Plant tissues (2 main groups)

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue Meristematic Tissue Very large nucleolus and dense cytoplasm Undifferent small and cubic-tightly packed (no air space) Constintantly dividing mitosis Found in roots,stem ,shoot-tips,between vascular bundles and axillary buds. Primary meristematic made from embryonic tissue example Apical meristematic cells- stem and roots and they are used to add length Secondary meristematic made from differentiated tissue that become meristematic example Lateral meristematic tissue(lateral growth)- 1) Cork Cambian add outer bark of trees 2) vascular Cambian xylem and phloem Adds girth (thickness) Develop into Permanent tissue Permanent tissue Repair Structurally specialized with a specific function Found everywhere except where meristematic tissue is present Permanent tissue is divided into 3 groups 1. Ground tissues (Parenchyma, collenchyma and Sclerenchyma) 2. Epidermal Tissue 3. Vascular Tissue(Xylem and Phloem)

Ground Tissues
1) Parenchyma Found in herbaceous plants Large vacuoles,thin celled,oval in shape Tightly packed Intracellular air space Function : Packaging tissue Support due to turgid vacuoles Storage (water,sugars and starches) Gaseous exchange Photosynthesis NB ! Some Parenchyma cells contain chlorophyll and are know as chlorenchyma examples are the palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll layer in leaves.

2) Collenchyma Very thick uneven wall Contains lots of cellulose even thicker at angles Few/No intermolecular air spaces-Tightly packed Found below epidermis in stems May contain chloroplast Function: Support and flexibility leaves and stems Strengthen plants May produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis

3) Sclerenchyma Evenly thickened and hollow Impregnated with lignin Become dead cells as they mature loose their nucleus and organelles Contain lumen in the center The contain pits or canals that link adjacent cells 2 types of Sclerenchyma Scleroids-Short,pitted and thick Fibres-Tapered and elongated Function: Add structural strength and support Scleroids shells in nuts or pear and found in seeds Fibres found in vascular tissue(play a role in transport of water)

Epidermal Tissue
Brick shaped Thin celled Single layer Completely surround the plant No intercellular air spaces as tightly packed Protect your inner tissues from damage(physical injury and infection)

Modified Epidermal tissue

1) Guard Cells Kidney shaped (bean shaped) Surround a pore or stomata(plural) and regulates size of opening Allow for gaseous exchange to take place(Photosynthesis, Cellular respiration and transpiration) Found usually on lower epidermis of leaves but found on green stems and leaves Contain chloroplast (thin outer wall and thin inner wall)

2) Trichomes Multi-cellular outgrowths Found on stems and leaves Trap layer of moisture ;therefore ,reduce water loss May be white/silver and reflect sunlight thus reduce water loss May be glandular and secrete poisonous substances eg. Stinging nettles contain trichomes that secret poisons that irritate the skin.

3) Root hairs Found on the tip of roots Elongated cell wall that penetrates through soil particles+ thin cell wall (easy osmosis)+unicellular Large vacuole creates a low concentration of water in cell compared to soil thus causing osmosis to take place(creates diffusion gradient) Large surface area for maximum absorption of water and mineral salts Absorbs water into cytoplasm and vacuole through osmosis. NO CUTICLE

Vascular Tissue
Phloem
Transports food in a solution form the leaves of a plant to an area of growth or storage by means of translocation Consists of 2 main cells 1) Sieve tubes and 2) Companion cells and contains fibers(sclerenchyma) and parenchyma

1) Sieve tubes Elongated Thin celled Hollow-no nucleus Dividing wall between cell= perforated and known as sieve plates which allow phloem sap to travels from one cell to the next 2) Companion Cells Contains nucleus Found next to sieve tube Regulates metabolic activity of sieve tubes Linked to sieve plates by small canals with cytoplasm

Xylem
Transportation of water and mineral salts from the roots up to the rest of the plant Consists of 2 main cells 1) Xylem vessels and 2) Tracheids. (both do not contain cytoplasm) Strengthen and support plant

1) Xylem Vessels Dead and hollow(lumen) Elongated Lignified walls(adapt to cohesion and adhesion) Contains pits(perforated walls) Cross walls perforated or absent = rapid flow of water 2) Tracheid Dead Long and tapered Lignified(adapt to cohesion and adhesion) Contains pits

Organs of A Plant
Stem-is divided into 4 main regions
1) The epidermis surrounds the stem(transparent) 2) Below the epidermis there is collenchyma (added strength ) and parenchyma in the center for packaging ( collenchyma and parenchyma= cortex) 3) Pirth = cylinder of parnechyma tissue found in the center 4) In dicotyledens vascular bundles forms a ring to separate the cortex from the pirth- appear in a circular shape with xylem towards the center and phloem towards the outer. Xylem and phloem separated by cambian tissue.

Roots-contains 4 parts
1) Surrounded by the epidermis and may have modified epidermal cells ie: root hairs. 2) Below the epidermis is the cortex that is comprised of parenchyma cells used for storage. 3) Innermost cortex contains a single layer of tightly packed cells known as endodermis.The cell wall of endodermis cells contain a casparian strip which is waterproof and prevents movement of water to other cells . Directs water to xylem vessel. 4) Inside the ring of casparian strip is pericycle cells that are meristem cells used for division of cells for growth. 5) Vascular bundle is in the middle with the xylem being in the center in a cross shape this provides strength to withstand pulling forces to which roots are exposed to .

Leaf- made of petiole and leaf blade

Adaptations 1) A leaf has a large surface area and is flattened which allows for maximum sunlight to be absorbed 2) Leaf is thin for sunlight to penetrate and is borne on a petiole to expose maximum area to the sun 3) Leaf is covered by a waxy layer known as the cuticle which prevents water loss 4) Epidermal cells are brick shaped and completely transparent with no other organells beside nucleus thus light can penetrate right through to palisade layer. 5) Palisade cells are rectangular ,at 900 - elongated for deeper penetration of light,full of chloroplast ,thin celled,densly packed near the surface to absorb maximum sunlight. 6) Spongy mesophyll is loosely packed and forms intermolecular air spaces which is important for gaseous exchange. May contain chloroplast. 7) Stomata (makes gaseous exchange better) found in lower epidermis as prevents water loss as away from the sun . Guard cells can open and close the pore when dry =close but when filled with water = swell and open up. 8) Vascular bundles located in veins usually brached from the main vein known as a midrib.Xylem found on the top and phloem usually at the bottom.Xylem vessels and tracheid lignified thus provide the leaf with support from the vein. How are leaves adapted to prevent water loss ? 1) Stomata located under the leaf 2) Stomata sunken into leaf to accumulate a diffusion shell thus decreasing diffusion gradient 3) A leaf will contain less stomata 4) Stomata closed during hottest time of day 5) Increased thickness of cuticle 6) Increased shininess of cuticle 7) Reduced size of leaf=reduction of epidermis=reduction of water loss 8) Presence a layer of epidermal hair (acts same way as trichomes) 9) Leaves can overlap providing shade for one another

Transpiration loss of water (water vapour) from eg.leaves or eg. stomata

Water absorbed by the terrestrial plants from the roots through an unbroken tube to stems and leaves 2% reaches the leaves and is used in photosynthesis 98% evaporated through the stomata 10% through the cuticle

How ?
water diffuses from xylem vessels to the leaves via osmosis water evaporates from wet cell walls to the intercellular air space in the spongy mesophyll layer Until intermolecular air spaces are saturated with water vapour Moist air had direct contact with air outside via the stomata It will then go down a diffusion gradient .

Why ?
Plants need transpirational pull for transportation of water for photosynthesis Absorption of water with dissolved mineral salts carries mineral salts to rest of the plant Evaporation cools the leaf

Factors that influence transpiration

+ transpiration
Wind ON still day layers of water vapor collect around stomata known as diffusion shells . Whne diffusion shell builds water vapor in air space and air is similar therefore no diffusion .Windy days no diffusion shells are created therefore diffusion takes place as steep concentration gradient created-wind blows water vapor away. Low humidity-dry atmosphere means hardly no water vapor in the air High temperature increased evaporation as high temperature decrease humidity of atmosphere.

- transpiration
Light intensity stomata closed High humidity lots of moisture in the atmosphere therefore the concentration of water vapor in the air and leaf is similar.

Transpirational Pull-(AKA suction force of transpiration)

Uptake of water through a column from the roots to the leaves is maintained by the transpirational pull When one water evaporates from a leaf it exerts a force to pull another molecule via the roots to take its place creating a continuous water column It only works as Xylem vessels diameters are very small if they were large they would break under extreme force Helped by the properties of water Cohesion which is the intermolecular forces that causes water molecules to stick together Adhesion which causes the water molecules to stick to the inside of the xylem vessels.

Guttation
Loss of water through pores on leaf Pores=hydathodes Hydathodes found on edges and tips of leaves Caused by environmental conditions ie: moisture in the soil is high/abundant and root pressure is increased thus an excess amount of moisture/water is pumped into the xylem vessels and into the stem then leaves Water is abundant in leaves and pressure in xylem forces the water out of the hydathodes. Not dew as dew covers the whole surface area whereas guttation only covers the edge of the leaves.

Movement of water form root hair to Xylem vessels.

Water from soil diffuses to eg root hair cell and dilutes the cell increasing the water potential. Water goes through a process of osmosis to enter root hair cell Water then diffuses into outer cortex of roots down a diffusion gradient This causes a gradient of water potential to set up in the cortex of the root 3 possible routes 1)Apoplast ; 2) Symplast and 3)Vacuolar

1) Apoplast Cell walls-fluid filled cellulose space Cell walls are thick and very open thus allowing water to travel by diffusion and preventing it from osmosis in cell membrane Passive and caused by transpirational pull Main route which water travels across the root cortex Travels this way if transpiration level is high Interrupted by casparian strip(impermeable) of endodermis cells which seals cell walls

 (7)

Now water has to travel by osmosis as it has to cross cell membrane and enter the symplast way(some control by plant)

2) Symplast Passes through the cytoplasm Passive and moves down a diffusion gradient-water potential gradient Cytoplasm joined by plasmodesmata- which allows water to travel Travels through the symplast route during normal conditions when water supply is adequate 3)Vacuolar Passes through vacuoles and cytoplasm Movement of water is passive and moves down a water potential gradient Very little water travels this way 3 Factors that causes water to move from roots to leaves 1)Transpirational Pull 2)Root pressure 3)Capillarity 2) Root Pressure Pressure that causes water to travels from the root to the xylem Caused by osmosis(water) and active transport(salts) to xylem Maintains a concentration gradient 3) Cappilarity Liquids to rise and fall as a result of surface tension Xylem tubes = extreamly narrow and capillarity contributes to upward flow of water in vessels Caused by intermolecular forces of water ( cohesion and adhesion)

Transporatation of mineral salts

Minerals are found dissolved in soil water as dissolved mineral salts Mineral salts= mineral ions If concentration in soil high then mineral salts will enter root by diffusion Ions can also enter root by active transport if concentration is lower in soil than cytoplasm and vacuole

Translocation
Transport of organic substances and minerals in the plant Vascular tissue (minerals = xylem and organic substances = phloem) Always travels from a source (eg. Leaves ) to a sink (eg growing roots) Carbohydrates synthesized in mesophyll (palisade and spongy mesophyll) of leaves and then is actively transported into sieve tubes Solute such as simple sugar concentrated in cell -> water enter cell by osmosis Plant cells have rigid cell wall and inflow of water creates pressure This pressure causes sap to move down sieve tubes Once it reaches eg the sinks -> sugar is actively transported into the surrounding cells from the phloem

Plant Sap Water,sucrose,amino acids,mineral and hormones Soluble therefore easily transports carbohydrates Sucrose ,once reached the sink, can change into glucose and fructose >stored as starch or used as a raw material for the manufacturing of complex organic molecules ie proteins and lipids.