph on the chosen topic, stressing the applicability of the literature studied for the Lidera program materials and Lidera in general, and will share the text with the other GA participants, to debate (if they so desire).A deadline will be negotiated with the group. Thirty days after sending the monograph, after making adjustments based on the debates, the participant will put together a presentation of the content. The place and time of the presentation will be at the discretion of each participant. Ao Empresarial may invite other members of the Lidera network to attend, in order for new contributions to be gleaned from this plenary session; 30 days after the presentation, the participant will make any necessary adjustments to the content, and send it to the GA for ratification. The study texts and the monographs will be made available on Lideras site, for consultation by future monitors, facilitators and also by members of the network who wish to learn more about the topics.

Initiative 2: i) ii) The GA participants may and should be present in planning and evaluation meetings that will be held during the 4th edition of LIDERA; Occasional cases, witnesses and other activities forming part of the 4th Edition of LIDERA that involve former participants in the previous editions should give priority to the presence of members of the GA group; or, a member of the GA will dedicate themselves, along with the presenter, to studying and presented the case in a contextualized manner.

Initiative 3: i) The GA participants should seek training courses and other initiatives that involve them as facilitators, such as, for example: social pedagogy, storytelling, how to ask questions, and so forth; Initiative 4: i) Alongside the development of specific content for Lidera (initiative 1.), the GA should validate the basic bibliography for use on the program (Theory U, etc.) ii) The GA should select one or two books at a time and organize reading and study groups (e.g. periodic meetings where one of the readers is

140

responsible for summarizing one of the chapters for the others and encouraging questions and debate).

Study Bibliography Theory U Otto Scharmer (leading from the future as it emerges) The Necessary Revolution Peter Senge et al. (how individuals and organizations are working together to create a sustainable world) Presence - Otto Scharmer, Peter Senge et al. Synchronicity Joe Javorvisky The Millennium Project United Nations On Resilience Unfinished Business (text) On Sustainability (text) On Systematic Thinking (text) (Current Lidera Content) The Evolution of Human Consciousness/ Mega-Tendencies (text) Brazilian Handmaidens (text) From Entropy to Social Ecology (text) The Phases of Human Development (text) The Myth of Ulysses (Homers Odyssey) An Integrated View of Human Beings and Nature (text) Habilitogram (text) Aid (text) Values/Mission/Philosophy of Life (text) Corporate Responsibility (text) The Social Agenda (text) The other results of this process will be examined in the next sections of this study and can be summed in the following remark made by participant P4, during the group evaluation in the last meeting: Im not going to say much, because I dont want to repeat things. The three previous speakers have covered what I have to say, but I just want to add that I used to think that a business was doing well and getting positive results only if I could see something concrete that satisfied me at the end. But here I learnt that

141

thats not the case, that the process alone generates knowledge. Regardless of how you reach the end. The process generates knowledge, matures what we are doing. All we did on-line, by e-mail and Skype and are now doing face-to-face, at the very least, put down more foundations, brought us more into line, left us feeling more alive and generated commitment. This helps a lot for the future sustainability of the program. I think its very good for Lidera.(P4)50 The content, procedures and final documents for this fourth phase can be found, in the original Portuguese, in Appendix 4.

4.2.5. Analysis of the Process

The experience of this action research sought to bring together the Lidera Programme, its former participants and methods that provide support for collaborative learning. It also created an environment that enabled people to pick up and work with various interests and issues that surround them and which would certainly emerge and interfere with the process. Questions such as: Is it possible to bring together businesspeople, with their hectic day-to-day lives, in collaborative learning process? Can former Lidera Programme participants become program facilitators? Can new facilitators be developed locally? Does this action provide new guidelines for the Lidera curriculum? What influence does this action have on the next edition of the program, which is already underway, and vice versa? What does this action reveal about the future of the Lidera network?

A strategy was thus drawn up of bringing a group of former Lidera Programme participants together around collaborative learning, with the immediate objective of
50

Appendix 5/Evaluating Action /3-Final Evaluation in group

142

revising the program curriculum and suggesting new guidelines, but also to create the opportunity to respond to these and other questions regarding the future of the Programme. The overall objective was, therefore, as follows:

To set up a forum for the training of local Lidera facilitators, which might become a continuous learning unit capable of stimulating and providing support for the development of former program participants, thereby allowing them to take action as a network. This proposal was to examine the follow aspects of the initiative: 1. The feasibility of a learning community of business leaders; 2. Effective ways of creating continuous learning processes alongside the dayto-day activities of people with a heavy work load; 3. The possibilities and limitations of a training program that involves collaborative and self-directed learning using virtual tools; 4. Factors that contribute to the training of local facilitators for Lidera; 5. Factors that promote a learning community involving former Lidera participants as a way of strengthening networked action? 6. Factors that make it possible to revise the program curriculum using a collaborative learning group. In order for this to happen, a preliminary script was drawn up, it being clear that the real way would be built up together with the group, in a collaborative fashion throughout the process, as the action was being taken.

143

In order to oversee and investigate movements within the group, to review the established road-map, and redirect understanding of the action taken, status quo surveys were conducted at key stages, such as: a) initial expectations (with questions/ by e-mail); b) mid-point perceptions (with questions/by e-mail); c) individual interviews in the final straight (face-to-face); d) final group evaluation (face-to-face). This enabled there to be permanent dialogue with the group.

Based on the information and the phenomena that emerged and were observed during the process per se, the aim was to generate reflection on practices, understanding their dynamics and the phenomena that occurred, and their relation to the context of the group, each individual member and the surrounding environment. The expectation was to identify what would be significant for improving future practices and identifying opportunities, challenges, contradictions and the way in which these are interdependent and to understand the factors that stand in the way of or drive action.

In her commitment to transparent criticism of the data from the action research, the researcher is aware of the inevitability of her partiality as a researcher who is involved in the practices that are under investigation. It was also important to be aware of the multiple roles that she played and still plays and to acknowledge the interests that the investigation itself gives rise to. The researcher thus decided to provide the group, in her narrative, with a forum to express their opinions, using the reflections they have made during the process. The reader is also invited to view the data in an autonomous

144

fashion and to factor his or her point of view into the interpretation and analysis of the data carried out by the researcher.

4.2.5.1. What happened in practice

As outlined above, a relatively heterogeneous group was set up, with diverging interests and expectations, albeit bound together by the common desire to reconnect with the Lidera environment, understand it better, and contribute to strengthening the program, learning from the proposed experience, and, in some cases, working towards being future Lidera facilitator. These expectations included: Building up knowledge based on the experiences of the group complemented by other knowledge that will be the object of research, as a basis for planning and the running of Lidera 5. (P2, Appendix 5/ Evaluations/Virtual Evaluation) I expect the process to result in a redesigned sustainable Lidera program that is effectively implemented. I also expect personal development in terms of facilitator skills and learning on the topics covered (P3)51

In addition to these common expectations, others were noted, which, although not common to all, also influenced the group environment. These included: the desire to change the program, take chances, innovate, form a bridge between the past and the future, keep the essence of the past or simply observe the movement. Here are some statements made by members of the group: [acting]as a critical person, who doesnt always go along with the majority (especially what is regarded as radical (it may not be so radical, I feel) in the methodology of Lidera 1, 2 and 3.(P12).52

51 52

( Appendix 5/ Evaluations/Virtual Evaluation) ( Appendix 5/ Evaluations/Virtual Evaluation ).

145

[the group cannot neglect to foster] respect, commitment and audacity (P7, Appendix 5/ Evaluations/Virtual Evaluation). I see myself as a bridge between these (two) movements. I see myself as having a memory and great commitment to the essence of the program (P12)53

There was also a recurring concern that influenced the whole process, as evidenced by the following statement: I think a group of volunteers is something very special, but Im concerned about having enough time for myself, because Im going through a very challenging phase... (P11, Appendix 5/ Evaluations/ Virtual Evaluation). ..., Ive been so busy in the last few months that, in fact, I have had little time even to think about this process... (P4).54 ...despite all the demands that are put upon me, I am part of this process, because I am extremely committed to the issue (P2).55 At first sight, this set of group expectations and concerns shows some signs of convergence and also some features that contribute to non-convergence and influence the environment of the group, competing to throw up contradictions, progress and backsliding. The research was carried out in 4 phases, as already described from a methodological perspective. This section will analyze the relations it involved and the implications that certain phenomena have for the process and the results achieved.

In the first phase, when relations, methods and logistics were established, the group comprised 12 participants. However, by the end of this stage, one participant (P11) had withdrawn because of a heavy work load.

53 54

( Appendix 5/ 1-Virtual Evaluation). ( Appendix 5/ 1-Virtual Evaluation ). 55 ( Appendix 5/ 1-Virtual Evaluation).

146

It was in this stage that the group confronted its first lack of convergence, which occurred during the process of drawing up and approving the accords. One participant strongly opposed the rest of the group:

One reservation. I find it difficult to understand how objectives a and b can be achieved using these methods. For this reason, I dont agree with committing myself and giving priority to these objectives and goals. For me, the way the objectives are put, it sounds as though doing this work alongside the masters project is sufficient to train us as facilitators and build up the Lidera 5 curriculum (b). And, knowing how we got here, and the importance of looking at the 4th edition, which is already underway, it seems weak and not very feasible to me. The other agreements are OK.(P5) 56

This position caused the first ill feeling in the group and the problem was solved by way of an open dialogue in which 75% of the group stated their point of view. With regard to goal a, the misunderstanding was cleared up, making it clear that this activity would only contribute to beginning the training of the future Lidera facilitators. However, goal b, which proposed to come up with a structure of content that would serve as a support forthe program curriculum, would later come up against difficulties. This was not exactly because of the planned methodology, as the experience of one participant proved, but because of external events that unfolded both within the group and without. The following report shows the phenomena that contributed to the redefinition of this goal as the process progressed. Once the first crisis had been overcome, and expectations, methods, concepts and guiding content agreed, the group concluded the first phase of the process with a set of approved accords as follows:

56

( Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion)

147

Operational Accords 57 - To commit oneself and give priority to the objectives and goals. - To commit oneself to the effective accomplishment of tasks. - To respect the timetable and deadlines. - To be flexible within the timetable. - To plan be clear about the tasks/requirements, with prior agreement of roles and simple concepts. - To avoid too large a volume or accumulation of activities (maximum 4h/week). - To avoid excessive content, intervals, demands and silences. - To work in a focused manner on priorities - to take care to record a summary of what the group produces - To use virtual tools ( e-mail, Facebook, Skype, SMS) - To make oneself available for face-to-face meetings. - To focus on the AEC mission and strategy. - To be careful to avoid possible conflicts between Lidera 4 and 5. Relational Accords 58 - To respect others - To put the collective interest above that of individuals. - To respect different ideas, opinions, abilities and contributions. - To be open to innovation and taking chances. - To be open to criticism. - To be frank and transparent in ones positions. - To seek the convergence of ideas and consensus. - To keep up dialogue, good communication and interaction with the group (always answer e-mails) - To play an active role in the group, in terms of collective production and awareness of interdependence. - To ensure mutual learning, share knowledge and experiences. - To abide by the established accords. Keeping to these accords drawn up by the group would become a great challenge and a source of some conflict.

At the end of this phase, agreement was also reached on the way to work. The idea was to work alternately in the large group (now comprising 11 members) and in small

57 58

Operational Accords Relational Accords

148

groups (of 3 or 4 members) on specific tasks and in-depth discussions. The expectation was that it would be easier for the smaller groups to meet, allowing for greater participation in tasks and greater consistency. These meetings would precede the meetings of the group as a whole, on the occasion of the conclusion of each cycle of tasks and the consolidation of each phase. At this stage, it was also established that participant P1 would become co-facilitator, taking on the additional commitment of helping the researcher/facilitator, who was based in the UK. This was crucial both for the local organization of the group (based in Brazil) and for planning and production of documents. The co-facilitator played a fundamental role in strengthening the process, intermediating and stimulating the group, as well as producing the content for each stage, and bringing the group together, as can be seen from the example cited below: Hey guys! Refreshed after the Easter break, I hope that you all enjoyed your holiday! Id like us to try to make up for the lost time in relation to our commitments to P10...Looking at the timetable P10 sent us, we can see that were behind schedule: the first step of M2 should have been concluded on 22.04. The second was supposed to start on 23.04 and be concluded by me on 28.04 and ratified by the GA meeting on 30.04. But we cant meet those deadlines now... (P1).59 The second phase began with the participation of 11 members of the group and with the aim of establishing guidelines for the analysis and planning of the Lidera program content. However, from the start, the group came up against a methodological impasse. The methodology previously approved by the group involving work in small

59

(Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion)

149

groups did not turn out to be viable in practice. After one week of the second phase, the group started to send e-mails: My engagements for this week make it impossible for me to follow this timetable: I have appointments from 08:00 to 23:30 one after the other; Ill only have some free time on Friday. What do you suggest...? (P8) 60

... Im in the same situation. I can only look at anything on Thursday or Friday.(P7) * (Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion) 61

...I think this deadline is impossible for me. This week is very difficult for me. I think it will be difficult to meet. But I send you my own thoughts, from my heart, but very hurriedly (P4). 62

The group signaled that it was difficult for them to fit the face-to-face meetings of the small groups into their tight schedules, as agreed. In the course of discussion of this problem, the group came up with a suggestion: Hi Everyone! So far as I can see, we are having difficulty carrying out the activities as agreed in the timetable. Given that we cant extend the final deadline, I suggest a change so that we can press on with the work, despite the occasional difficulties of some of the participants. I suggest the following:
60 61

The group will no longer be divided into three subgroups;

(Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion) (Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion) 62 (Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion)

150

Each will send his or her responses individually to the group; There will be a single face-to-face meeting for each stage so that all the participants can attend, discuss and put together a summary to be sent to P10(the researcher/facilitator), who can take part via Skype; These face-to-face meetings would already be on our agenda, so it would be easier to fit them in. P10 would put together the summary and send it to everyone for ratification, and then we would move on to the next stage. Things would then work as follows: Everyone would try to reply by the agreed date of the face-to-face meeting, which would only take into consideration responses sent by that date. In that way, we would not be tied down by any difficulties experienced by a single participant, as we know always happens; Everyone would try to participate in the meeting of those who are able to take part. This way, we would not be dependent on everyone taking part, which probably wont happen, because theres always someone who cant attend. Those who are unable to send their responses in time or cant make the face-toface meeting, could make their contribution to the summary document to be sent to P10 and save it for a later stage.

Not forgetting, of course, the commitments made to this undertaking. In this way, I believe that the process will flow more smoothly, even though it isnt the best way. But, as a friend of mine says, the best is the enemy of the good! It is better to do something good than to realize that the best cant be achieved. I suggest that the face-to-face meetings be held at one of our offices, or even at Ao. Thats all! ... (P2) 63

The group accepted the suggestions of this participant and these were followed from then on. Having overcome this difficulty, the group regrouped and was stimulated to finish the activity, in which 91% of the group took part.

63

(Appendix 2/Second phase/All process/Final step/Group discussion)

151

These difficulties already signaled the obstacles that the lack of time would raise. This became clearer, as the process went on, although, until then, the overall timetable remained as approved by the group.

It could be seen that these difficulties, once solved, helped to strengthen the group and make it more independent and motivated. Important guidelines were drawn up (Vision/Mission/Objectives/Goals), which serve as the basis for the following stages of revising and suggesting new content for the Lidera program. This phase involved intensive discussion, although there was some lack of agreement and some misunderstanding within the group vis--vis the guidelines that were being sketched out. However, common ground was found, with the consent of 91% of the group. This experience taught us how difficult it is to discuss things by e-mail, when many people are involved and sensitive issues have to be addressed. Not everyone finds it easy to express themselves in writing and reading and rereading of messages may leave room for misinterpretation.

In this phase, the group lost another member, who had remained silent from the outset and who, when approached by the facilitator/researcher, said that he would have to withdraw from the process for personal reasons and lack of time.

The third phase began with 10 participants. The aim of this phase was to evaluate the current Lidera content and revise the module agendas. In contrast with the reading/evaluation of new content, the group was to make suggestions and

152

recommendations for future agendas for the five program modules, and through this arrive at a suggested curriculum and new content for Lidera.

This phase started on time, according to the overall timetable (01/04/2011) and the expectation was that two weeks would be spent on each module. At this pace, the stage would be concluded after ten weeks (08/06/2011). However, this was the phase that was most affected by external factors that led several members of the group to withdraw. Apart from everyday work, such as being overloaded with work and travel, there were also some personal problems relating to the health or death of family members.

However, these were not the only factors that impacted the group. There were other factors which need to be reflected on, as can be seen from the statements made by some participants during the process and in subsequent evaluations:

The allotted study time was 4 hours per week, but this was not enough for me to meet the demands of the project. I could do the tasks but not the reading. It is very difficult to expect people to go into the subject in depth in this time frame, especially with a group with this profile... (P3). 64

I would try to slow down the pace and discuss in detail each decision that we are ratifying. What content we are going to change and why, who understands the subject well, etc...I think it is all too fast.(P4) 65 ... you need to set aside a block of time in your agenda for this. It cant be done mixed up with the hectic daily schedule that most of us have...(P6) 66

64 65

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 66 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

153

These observations show that the time factor was one of the things that stood in the way of the process. There were various sides to this, beginning with the distribution of activities in the timetable. Two weeks were devoted to each module, which were divided into three steps: 1 individually review the old module agenda and program content and make new suggestions for the programs (Vision,Mission/Objectives), read the new content and bibliography (according to the new guidelines); 2 - Individually: discover the purpose of each module, its guiding questions and suggest coherent content for this (old and/or new); 3 send contributions to the facilitator to compile a partial register for discussion and final consolidation with the group as a whole. There can be no doubt that this was a process that required much dedication and discipline from the group.

According to the groups comments, the agreed four hours per week was not enough to complete the cycle of tasks. However, for the first module, one of the participants (P5) did manage to complete the cycle of activities, according to him, in the agreed time, and following the suggested guidelines to the letter. However, this participant was unable to keep up this level of dedication to the other modules, as he himself remarks: ...the frustrating thing for me was not having continued to participate the way I did in the first module... I could have done more, but I didnt, because I couldnt... I couldnt go into depth at this level... and so didnt have the background to make a contribution; it was all superficial... (P5) 67

67

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

154

The action research was carried out amidst a hectic daily schedule and it was difficult to deal with the practical realities of each participant. Closely following these practices and how people are conducting them requires time and space that was not available. Thus, before declaring that thetime factorwas the main limitation, as can be seen from the statements made by members of the group, it would be interesting to consider some observations they made and the practice of participants with an equal level of commitment, who were able to respond satisfactorily to the process. The following comments may shed some light on the existence of other tacit phenomena the group itself was unaware of: ...the problem is that it is self-directed learning, which depends on the individual and his or her contradictions and reactions...(P8) *(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 68 ... I also found out that you need to find your own process, your own way of learning, your own method... this is not easy; not everyone can do it. (P5) 69 ...understanding the time of each person, what commitment or the lack of it means to them. Understanding that this is part of the group process was a big lesson.......When I decided to participate in the group, I should have understood that my degree of willingness is not the same as that of others. The group was very willing and motivated at the start, but later other priorities appeared for some that led them to be less available to participate and the process was shaped by what it was possible to do...(P1) 70 ...I realize that this process requires greater dedication than one expects... and as the people involved in it are doing many other things at the same time, it is difficult to give it priority...(P6)*71

68 69

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 70 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 71 *(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

155

Deeper analysis of this issue raises the question of the subjective characteristics of action research. It may be that the apparent impossibility of achieving the tasks generated frustration in the group and, as a consequence, demotivated them. However, there would appear to be no doubt among them that the time available for the daily load of activities was the main limiting factor, leading the group to contribute as well as they could. However, this was not the only factor that interfered at this stage in the process. At the end of April, planning began on the 4th edition of the Lidera Program and five members of the group volunteered to participate as monitors. Participation in this process left these members divided and confused and raising questions about what the group had produced so far. The following comments show some of the doubts raised by these members, shortly after the start of planning for Lidera 4:

...As for ideas, strength, guiding questions and purpose, Im sorry I wasnt able to meet with the group in person last time, but I would like to make some comments. Looking at LIDERAs 1, 2and 3 [the previous editions], I can see that we have diverged quite a lot, and Im not sure if its consciously. Our questions were: What is the archetype that measures relations? What does it mean to be human? How do I see an organization? How are human beings linked to organizations? I see a much more conceptual and subjective path... now we have objective questions with a view to developing more practical tools. Is that it? Is there a middle way? Am I comparing two distinct things? (P4) 72

... in the results that we drew up in the learning group, there were obviously practical questions such as "business tools", "sustainable business plans", "facilitator skills" and "taking networked action". I also understand that these two approaches are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but can be done in tandem, but the challenge is precisely that of doing this in the right measure. I believe that practical things should be included, but not as the main element, as

72

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

156

appears to be the case from our list of results, thereby keeping the focus on the original essence of the program.(P3) 73

... At the start, it was richer, because we were dealing with more philosophical matters... but when the meetings for Lidera 4 began [the beginning of the 4th edition of the program] I began to realize that the ideas we had been developing in the collaborative work were not in line with those that were being planned for Lidera 4. (P7) 74

...different from this process, the Lidera learning process normally starts out with experimentation, feeling, in order to arrive at the concept, the cognitive. It is a path of discovery. Which is different from the academic scientific process that privileges existing knowledge... it is an excessively mental and intellectual process and I can see that for learning to truly occur more is needed... (P5) 75

These comments signal the beginning of a certain discomfort among some members of the group regarding what was being produced, especially the divergence between the path chosen for the action research and the Lidera methodology. These feelings also seemed to clash with the initial willingness, as witnessed by the accords, to seek daring innovation through this process. It thus seems relevant to report a comment made by one of the members of the group in the individual evaluation interview at the end of the path, in which he reveals how he felt about this moment:

... Nobody wants to break down the illusion of what Lidera is for each one of us... people want to retain the ideal they have built up... this can be seen when there is resistance to change... in my view, learning [and change] do not occur from the inside of the head out, as a rational process. For me, learning is always a coming together of the rational, the logical, the emotional and the link that one has with somebody that brings the new content to you. You learn, therefore, at the precise point where you make the connection again with something that makes sense for youyour values and purposesand also with your desires, which are the most imponderable of things. The intention is
73 74

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 75 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

157

cognitive, but the desire remains, for the most part, at the unconscious level. So, when you succeed in combining cognition and desireand this can occurbut continue to censure and feel guilt and inhibition, you advance in the direction you aim to in a cloistered way, you go, but you come back. Thats where the contradiction occurs.(P8) 76 It cannot be said whether the rest of the group also felt this, but the phenomenon noted by this single participant should be considered in our interpretation of the process. The third phase enjoyed less commitment from the group (around 50%) to the activities related to modules 1, 2 and 3, and the activities relating to modules 4 and 5 were put off until the final face-to-face meeting at the beginning of July. The group hoped that this meeting would provide a better opportunity for dialogue and in-depth discussion of issues that was not possible by virtual means.

At the suggestion of the group itself, this meeting dispensed with the services of the external facilitator and this role was shared by a number of the participants themselves.

The fourth and final phase of the process took the form of a two-day face-to-face meeting in July 2011. At this meeting, the group worked on modules 4 and 5 and also revised the recommendations for the Program Vision, Mission, Objectives and Goals and drew up some general recommendations for future Lidera Program curricula. A document was then drawn up suggesting a self-development plan for future Lidera facilitators and steps that could be taken to strengthen Lidera in future. It is important to note that this face-to-face meeting occurred over two days and was attended by
76

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

158

60% and 70% of the group on each day respectively, although some of those attending were not present for the whole meeting.

The conclusion of the research project produced an overview of the results achieved and enabled group reflection on the meaning of the process and its results for the Lidera program, as noted in the comments below:

...I expected to contribute to change but I couldnt... I think that the final result was surprising. Despite all the difficulties, it was OK. The outcome was better than I expected... it is very valuable for Lidera... (P8) 77

What was important in this process was the involvement of former Lidera participants, giving these people the opportunity to have an overview of how the program works, is planned and designed. The process per se had its limitations, because it was virtual rather than face-to-face, and being able to participate in person would certainly have improved the quality. But virtual contact has a role to play and also promotes learning, since you can take part in the process, no matter where you are. For Lidera, bringing together former participants to work on the program and incorporating their point of view into the program, which had previously been drawn up by the facilitators alone, strengths Lidera and breathes new life into the program. I can see that a process like this does not take account of the training and abilities of new program facilitators, because it only addressed content, and it needs more than that... like, being ready to design activities and experiences that relate to this content. It was important to validate the action learning methodology by working with questions extracted from the content on the basis of the experience of each one, from reflection on practice and replanning based on this... taking greater responsibility for the program. It was a learning experience... and theres a certain gap, because we are discussing L5, before L4 has been run, but well make use of what weve worked on in one Program or other. This is the most important thing, to have raised a discussion that could make Lidera a living program... and the jewel in the crown of this process was having led the former participants to appropriate the program, beginning to take it out of the hands of the old facilitators and hand it over to former participants and future facilitators... I am happy and thankful to have been a part of all this. (P1).78
77 78

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3- Final evaluation in group)

159

The program didnt go very far the way it was, and now, through this process, we can provide it with continuity by creating a group of people who are committed to it and are already going to contribute to L4, because half us are working on L4. The thing is to have innovation when new people arrive on the program, and sustainability, since there are more people sharing the same desire to carry Lidera forward (P3). 79 ...this process has allowed us to spread the idea of Lidera to more people and this generates more commitment and involvement. Another important factor was the reflection on issues that are very important for the program, such as sustainability, systemic thinking, inclusive business and other issues about which businesspeople have little or no knowledge...(P2) 80 ...I learnt the process itself, the process alone generates knowledge. Regardless of how it ends. The process generates knowledge and matures what you are doing... (P4) 81 ...The appropriation of knowledge, with special emphasis on Theory U, design, and content.... the opportunity to appropriate all this with this group strengthens our intentions. The most important gain was political, since collaborative learning is a way of building up knowledge in a democratic way. However, it should be noted that Lideras knowledge goes beyond thinking, and this process only dealt with this dimension... But the fact is that, despite everything, this process has contributed a lot to thinking about the future of Lidera, to understand its structure, its philosophy, its beliefs, and this program was needed for that (P5). 82

The great contribution of this learning process was keeping Lidera alive in the hearts and minds of the group. In addition to recovering everything that lay behind the program, it provided the opportunity to build up a regional vision of the program.(P6). 83

79 80

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/ 3-Final evaluation in group) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group) 81 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group) 82 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group) 83 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group)

160

These statements from the group show that, despite the difficulties of the four month research program, the results were considered valid and meaningful for the overall objective, both for the future of Lidera and the learning group.

We believe that this experience also provided the group with an excellent opportunity to experience and practice a factor that is essential for understanding of the conceptof sustainability. This is a question that should be highlighted, as it is in the statement made by participant P10 (the researcher/facilitator) in her final evaluation with the group: ...it is our resilience that has brought us here and achieved these results. Our capacity to re-invent ourselves in the course of the process, to overcome obstacles, to persist, despite the difficulties encountered. This is the great lesson about sustainability that we can take away from this. Lidera is a program, in which knowledge is produced in the course of each participants path of discovery, and that of the group as a whole, and it is therefore a collaborative learning process. The meaning of this has been learnt here in practice (P10). 84 Having presented the context in which this research occurred and the phenomena that emerged while it was being conducted and influenced the environment of the group, the progress it made and the results achieved, the next section will address other factors that may have spurred or impeded the process of collaborative learning.

4.2.5.2. About Methods

The Appreciative inquiry and Collaborative Learning methods chosen for this research permeated the whole process from objectives to results. However, the Lidera methodology, which works with thinking, feeling, and wanting, was present as a point
84

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/3-Final evaluation in group)

161

of reference and a comparison. Even though there was prior agreement regarding the kind of learning that would be possible, the idea of Lidera prevailed and negatively influenced the perceptions of the group, as can be seen from some comments, such as these: ... the experience of learning is individual, it deals with a specific moment and it is private. Of course there are phenomena that are collective and phenomena that repeat themselves, but it is still challenging to be in a process such as this that is using only one aspect of learning about the world, especially so far as sustainability is concerned. Learning that restricts itself to the cognitive realm help one learn what the world has to offer in its manifold forms...(P5) 85

...I was expecting us to be able to produce something different... the questions could have been less mechanistic, stimulated the participants more..at times the process became a bit mechanical...(P7) 86

The commitment to collective action and learning, in an uncertain context, would appear to be the only permanent aspects of this process. All other factors were subject to change. We believe that the results achieved were due to the groups flexibility and its capacity to reinvent itself in the course of action. Resilience was seen to be fundamental for collaborative action, where power relations are equal. We believe that this experience taught the group to deal more with possibilities than with certainties. The following statements show how some members of the group saw the results: It was very interesting to bring people interested in the topic together around a clear and practical objective...and although we found the way as we went along... without much guidance, more open and therefore carrying more responsibility, a stronger commitment to the process on the part of each.(P6). 87

85 86

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 87 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

162

I didnt imagine that we would achieve what we did using this method. There are lots of interesting things in the content we produced that can be developed in future...(P5)88 ...in my opionion, we succeeded in producing something despite the difficulties. It exceeded my expectations. I was surprised what we managed to do, I wasnt expecting it...(P8).89

4.2.5.3. About Facilitators

As recommended for action research, the researcher should seek not only to analyze the phenomenon with due scientific rigor, but also to live it in the sense of extracting from it the knowledge of practice. One must establish communication among equals, recognizing peoples ability to give meaning to events. One must also be committed to facilitating the process, only intervening where necessary and allowing the group to integrate in a dialectical fashion, participating in each stage of the evolution of the project along with the other members of the group.

It was especially challenging to build up convergence in a recently formed group with a diverse profile. The facilitator was confronted with this issue throughout the process and, although it was not explicitly stated or perceived by all, one participant did raise it: ...at the start I tried to reach out to people, but then I gave up and came to see how difficult it was to achieve convergence in this group how can you learn, if you are not prepared to give ground? We need to reflect on the role of a facilitator in these circumstances? I have never interacted with a group with which it was this difficult to achieve convergence... it is a group where there are many divergences between the formal proposal, the ideal, and practice... (P8)
90

88 89

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 90 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

163

In a process of collaboration, in which one seeks to achieve equitable participation even though in practice it doesnt turn out to be idealthe position of the facilitator is often seen as being that of someone who has access to privileged information, since this is the person who is planning, designing content and supposedly directing the process. This confers a position of special power and influence, which means efforts must be redoubled to ensure that the group is not inhibited. In this group, even though it was not expressed openly by most, it soon became apparent that the facilitators contributions as a participant should be restricted to picking up the contributions of the group, so as not to extend her own influence over the others, as noted in the following comment by one of the participants: ... Ok P10! Ill only read your answers, when Ive produce mine, so that Im not influenced (at least not for the time being)...(P2) 91 P10 thus sought to give priority to her role as researcher and facilitator in her behavior as a participant. It is important that the challenging nature of this role be acknowledged, when the facilitator already has a relationship with the group and a commitment to the process that goes beyond scientific research interests, as can be seen from the objectives of this study. The positive side of this was the groups belief in the way the process was conducted, when it was decided that the facilitator would knit together the process and consolidate contributions to be approved by the group as a whole, as one participant commented: Hence, the few participants who took part in the Skype meetings and the facilitator were responsible for closing the cycles. The way the facilitator wrapped things up was

91

(Appendix 3/Module 1/All process/Group process_part1)

91

164

laudable, because it has preserved the logic of the process and finally produced an interesting result... (P8) 92 As we can see from the above comment and others, the role of the facilitator is fundamental in the initial stages of building a group, both in planning, structuring and organizing tasks, and in motivating members, crisis management, and the promotion of convergence in the group. It could be seen, however, that, as the group matured and got the hang of the process, it grew more independent and could take on these functions itself.

At the outset, when it was planned to divide the grou pinto smaller ones to carry out the initial stages of the tasks and provide more in-depth discussion, the aim was to promote greater group autonomy regarding the consolidation of their own production of content. However, the experience showed that the group was still not ready for this level of independence, although, at the end of the process (as shown above) it realized that face-to-face meetings and the effective participation of all would have contributed more to the quality of the learning of the group as a whole.

4.2.5.4. The Use of Virtual Tools

It was noted that, for this group and this research, the use of virtual tools gave rise to some difficulties. This was especially so for a group with a history of valuing face-toface contact, including Lidera itself, and the block which some participants had with regard to these tools.

92

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

92

165

It was noted that, in a process such as this, virtual tools do not provide the same opportunity for in-depth discussion as face-to-face meetings and this was a key factor in diminishing the quality of learning. All members of the group mentioned this. However, some other factors were raised, as can be seen from the following statements: ...in a virtual process, there is a natural delay, which sometimes obliges you to go back... you send an e-mail, some people respond and you move on to the next stage... five days later someone appears responding to the previous demand and that throws everything into confusion...(P8) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)93

...it is very difficult to sit down in front of the computer and put something together on a certain subject with so many other things going on around you competing for your attention. While at a face-to-face meeting you dedicate real time, you made a certain amount of time available to devote to that subject... virtual tools make it difficult to enter into dialogue, because the written word is inhibiting, not to mention the quality of face-to-face dialogue.(P3) 94 ... The problem with the written word, in terms of not be able to make yourself understood by e-mail is a challenge... developing your thoughts in few words, because, if you write too much, people wont read it. Im resistant to this virtual business... virtual time isnt peoples real time, not practical time... youre deceiving yourself if you think you can send an e-mail and believe that you have automatically made a connection with another person... for the person who receives it, the fact that the information is there doesnt mean that one has time to process it and get back to the person in the way they expect life doesnt obey a simple click (P5) 95 ...The Skype discussions are better than e-mail... but nothing compares with a face-to-face meeting... (P1) 96 ...there are advantages and disadvantages... you cant always hear everything in a Skype meeting face-to-face meetings enable a better quality of
93 94

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 95 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 96 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action2-Individual Interviews)

93

166

communication I personally communication...(P7) 97

am

not

very

adept

at

virtual

Despite this, around 90% of the participants realized that because of logistic considerations, the profile of the group, and other factors arising from real-time research, virtual tools were fundamental in ensuring that work continued and that results were produced. This is made clear in the following statements:

...virtual tools are helping at the moment, because they enable you to have access to other people "on time" and in various ways...(P6) 98 ... Flexibility regarding time helps. We would not have produced so much, had we had to have face-to-face meetings. On the other hand, the use of e-mail should be regulated by the facilitator... lots of reading doesnt work, nor does e-mail discussion...(P4) * (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)99 ...we now live in a world where virtual tools are indispensible because of the possibilities they present... in our case, they were fundamental...this process wouldnt have happened without them...(P2) 100 The good side of the use of virtual tools is accessibility and the world of possibilities they open out, the sensation that they are infinite There are no frontiers any more... you can access books that arent on your shelves... in the virtual world everything is possible and the possibilities are endless. You have the flexibility to access them wherever you are... it aids self-directed learning. (P5) 101

4.2.5.5. About Self-directed Learning

Finding ones path towards self-development and having the capacity to keep to it is one of the main achievements of leaders who participate in the Lidera Programme. However the experience of the participants in this research project reveals that, in

97 98

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 99 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 100 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 101 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

167

order to keep on the path of self-development, one needs to develop self-directed learning skills. In the following comments from the group it can be seen which factors promoted or impeded self-directed learning.

...I think that the process starts out from a presupposition that everyone already knows how to direct their own learning in such a way as to incorporate the content and make a useful contribution to the group... (P5) 102 ...My knowledge is a bit less than I would like, since I cant manage to study the bibliographical references and the recommended texts... the trouble was, I didnt have the time to devote to this process; it requires a lot of discipline and perseverance... When you have a method, discipline, and perseverance, self-directed learning can work. (P2) 103 ..you have to be proactive and disciplined to learn in a self-directed way... so you need some guidance is essential (P3) 104 ...I would say that I refined and improved my self-directed study through this process... bringing together all the knowledge on a certain topic in order to build up my own understanding, even though I couldnt read the books in depth, makes a lot of sense....(P5) 105 The autonomy and the flexibility are good but the lack of dialogue is bad for drawing up and assimilating content. It causes insecurity about the concepts. You need a facilitator to lead the way and introduce the topic...(P4) 106 ...the self-directed learning process is not a solitary one, it involves others... and it is interesting to note that, if I am open to learning, the whole of my life presents me with opportunities to learn...(P1) 107 ... three important things are required of a learner: investment, regulation and management. Self-directed learning is an indispensible basis for collaboration... in order to learn from oneself and from others, one needs to be constantly investing in the process... (P8) 108

102 103

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 104 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 105 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 106 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 107 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 108 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

168

It is interesting to note that some of these statements point to the interdependence of self-directed learning and learning from others as ways of acquiring valid knowledge. It can thus be concluded that collaborative learning is fuelled by self-directed learning, which, in turn, depends on developing methods that are validated in practice and by sharing ideas and exchanging knowledge with others. It is also clear that, in the case of this research project, some had difficulty consciously adapting themselves to selfdirected learning. This may have been one of the factors that impeded more conscious collaboration and contributing to improving the quality of the project.

4.3. Discussion

As used in this study, Collaborative Learning can be defined as: ...a set of learning methods and techniques for use in structured groups, in addition to strategies for developing mixed skills (learning and personal and social development), where each member of the group is responsible both for his or her own learning and for that of the others (Ncleo Minerva, 2001). This concept seems to have been well received and clearly understood by the group, according to statements made by some regarding the method: ...I thought the methodology was fantastic... I made a point of not looking at other peoples responses before giving my own, so as to make my contribution more authentic... so I produced my own work... however, when I saw what others had put, I was surprised that they hadnt come up with some things that I had this is very enriching...(P2) 109 Dialogue and meetings are fundamental... learning with others is real. (P4) 110

109 110

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) ( Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

169

You have to really want to participate to arrive at the final objective. This is why it is fundamental that there be some clear agreement as to what is being built up, from the outset... (P6) 111 Looking back on our process, I cant tell whether people were open to learning or not, because they could be on another plane of learning. And being open is connected with empathy and being non-judgmental. Being judgmental closes the door on learning... empathy involves having a genuine interest... I put myself in your place and from there I observe the questions you are raising... (P1) 112 ...when you interact, there is room to make the most of everything you can and this is interesting... the rationale of collaborative learning is that you make your contribution and everyone benefits from it, and, when you benefit and give feedback this is transformed into knowledge that can be multiplied this is very interesting...(P8) 113 Successful collaborative learning thus expects members of the group to take conscious and interdependent action in order to complete the learning cycle, from the individual to the group and vice versa. To make this real, there needs to be effective interaction, which, in turn, only occurs when there is individual commitment, an open mind and a sincere desire for convergence in the group. In contrast to this, an egoistic attitude on the part of one member affects the capacity of the group as a whole, if one mind is closed to the new, it may disturb group integration (Covey, 2008). According to this author, and open mind requires humility and a willingness to recognize the value of others and have the courage to follow this (Covey, 2008). Likewise, as mentioned earlier, Morin (2001) acknowledges that learning from others is a great challenge for people living in this century, because schools have never taught how to open your mind to receive and understand what comes from the world. On the contrary, we are an individualistic society, which plays down the participation of the other, which leads us to a unilateral and a short-sighted view of the complexity of human beings
111 112

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 113 113 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

170

and the context in which we live (Morin, 2001). This leads us to conclude that collaborative processes and teaching such as those outlined here are relevant, as was pointed out above by members of the group.

There is another factor that strengthens or weakens collaborative processes and also the quality of relations. This is mutual trust. We can see from this experience that the production of the group only resulted in something significant when there was trust regarding the knowledge that each member was offering the others. The group drew attention to the possibility that this trust is related to management and the quality of the members learning, his or her participation and degree of contribution. Covey (2008) argues that the process of building up trust in relation to others has two important dimensions: integrity - doing what you say - and transparency of intention, which means acting in a predictable and consistent manner. When there is mutual trust in a collaborative process, everyone is recognized and feels secure about what the group is producing and this increases the legitimacy of the results achieved and reduces the likelihood of backtracking. However, this kind of trust is not won overnight, and a group needs to work together for a long time on an action learning process, in a continual cycle of practice, self-evaluation and planning, if it is to achieve this level of self-perception and perception of others in a process of collaborative production. This point is made by Taylor, Marais & Kaplan (1997).

Working with others is therefore sufficient validation for an experience such as that of this group.

171

The former Lidera participants are people with a high level of awareness, not only of themselves, but also of others. Few groups are lucky enough to begin a collaborative venture with this level of self-awareness. Nevertheless, there are some contradictions in the statements made by members of this group:

...it is very difficult to put this group together and get everybody onto the same page, because of the heavy work schedule each member has... The advantage is that you have the help of others in the learning process, even though you do not have time, you can learn from what others learn... (P3) 114 ...as challenging as it is working with a group, because of the diversity of opinions, this requires that one be prepared to manage certain crises and divergences of opinion there are some reactions in the group that cause offense and misunderstandings it is difficult...(P6). 115 it is good to have different takes on the same subject matter... to learn, to change ones position. What isnt good is the fact that you have no way of measuring how valid the other peoples contribution is, of knowing whether they have studied enough or learnt enough to make a contribution... what legitimacy does each one have to talk about a subject, to express an opinion. This happened with me, when, at a certain point, I said "OK, I agree, lets move on...(P5)" 116 ...letting things go in a direction different from the one you would like, without giving up, requires enormous patience and perseverance, when you have so many other things to do. It requires great trust in others... even though you could see that there was a certain individualism and lack of convergence in the group, in the end something was produced... (P8) 117 ...There was no time to read the groups e-mail contributions, there were too many e-mails. The discussions should have been face-to-face or via Skype... (P4) 118

114 115

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 116 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 117 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) 118 (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

172

Group production has been interesting, despite the difficulty of finding time for the face-to-face meetings... the feeling of the group is that the process was too rapid and lacked depth in relation to the issues addressed...(P7) 119 Such contradictions do not seem to be restricted to this group but to be found in others as well, as commented earlier in the work of Barkley et al. (2005 p.14-25 ). This is especially true when one considers that contradictions exist at person level before they are transferred to a group. By claiming that one can only see in others what one can see in oneself James Baldwin (apud Zweig & Abrams, 1991 p.86 ) draw attention to the importance of self-awareness for group relations. It is possible that this sentence pinpoints one of the most complex issues when dealing with groups, as can be seen from the statement of one of the participants on the contradictions in the group: ...a contradiction is something that each individual has to work out for themselves; the group doesnt work with contradictions as this is a human trait, no-one is free of the contradiction between the desirable and the possible... (P8) 120

C. G. Jung complements this view (apud Zweig & Abrams, 1991 p. 26) when he notes that every man has his shadow and, the less he incorporates it into his conscious life, the more dense and obscure it will be. At any rate, it forms an unconscious block that frustrates our best intentions. Thus, by helping people to become more aware of, confident with and students of their own history (Taylor, Marais & Kaplan 1997) and providing the opportunity to confront this history with that of the surrounding collective can awaken transformative inner processes (Vygotsky apud Kohl, 1997). Seen in this way, it can be seen that collaborative processes transform people, in so far
119 120

(Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews) (Appendix5/Evaluating Action/2-Individual Interviews)

173

as the individual allows the potential of the group to prevail, in the search for convergence and the collective interest, and does not succumb to the mismatch of individual interests. Recognizing the existence of contradictions in forums in which people act collectively and learning to deal with them can transform it from an impeding into a motivating factor in group learning. In this case, for example, it was noted that moments of contradiction and crises in the group provided opportunities to strengthen and motivate the group, once the problems had been resolved. Contradiction can, therefore, when recognized, treated openly and with the sincere desire to build agreement, be transformed into an opportunity to set the experience on firmer foundations, and to allow it to mature and move forward.

At the beginning of this process, alongside the intention of studying and researching for its own sake, the participants were motivated by another intention in their collaborative learning: the future of Lidera. Recent research on the three Lidera editions (Calil, Marques & Santana, 2010) ha salso noted that the great challenge facing the former participants was that of reconciling the intentions they had built up on the Lidera program with the day-to-day business environment. Going back into a world that does not have the level of awareness acquired on the program. How does one deal with this real world

Starting out from this question and reflecting on the view of Maturana & Varela (apud Capra, 2002) mentioned earlier, it can be concluded that our perception of the world is

174

not exactly the world as it is, but a world made up of abstract thoughts, concepts, beliefs, mental images, intentions and self-consciousness and attaining to awareness is not only a biological one, but also a social phenomenon that is put together in the course of relating to and communicating with others (Capra, 2002 p. 66). This level of consciousness derives from exchanging, reflecting on and building up concepts, objectives and strategies.

In light of the view of these authors, and also Paulo Freire (1979), that change should be something conscious, consistent, assumed by an active subject, who is aware of and committed to his or her story and the reality in which it plays out, it can be concluded that not all those who complete the Lidera program are prepared, on their own, to confront the changes that their new consciousness will require that they adopt in the face of the real world.

According to Freire (1979), for there to be a significant change, the subject needs to be sufficiently self-critical and self-aware and sufficiently grounded in the present to project his or her ideas into the future. However, for the world of the individual to be able to make a difference in the world of the majority, the actions of this individual must be committed to things beyond him- or herself. In other words, an ethical duty and a serious attitude must be assumed. Thus, in order to commit oneself to change, one must be capable of reflecting on ones own manner of being and acting in relation to ones intention, thereby assuming a personal commitment, based on reflection on the reality one is familiar with and proposes to change (Freire 1979).

175

The ideas of these authors allow us to understand that the strengthening of former Lidera participants work in the social field depends on continued development of the self-awareness acquired and appropriation of ones place in the world. Hence, the importance of creating a shared space to provide this kind of support for collaborative networked construction of the new and continuing the development started on the program, now in the context of the various circumstances each individual works in.

This experience was valid and necessary, because the creation of a group to provide support, sharing, and learning resulted from the declarations of former Lidera participants, as Calil, Marques & Santana (2010) show in their research.

This action research thus presumes that collaborative action learning provides the opportunity to create connections (ideas and ways of thinking and acting) that emerge in the process and produces understanding of what can be done in concrete terms by a group with this profile that aims to meet regularly to continue learning and taking collective action.

This collaborative action learning can thus be seen as an opportunity to prototype this idea and, beyond this, reflect on and learn lessons from this practice. It thus sought to follow the prototyping principles of Otto Sharmers Theory U (2010), since when moving on to a prototype, one has to remain connected to the inspiring spark of the future that needs you, and also remain alert to the the two main dangers and

176

pitfalls of action without reflection and reflection without action (Sharmer, 2010, p.161).

The view that "learning is ubiquitous in ongoing activities, though not often recognized as such (Lave, 1993 p.5), leads us to believe that this process provided important lessons for the current stage of this group and sowed the seeds for future learning. This process cannot therefore be considered complete and it is too early for any more in-depth analysis of it, especially so far as the gap that still exists between the initially intentions of the group and what it was possible to achieve at the present point in time is concerned.

However, thinking of the future of Lidera and its network of former participants and aware of the importance of questions for action learning, we should pose the following question for future reflection: what does this experience have to do with the future of Lidera?

The aspects touched on by this experience have enabled us to understand it as both a training strategy and a way of acquiring knowledge, as well as an opportunity to prototype a collaborative learning group. This enabled us to explore the future by way of an experiment that involved all three types of intelligence: the intelligence of the mind, the heart and the hands (Sharmer, 2010 p. 161). This practical side, however, was not noticed by all the members of the group, as the experience occurred mostly in the virtual realm of thinkingworking on concepts and contentto the detriment of feeling and desiring (which are also used by the Lidera program).

177

However, this collaborative learning process was in itself an experience that touched on all these dimensions and also provided the opportunity to learn about and put into practice questions that are fundamental to sustainable leadership, as outlined by authors we have already quoted, such as:

Capra (2002) when he argues that the occurrence of continuous structural changes caused by contact with the environment, followed by continuous adaptation, learning and development is an essential characteristic of the history that human beings have constructed (Capra 2002 p.50, 51). This means that there is a whole of which one is a part and which, represented by a wider community or wider world, brings a sense of belonging that gives meaning to peoples lives (Capra, 2002). Pallof & Pratt (2002) argue that group and collaborative learners, as well as acquiring more in-depth knowledge, also learn to be less individualistic, by dealing with the interdependence of collaborative processes, and thereby acquiring skills that are fundamental for the todays world. Gardner (1994), reflects on the interpersonal intelligence that is developed when working in collaboration with others and dealing with different forms of verbal and non-verbal communication. Relating with a group expands the ability to perceive things that go beyond the visible and audible forms of communication. Parkin (2010), defines sustainable leadership as seeking to cultivate: a) resilience - the capacity to react, preserving your identity, values and principles, not letting oneself be overwhelmed by a crisis; b) relationships at all levels and in a climate of interdependence; c) reflection on action and experiences, and learning from this; d) reverencerespect and admiration for the whole that nature and ones fellow men represent. Senge (2006) in his way of interpreting a new paradigma of learning and thinking, when argues that this can be translated into five disciplines, four of which are touched on this research project: (1) a shared vision which favors the construction of collective, long-term commitments; (2) collaborative and group learning to develop the ability to see beyond individual interests; (3) the personal dimension, realizing the full potential of each individual; and (4) mastery of oneself which involves developing selfmotivation to learn continuously from ones own experiences and how they affect the surrounding world. Capra (2002) when he argues that, like living systems, people choose what to pay attention to, how to react, respond or resist. So that learning to involve people and deal with them in a spirit of collaboration helps to make their ideas significant for them. This

178

ability means that leaders need to be prepared to deal with the complex power structures that emerge in the current world context. Barkley et al. (2005) when they argue that the growing diversity of global society will increasingly require citizens to engage and relate to one another in different ways. Likewise, more challenges at local, national and global level will require collective networked responses. Thus learning to listen carefully, think critically, participate in a constructive manner and collaborate in a productive manner to resolve problems that are common to many will be vital components of the education of citizens in the 21st century. In light of these ideas and the general world context outlined at the beginning of this study, and the failure of the educational system to deal with this reality and prepare future leaders to confront it, it is hoped that this experience will stimulate reflection on the existing possibilities for bringing businesspeople together in collaborative learning programs. It should also be remembered that, when planning a program like this, one needs to seriously consider the everyday reality of these people and factors, such as time, accessibility and flexibility. Above all, the participants must have a genuine desire and commitment, as a matter of priority, to build up their own learning path towards a common goal.

This process shows that there is great value in face-to-face meetings and live dialogue, although virtual tools and other aids should not be ruled out. Given all this, there are many ways of investing in building a learning community that brings together former Lidera participants. It can also be seen that it is possible to train program facilitators by way of a plan that involves self-development, self-supervision and peer collaboration. A learning community of former Lidera participants may lead,

179

in future, to a platform for engagement in networked initiatives as a way of reconciling Lidera with post-Lidera life.

In view of this, it is worth recalling the words of Maturana & Varela (2003) when they argue that, in the acquisition of knowledge, there is no reality independent of the observer. A phenomenon is described in a particular way, based on reflection on the experience of the observer (Maturana & Varela, 2003). From this perspective, the authors invite us to be constantly wary of the temptation of certainty and to recognize that our certainties are not true proofs, as if the world each one of us sees were THE world and not A world that we build up jointly with others " (Maturana & Varela, 2003 p. 267). The learning group who participated in this research and the reader are thus invited to draw their own conclusions, visions for the future, and prospects for further action from the experience described here.

180

Chapter 5- CONCLUDING REMARKS

5.1. The Findings

This study began by presenting a picture of a world in transition, where change has become imperative for the survival of all the systems that make it up, be they political, economic, social, or environmental. In this context, new paradigms of thought and behavior have emerged that are beginning to come together in such a way as to transform the existing culture and trace out the path of change. At this stage, systemic thinking and sustainability have gained group in the field of learning and developed into new possibilities for an education, politics and economics that favor the emergence of more collaborative, open and inclusive patterns of behavior in these sectors.

It was also shown that global society is increasingly interconnected and requiring greater social, political and economic participation and a healthier and more sustainable environment. Furthermore, in the 21 st century, the world will no longer gravitate around politics and economics. There are signs, however, that corporations will continue to be the main channels of development, although there is every suggestion that profit will cease to the be the main concern of their leaders. This study has shown throughout that there is a need for new ways of educating and developing business leaders. While schools and universities deal with the clash between their old paradigms and educational systems, as they attempt to introduce the necessary changes, there is

181

room for initiatives that dare to use new routes towards knowledge and to promote more sustainable business leadership.

This study has thus shown the need for new leadership training initiatives in a country that is looking, in the future, to being one of the principal world economies. However, Brazil is a country that is dealing with the challenge of continuing to develop without harming its natural resources, which are among the richest on the planet. Meanwhile, the country also has difficulties with quality of life infrastructure and huge social inequalities, not only between individuals, but also between regions.

It was in this context that Lidera - Lideranas Empresariais para o Desenvolvimento Sustentvel, which is the subject of this research, bringing with it an innovative way of promoting learning and development among business leaders as a way of contributing to the sustainable development of the Northeast region of Brazil.

Despite receiving a good evaluation as a program, Lideras research identified the challenge of supporting former participants when they return to the business environment, after having acquired new ways of thinking and acting on the Program. This clash between the new and the old is a transitional process, in which the former Lidera participants find it difficult to apply the vision they have developed during the program in everyday business practice. Dialogue among peers and the pursuit of selfdevelopment and networked initiatives are therefore important for these people. This was the challenged posed by the Lidera network during the last program evaluation

182

(Calil et al., 2010). In the same evaluation, it was identified that the future of the program depends on the training of a team of local facilitators.

These were the reasons underlying this study involving action research to prototype a collaborative learning group involving former participants in the last three editions of the Lidera Program. In addition to the explicit objective of revising the current program curriculum, this initiative also aimed to study factors that stimulated or held back a learning community involving business leaders. It also aimed to investigate how a collaborative learning model could be developed for the training of future Lidera Program facilitators.

5.2. Lessons Learnt from the Experience

This experience showed that it a learning community of business leaders is viable, although a considerable challenge. Even though the Self-development and Preparation Plan for Lidera 5, including this study, produced by the group at the end of the process has shown that there is a strong desire to continue learning, with a view to becoming a Lidera facilitator, it must be acknowledged that this training developed only some of the skills and abilities necessary for this.

However, it was noted that these people find it difficult to stick to a project like this. The experience revealed that, for this to occur, people will need to have, not only selfdiscipline and determination, but also free time in their heavy and unpredictable schedules.

183

This needs to be addressed by establishing an agenda of flexible study tasks with fixed deadlines, pre-prepared texts, summaries of books, self-regulation on the part of the group, and the support and mutual trust of all. One beneficial factor is the planned use of virtual tools, exploring different ways of bringing the group together around the content that needs to be worked on. In addition to e-mails and Skype, the private virtual environments of social networks and other media the members of the group already use, although it is essential that they be already familiar with these media. Cell-phones and text messages provide excellent complements to these. It is important to always bear in mind the need to reduce the work load, the amount of communication, and the number of meetings. Efforts should always be made to seek balance and objectivity in communication, using each channel according to the possibilities it presents.

Planning and organization are also fundamental for maintaining the flow of group activities and it is therefore important to have a facilitator whose job it is to do this and processes that allow the use of the support network that each participant has in his or her workplace. The provision of variety of support systems may help to keep a group of business leaders together. It is also necessary to have focus, objectivity, flexibility, creativity with regard to methods and to manage time wisely. Paradoxical as it may seem, it has been found that games, poetry and imaginationas used in

It was shown that involvement in this collaborative process, in itself, provided an important learning stimulus. When dealing with people whose culture and experiences are based on self-sufficiency, individualism and competition,

184

interdependence is essential for dealing with complexity, for listening and the interpretation and acceptance of other peoples point of view, when there are constant demands on ones time. The highly dynamic and unpredictable nature of these peoples lives requires constant rearrangement and redesign of group processes. When keeping a collaborative learning group together, the participant has the opportunity to work constantly with collective and individual resilience. Both interdependence and resilience are essential skill for sustainable leadership and also vital for collaborative learning.

Another essential structural element of collaborative processes is self-directed learning. Learning by oneself would appear to be a prerequisite for learning with others, since the quality of the exchange is of supreme importance in building up collective trust. However, groups need to be specifically prepared for this by guiding and motivating each member to discover his or her own learning style. The group also needs to learn that learning occurs as part of the daily dynamics and to seek out ways of facilitating and simplifying this task.

Even though it can be challenging for groups of this profile to stick to the learning process, there are examples of businesspeople that have succeeded doing so, as did one of the participants in this action research project. This shows that, despite the challenges, it is possible to keep a group together, so long as there is commitment and determination on the part of all.

185

It has also been shown that people training to be Lidera facilitators could assimilate the program content through a consistent study plan involving in-depth analysis and evaluation of the current program content in a learning group. An important part of this research project was also the elaboration, presentation and debate of new content and written materials. Full assimilation of the Lidera Program should also, however, include training in Theory U, Action Learning and Anthroposophy-based Social Pedagogy and the three dimensions of Lidera learningthinking, feeling and desiringwhich is what distinguishes it from other programs. Furthermore, full assimilation of the Lidera content and methodology requires the creation of concrete opportunities for putting this knowledge into practice as part of the programby way of monitoring and creating alternative forums for learning within the network of former participants.

It is evident from the experience of this group that there is no substitute for practice in its learning processes. Theory is an important foundation, but its application to the real world is what will prove whether it is possible to bring about something new. The everyday life of business people is contradictory, because that is part of what it means to be human. Thus, stressing that everyone has a shadow and the less they incorporate this into their conscious life, the darker and denser it will be.... and that airing contradictions reduces the level of frustration regarding the intentions of the group (C. G. Jung apud Zweig & Abrams, 1991 p. 26) and can be liberating and fundamental for understanding and tolerance of oneself and others in a collective process. However, it is important to bear in mind that contradictions are issues to be

186

worked on at the individual level; it is sufficient for the group to be aware of their existence and know how to deal with them.

Observing and reflecting on the factors that stimulate or impede collaborative learning with a group with this profile reveals the scale of the challenge business schools and universities may face when the have to deal with processes such as this in the context of the formal education system.

However, as Morin (2001) argues, there is no other way to understand a complex world such as ours, other than by way of methods that allow mutual relations and reciprocal influences to be established between the parts and the whole.

Business schools and universities may need to review their educational aims, which, in Orrs view (2009) should not seek merely to provide the means for people to achieve success and social mobility, since the world does not need any more successful people. On the other hand, this author also argues that the world is increasingly needing more peace-makers, care-givers, restorers, story-tellers and, above all, people who love unconditionally; people with the moral courage to change the paradigm of success, reinterpreting it for todays world (Orr, 2009). Thus, as this study has shown, schools and universities need to broaden their vision to include a new paradigm for learning and thinking, which, according to Senge (2006), can be brought about by a shared vision, the development of new mental models, collaborative learning, the quest for self-master, and self-motivated continual learning based on ones own experience and that of others.

187

For Sterling (2009), this new paradigm for teaching and learning should attain deeper levels of understanding, in which learners are capable of seeing things in a different, more creative way, involving themselves consciously in the search for the new and for alternative ways of doing things; in other words, discovering what is needed to learn to act on the basis of the future, as it is emerging (Scharmer, 2010 p. 11).

This study has also shown how important it is for universities finally to understand that learning for sustainability is different from learning about sustainability. This also means that the concept of sustainability that is communicated in the course curriculum is sound, but it is not enough information to teach a student to lead a sustainable life. This concept needs to revolutionize the whole structure of teaching and learning in schools and universities, starting with the way they are managed.

Furthermore, the incorporation of sustainability in business and administration courses also requires, according to Jacobi et al. (2011), the application of three principles: systemic thinking; interdisciplinarity applied to management in general; and the introduction of the three pillars of sustainable developmentthe social, the economic, and the environmentalas propounded by UNESCO. In the words of this author: ... this allows people to develop the skills, knowledge and outlook they need to take decisions that will improve quality of life at all levels. And this can only occur, if business teaching, in all areas, is simultaneously in agreement with such dimensions of sustainable development (Jacobi et al. 2011, p.33).

188

Incorporating these principles into business teaching, along with the new learning paradigms mentioned in this study, would appear to be the principal challenge of formal schools.

The aim of the whole of this research project was to reflect on the possibility of developing a new kind of leadership capable of helping to transform a world in crisis. However, as Scharmer observes (in: Alonso, 2009), isolated leaders will not be able to bring about change; the challenge must be faced by a collective leadership. He argues that we have collectively created a situation that generates outcomes that nobody wants, and therefore we can only solve this problem collectively. In other words, no leader will be able to solve it without working in collaboration (Scharmer in: Alonso, 2009). In the same vein, Senge (2009) remarks that: Releasing the power of all kinds of organizations and networks to promote the needed change in coming years will require the dedication of millions of leaders of all types, many of whom will not come from obvious positions of power or have formal authority to exercise leadership. This does not mean that the leadership of those that possess authority is unimportant, but that it is not sufficient. (Senge, 2009 p. 357-358) This is the prospect that gives meaning to this study and the action research it describes, as well as to the similar initiatives of the Lidera Program, in its efforts to develop and bring together business leaders in a network to consolidate their vision of sustainability and sustainable practices in the business world.

5.3. Possible Developments

189

As can be seen, in the final document produced by the action research group *121 they explicitly intend to continue with the learning process. Moreover, in the last meeting, they discussed the ways in which they could contribute to continuing the learning of Lidera network participants. It is clear, however, that this intention will not be enough, if they are not motivated by a desire that is capable of overcoming what Jaworsky (2005) calls my fears and my refusal to believe that I can make a difference in the worldthe who, me? syndrome (Jaworsky, 2005 p. 96 and 103). According to this author, leading has to do with creating the capacity to gain deeper knowledge and assimilate the surrounding reality and thus participate in its development in an effective way. In other words, leading forces people to deal with the creation of new realities (Jaworsky, 2005). Paulo Freire (1979) the renowned Brazilian educationalist, who hailed from the Northeast regionalso believed that change could only be achieved in a consistent fashion, if controlled by a conscious, active subject, committed to his or her history and surrounding reality.

Given this and the reflections of the lessons learnt from this experience and the possibilities for improving processes that enable group relations, methodologies and learning dynamics to flourish, it is to be expected that his experience will continue and develop into a collaborative learning community. This experience can also be used to study new methods to encourage self-directed learning among people with a profile similar to that of this group.

121

See Page 140

190

Furthermore, fostering a learning unit at the heart of the Lidera network may lead to developments, such as the networked action and research into new sustainable businesses for the region.

This study has produced important insights regarding what the world and the future expects from leadership for sustainability and the obstacles to its development. It has also led to practical applications for the Lidera Program and action research into collaborative learning with a group of business leaders, which reflected on factors that facilitate and imped their learning process and also on the pattern of light and shadows that permeates initiatives such as this. However, it should be borne in mind that this is a vast field of study, not only in terms of perfecting self-directed and collaborative learning, but, above all, in terms of new methodologies that may lead to the business leaders to produce or familiarize themselves with skills that they have never developed before.

Business schools and universities should take note of the words of Tagore (1994) cited in the preface to this dissertation, in which he reminds us that educating involves expression, not repression, nurturing not imprinting, and still less shaping peoples minds. Educating is developing and releasing oneself from the depth of ones being.

191

Bibliography References
Alcaraz, J. M. and Thiruvattal, E. (2010 ) An Interview With Manuel Escudero -The United Nations Principles for Responsible Management Education: A Global Call for Sustainability. University Of Dubai. Academy of Management Learning & Education, Vol. 9, No. 3, 542550. Anderson, R. (2009) Ray Anderson on The Business Logic of Sustainability. TED_Ideas worth spreading .filmed Feb 2009 http://www.ted.com/talks/ray_anderson_on_the_business_logic_of_sustainability.ht ml . Accessed in 24/09/2011 Alonso, V. (2009)"Dossi Liderana: A Teoria U e a Resposta para Crise" .HSM Management Newsletter N.72 Janeiro/Fevereiro. http://www.followscience.com/library_uploads/e37f9de42ac7ddacdb5d182a43c029b 3/619/teoria_u.pdf . Accessed in 24/09/2011 Ashley, P.A. (2005) tica e responsabilidade social nos negcios. ed. Saraiva. So Paulo Barkley, E.F.Cross, K.P.Major, C.H( 2005) "Collaborative Learning Thechniques: a handbook for College Faculty" San Francisco:Jossey-Bass BBC Brasil (2010) Para brasilianistas, desigualdade enfraquece crescimento URL: http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2010/09/100924_desenvolvimento_brasili anistas_rw.shtml . accessed 25.10.2011 BNB / ETENE (2010) Informe Setorial Indstria e Servios Nordeste: Necessidade de Investimentos e Convergncia do PIB per Capita . URL: http://www.bnb.gov.br/content/aplicacao/etene/etene/docs/iis_estim_cresc_pib_ne_ 2011.pdf . accessed in 25.10.2011 Bennis, Warren.(1996) A formao do lder. Atlas. So Paulo Bergamini. C. W.(1994) Liderana: administrao do sentido. Atlas . So Paulo: Boff, L.(2003). "Ethos Mundial: um concenso mnimo entre os humanos". Rio de Janeiro: Sextante Bos, L.( 2004) "Os Caminhos para a formao do Pedagogo Social". So Paulo. Associao de Pedagogia Social de Base Antroposfica. Ciclo de palestras realizadas entre 19 a 23 de Fevereiro de 1991

192

Broughton, P.D.(2009) "Harvards masters of the apocalypse: If his fellow Harvard MBAs are all so clever, how come so many are now in disgrace?" .The Sunday Times http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/education/article5821706.ece , acessed in 29/08/2011 at 7:45pm Burrell, G. and G. Morgan (1979) "Sociological Paradigms and Organizational" Analysis.London, Calil, L.,Marques, A.C., Santana, H. (2010)"Avaliao do Lidera- Programa de Desenvolvimento de Lideranas Empresariais Sustentveis". Instituto Ao Empresarial Pela Cidadania. No publicado. Capra, F.(1997) A Teia da Vida: uma nova compreenso dos sistemas vivos. Cultrix Amana-Key, So Paulo Capra, F. (2002) As Conexes ocultas: cincia para uma vida sustentvel. Cultrix. So Paulo Camargo, H.A (2011) "Lideres podem acelerar a transio para um mundo sustentvel" . Mercado tico. http://mercadoetico.terra.com.br/arquivo/%e2%80%9cliderespodem-acelerar-a-transicao-para-um-mundo-sustentavel%e2%80%9d/ . publicado em 30/08/2011. Accessed 02/09/2011 Campbell, J.(2008) "Mito e Transformao". traduo Frederico N. Ramos. So Paulo: gora Castells, M.(1999) "A Era da Informao: economia, sociedade e cultura", vol. 3, So Paulo: Paz e terra, 1999, p. 411-439 Cavalcanti, M.M. (2007)" Dimenses e Caractersticas da Responsabilidade Social Empresarial em Pernambuco" . Dissertao apresentada ao Curso de Mestrado Profissional em Gesto Empresarial da Faculdade Boa Viagem, como requisito complementar para obteno do grau de Mestre em Administrao. Recife Cohen, D.(2003)Os Dilemas da tica. In: Revista Exame. So Paulo: Editora Abril, Edio 792,v. 37, n 10, p. 35 Cooperrider, DL e Whitney, D. (2006) "Investigao Apreciativa - Uma abordagem positiva gesto de mudanas." Thorsons. So Paulo Cooperrider, Whitney DL e Stavros D., JM (2009) "Manual de Investigao Apreciativa Para Lderes da Mudana", Thorsons. So Paulo

193

Cortese, A.D. (2003)."The Critical Role of Higher Education in Creating a Sustainable Future". Marc-May 2003. http://www.scup.org/asset/48483/cortese.pdf accessed in 22/09/2011 Covey, S.M.R. (2008) "O Poder da Confiana: o elemento que faz toda diferena". So Paulo: Campus/Elsevier Cox, M. (2010) "Uma Articulao entre a Estrutura da Rede de Suporte e as Idias Compartilhadas Sobre Responsabilidade Social Empresarial na Rede Lidera". Dissertao apresentada como requisito complementar para obteno do grau de Mestre em Administrao, do Centro de Pesquisa e Ps-Graduao em Administrao (CPPA) da Faculdade Boa Viagem. Recife Dias, R. (2006) "Gesto ambiental: responsabilidade social e sustentabilidade". So Paulo: Atlas. Domeneghetti, D. (2009) "Ativos intangveis: como sair do deserto competitivo dos mercados e encontrar um osis de valor e resultados para sua empresa". Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier Dowbor, L.( 2009) "Inovao Social e Sustentabilidade" in: Hoyos Guevara, A.J. et.al.(orgs.) "Conscincia e Desenvolvimento Sustentvel nas Organizaes".Campus. p.01-25 Drucker, P.(1996) O Lder do Futuro vises, estratgias e prticas para uma nova era. So Paulo : Futura Duluc, A. (2000). "Liderana e confiana". Instituto Piaget. Lisboa. Feyerabend, Paul.(1989) Contra o mtodo. Rio de Janeiro: Francisco Alves Forgaty, T.(2007) "Approaches to Education Research". EDUC 792 UNE. URL: http://educ792.blogspot.com/2007/05/appreciative-inquiry.html Foutain,S.(1995). "Education for Development: a theachers resource for global learning".UNICEF.Hodder&Stoughton.Bath Freire, P.(1981) "Educao e Mudana". 3 edio. RJ: Paz e Terra. Gadotti, M. (1999). Pedagogia da terra: Ecopedagogia e educao sustentvel in: : Paulo Freire y la agenda de la educacin latinoamericana en el siglo XXI. Carlos Alberto Torres. CLACSO. 2001. ISBN: 950-9231-63-0 Acceso al texto completo: http://bibliotecavirtual.clacso.org.ar/ar/libros/torres/germano.pdf ; accessed in 09/11/2011

194

Gadotti, M.(2008) Educar para a sustentabilidade. So Paulo: Instituto Paulo Freire Gardner, H.(1994) Estruturas da Mente: a Teoria das Mltiplas Inteligncias. Porto Alegre: Artes Mdicas, Publicado originalmente em ingls com o ttulo: The frams of the mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, em 1983 Gil, A.C.(1999). Mtodos e tcnicas de pesquisa social. So Paulo: Atlas. Gil, A.C.(2008) Gesto de Pessoas: enfoque nos papis profissionais, Atlas. 1.ed. So Paulo. Goldman Suchs (2007) The World ANd The BRICs Dreams- Why The BRICs Dream Should Be Green Cap.8 - http://www2.goldmansachs.com/ideas/brics/book/BRICsChapter8.pdf . accessed 05.06.2011 Goleman, D.; Boyatzis, R.MCKee, A. (2002) "Os Novos Lderes: a inteligncia emocional nas organizaes" . Lisboa:Gradiva , ISBN 978-972-662-864-4 Gonalves, R.(1999) "Globalizao e Desnacionalizao". So Paulo: Paz e Terra Gonalves, R. (2002) A empresa transnacional. In: KUPFER, David; HASENCLEVER, Lia (orgs.). Economia Industrial: Fundamentos Tericos e Prticas no Brasil. 2 edio. Rio de Janeiro: Campus Guerra, S. at al.(2007) " Lidera: Relato de uma experincia para desenvolvimento de lideranas empresariais sustentveis" . Recife. Copiadora Nacional/JBR Engenharia. Edio limitada. Hargreaves, A. & Fink, D. (2007).Liderana sustentavel:desenvolvendo gestores da aprendizagem Artmed Editora. So Paulo. ISBN 0-7879-6838-2 Haq, M.ul (1976). The poverty curtain choices for the Third World. Nova York. Hawken, P. Lovins, A. e Hunter, L.( 2000) Capitalismo Natural Criando a prxima revoluo industrial .Editora: Cultrix / Amana-Key. So Paulo Hood, J.(1988) "Do corporations have social responsibilities? The Freeman: ideas on liberty", New York, v. 48, n.1,p. 680-684, November. Husserl, E.( 1990) A Idia da Fenomenologia. Traduo: Artur Moro. Lisboa: Edies 70. IBGE-Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estattica ( 2010) IDS- Indicadores de Desenvolvimento Sustentvel 2010: pas evolui em indicadores de sustentabilidade,

195

mas ainda h desigualdades socioeconmicas e impactos ao meio ambiente . URL: http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1 703&id_pagina=1. accessed in 25.10.2011 IPCC - PAINEL INTERGOVERNAMENTAL SOBRE MUDANA DO CLIMA (2007) "Mudana do Clima 2007: a base das cincias fsicas " . Sumrio para os Formuladores de Polticas. Aprovado formalmente na 10a sesso do Grupo de Trabalho I do IPCC, Paris, fevereiro de 2007. http://www.ccst.inpe.br/Arquivos/ipcc_2007.pdf. accessed in 10/08/2011 Jacobi, P.R., Raufflet, E. e ARRUDA, M.P. DE (2011) "Educao Para a Sustentabilidade nos Cursos de Administrao: Reflexo Sobre Paradigmas e Prticas" RAM, REV. ADM. Mackenzie, V. 12, N. 3, Edio Especial SO PAULO, SP MAIO/JUN. 2011 ISSN 1678-6971 Submisso: 16 jan. 2011. Aceitao: 18 mar. 2011. Sistema de avaliao: s cegas dupla (double blind review).UNIVERSIDADE PRESBITERIANA MACKENZIE. Walter Bataglia (Ed.), p. 21-50. Jackson, T. (2009) "Prosperity without growth? Economics for a finite Planet". London: Earthscan, . KOLB, D. A.; Jaworsky, J (2005) "Sinconicidade - o caminho interior para a liderana". Rio de Janeiro: Best Seller Kaplan, A. (2005)Artistas do Invisvel: o processo social e o profissional de desenvolvimento. Instituto Fonte para o desenvolvimento Social . So Paulo. Editora Peirpolis Kahane, A. (2010) Poder & Amor.Senac. So Paulo. Traduo: Nina Albuquerque. ISBN 978-85-7359-964-0 Kojve, A. (2002) Introduo leitura de Hegel. Rio de Janeiro :Contraponto: EDUERJ Kohl, Marta, (1997), Vygotsky Aprendizado e Desenvolvimento : Um processo Scio Histrico, Editora Scipione, So Paulo, SP, Brasil. Korin, M. ( 2011) "Em busca da Sustentabilidade: o caminho da responsabilidade social empresarial na Amrica Latina e a contribuio da Fundao AVINA". Este estudo est disponvel em www.avina.net . ISBN: 978-99967-632-0-5. acessado em 20/08/2011 Kotter, J. P. (1990) "A Force for Change: how leadership differ from management". New York: Free Press Lave, J. & Chaiklin, S.(eds.) (1993) Prtica de Compreenso: Perspectivas sobre a Actividade e Contexto , Cambridge: Cambridge University of Press.

196

Lavinas, L.(2011) Brasil reduz a intensidade da pobreza, mas no acaba com a misria http://mercadoetico.terra.com.br/arquivo/brasil-reduz-a-intensidade-dapobreza-mas-nao-acaba-com-a-miseria/ - accessed in 28.07.2011 at 11am Leff, E. (2006) "Racionalidade ambiental: a reapropriao social da natureza", traduo: Luis Carlos Cabral. Rio de Janeiro: Civilizao Brasileira, 2006. Lopes, J.(2008) "Especial Educao e Inovao para Sustentabilidade (parte 1)Publicado originalmente no site da revista Ideia Sustentvel. http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/2008/09/especial-educacao-e-inovacao-parasustentabilidade-parte-1/ accessed in 23/09/2011 Macartney, T (2007) "Finding Earth Findind Soul - The invisible path to authentic leadership" totnes: Green Books MacKinnon, M."Best not to ignore growing weight of BRICS", The Globe and Mail. Page: http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/best-not-to-ignoregrowing-weight-of-brics/article1985047/ visited in 25/10/2011 Maquiavel,N.(1513) "O Prncipe".Ministrio da Educao do Brasil. http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/download/texto/cv000052.pdf. Cap.XVII.p.64 e 65. acessado em 15.09.2011 Marrewijk, M.van (2002). "Concepts and Definitions of CSR and Corporate Sustainability - between agency and communion" - Journal of Business Ethics Volume 44, Numbers 2-3, 95-105, DOI: 10.1023/A:1023331212247 Maturana, H.R. & Varela, F. J.(2003) "A rvore do Conhecimento: as bases biolgicas da compreenso humana. So Paulo:Palas Athenas Maximiano, A.C.( 1995). "Alm da Hierarquia: como implantar estratgias participativas para administrar a empresa enxuta".Atlas. So Paulo Meadows, D.L. at all (1972). "Limites do crescimento : um relatrio para o Projeto do Clube de Roma sobre o dilema da humanidade". So Paulo, Perspectiva. Morin, E. (2001) Os sete Saberes Necessrios Educao do Futuro 3a. ed. - So Paulo - Cortez; Braslia, DF: UNESCO Morin, E. (1999) "A cabea bem-feita: repensar a reforma, reformar o pensamento" traduo Elo Jacobina. 8a ed. Rio de Janeiro: Bertrand Brasil, p.13 e 14

197

Montana, P. J. Charnov, B.H. (2003)" Administrao". Traduo Robert Brian Taylor. Saraiva. So Paulo Nye , J. (2010). "The Future of Power". Washington, DC: PublicAffairs. 320p. ISBN-10: 9781586488918 Ncleo Minerva da Universidade de vora( 2001) Aprendizagem Colaborativa Assistida por Computador. Disponvel em: <http://www.minerva.uevora.pt/cscl/>. Accessed in 20/10/2011. Oliveira, J. A.de( 1984) Responsabilidade social em pequenas e mdias empresas. Revista de Administrao de Empresas. v. 24, n. 4, p. 203-210 Orr, D. (2009)"Foreword" in: STERLING, S. "Sustainable Education: re-visioning learning and change" Schumacher Briefings. No.6.Totnes: Green Books Orr, D.(2009) "Earth in Mind : on education, environment and the human prospect". Washington DC: Island Press Pallof, R.M. & Pratt, K.(2002) Estimulando a Aprendizagem Colaborativa. In: Construindo Comunidades de Aprendizagem no Ciberespao: estratgias eficientes para salas de aula on-line. Porto Alegre: Artmed PAN-BRASIL (2004) Programa de Ao Nacional de Combate Desertificao e Mitigao dos Efeitos da Seca PAN-Brasil. Ministrio do Meio Ambiente Segretaria de Recursos Hidricos. URL: http://www.aspan.org.br/riodbrasil/pt/documentos/PAN.pdf . accessed 25.10.2011 Panitz, T (1997) "Collaborative Versus Cooperative Learning: Comparing the Two Definitions Helps Understand the nature of Interactive learning" T. Panitz Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, V8, No. 2, Winter 1997 . http://home.capecod.net/~tpanitz/tedsarticles/coopdefinition.htm >. Accessed: 20/10/2011. Parkin, S. ( 2010) "The Positive Deviant - Sustainability Leadership in a Perverse World" . London: Earthscan Podolny, J.M. (2009) "Are Business Schools to Blame?". Harvard Business Review. March 30. http://blogs.hbr.org/how-to-fix-business-schools/2009/03/are-businessschools-to-blame.html accessed in 21/09/2011

198

Podolny, J.M ( 2009)" A Responsabilidade Termina (e comea) na Faculdade de Administrao. Revista Harvard Business Review. edio de Junho de 2009. p63/64. http://www.livecontent.in/roomreading/accenture3.pdf Popper, Karl.( 1993) A lgica da pesquisa cientfica. So Paulo: Cultrix, Rego, A.; Cunha, M.P.e. (2004) "A Essncia da liderana". Lisboa : RH. Robbins, S. P. (2005) Comportamento Organizacional. So Paulo: Prentice Hall. Savitz, A.W.; Weber, K.(2007) "A Empresa Sustentvel: o verdadeiro sucesso o lucro com responsabilidade social e ambiental". Traduo Afonso Celso da Cunha Serra. Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier Senge, P. (2006) "A Quinta Disciplina : A Arte e a Prtica da Organizao de Aprendizagem " .Moeda. US. ISBN 0-385-51725-4 Senge.P. Scharmer,O. Jaworsky,J. Flowers. B.S. (2007) Presena: Propsito humano e o campo do futuro. Sol Brasil The Society For organizacional Learning. So Paulo. Cultrix Senge, P.(2009) A Revoluo Decisiva: como indivduos e organizaes trabalham em parceria para criar um mundo sustentvel. Traduo Afonso Celso da Cuna Serra . Elsevier/Campus. So Paulo. ISBN 978-1-85755-373-2 Scharmer.C.O (2010) "Teoria do U : como liderar pela percepo e realizao do futuro emergente". So Paulo. Ed.Elsevier. ISBN978-85-352-388-5 Solow, R. M. (1973)." Is the end of the world at hand?" Challenge, 16, March-April, pp. 39-50. Solow, R. M. (1974). "The economics of resources or the resources of economics". American Economic Review, 64, pp. 1-14. Silva, A.; Duarte, A.; S, I. e Simo, A. (2004). Aprendizagem auto-regulada pelo estudante: perspectivas psicolgicas e educacionais. (pp. 11-39). Porto: Porto Editora Simo, A. (2002). "Aprendizagem Estratgica: uma aposta na auto-regulao". Lisboa: Ministrio da Educao. http://catalogo.biblioteca.iscte-iul.pt/cgi-bin/koha/opacdetail.pl?biblionumber=33054 assessed in 03/09/2011 Springett, D.(2010) "Education for Sustainability in the Business Studies Curriculum: Ideological Struggle" in JONES, P, SELBY,D. STERLING,S. "Sustainability Education: perspetive an practice across higher education". London: Earthscan

199

Sterling, S.(2009) "Sustainable Education: re-visioning learning and change" Schumacher Briefings. No.6.Totnes: Green Books Stern, N.(2006) The Economics of Climate Change. [The Stern Review]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Downloadable from:http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/ accessed in 10/08/2011 Stopford, J.M.; Strange, S.; Henley, J.S. (1995) Rival States, Rival Firms: competition for world market shares. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Taylor, J; Marais, D. and Kaplan, A.(1997) "Action Learning for Development: Use your experience to improve your effectiveness". Juta and Co. Ltd. 1997 72 pages (Soft cover). Out of print but photocopies are available in: http://www.cdra.org.za/site/Bookshop/Book%20Order%20Form.htm Tagore, R.S.(1974)O caminho da realizao. So Paulo: Paulus; p.7. Terra, J. G.(2002) "Portais corporativos: a revoluo na gesto do conhecimento". So Paulo: Negcio Editora. Trivios, A.N.S (1992) Introduo pesquisa em cincias sociais: a pesquisa qualitativa em educao. So Paulo: Atlas Troxel, J.P. (2002 - unpublished). Appreciative Inquiry: An Action Research Method for Organizational Transformation and its Implications to the Practice of Group Process Facilitation, Millennia Consulting, LLC, Chicago, Illinois, retrieved 5 may 2007 from http://appreciativeinquiry.case.edu/uploads/Troxel%20Appreciative%20Inquiry8-02.d Tzu, S. (2001). "A Arte da Guerra". So Paulo: Martin Claret United Nations ( 2010) " A Reestruturao do Desenvolvimento Mundial" World Economic an Social Survey. Departamento de Assuntos Econmicos e Sociais. http://www.unric.org/html/portuguese/pdf/2010/WESS_Versao_UNRIC.pdf Wallerstein, I.(2005) "World systems analysis: an introduction. Durham: Duke Universi Press Wenger, E.(1998) "Communities of Practice: learning, meaning, and identity ". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Wenger, Etienne (2007) "Comunidades de prtica. Uma breve introduo ". Comunidades de prtica http://www.ewenger.com/theory/ . Accessed in 28/10/2011

200

Wheatley, M.(1993) Chaos and Complexity:Teach?" Margareth J.Wheatly Site http://www.margaretwheatley.com/articles/Wheatley-Chaos-and-Complexity.pdf accessed 22/09/2011 Wheatley, M. & Frieze, D. (2011) "Leadership in the Age of Complexity: From Hero to Host". Totnes: Resurgence Magazine, Winter 2011. http://www.margaretwheatley.com/articles/Leadership-in-Age-of-Complexity.pdf. Accessed 24/09/2011 Veiga, J. E.(2010) "Sustentabilidade A legitimao de um novo valor". Sena. So Paulo Vergara, S.C.(1999) "Gesto de Pessoas". So Paulo : Atlas. Villa, R.D. (1999) "Formas de Influncia da ONGs na Poltica Internacional Contepornea, Revista de sociologia e Poltica, N.12, Universidade Federal do Paran, Curitiba, Brasil Voltolini, R. ( 2010) "Sustentabilidade em Srie: os quatro desafios complexos". Revista Idia Sustentvel. http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/2010/03/os-quatro-desafioscomplexos/ Publicado em 23/03/2010 acessado em 20/08/2011 Voltolini, R.(2011) Tributo a um lder sustentvel: Ray Anderson . Publicado originalmente no site da revista Ideia Sustentvel. 10/8/2011 - 09h25. http://www.ideiasustentavel.com.br/tag/ray-anderson/ .Accessed in 10/09/2011 Zweig. C. & Abrams.J.(1991)" Ao Encontro da Sombra: O Potencial Oculto do Lado Escuro da Natureza Humana " So Paulo: Pensamento-Cultrix

201

ANNEX ETHICAL PROTOCOL

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228