Ingenienr-Archiv59 (1989)138--147

Ingenieur-Archiv
9 Springer-Verlag 1989

Analytical methods in limit analysis*

A. Drescher, Minneapolis

Summary: The paper presents some analytical kinematic solutions of limit analysis problems in geotechnics and related fields that have been recently obtained at the University of Minnesota. Emphasis is placed on steady and pseudo-steady flow problems that may model certain processes, and on the implications of yield condition nonlinearity. The examples pertain to plane-strain, axisymmetrie and general three-dimensional problems. Also, the possible extension of the kinematic method of limit analysis on hardening incompressible and contracting/dilating materials is discussed. Finally, a simple periodic shear band formation process is analyzed.

Analytische Methoden bei Traglastveffahren t~bersieht: Der Beitrag stellt einige analytische kinematische L6sungen yon Traglastproblemen in der Geotechnik and verwandten Gebieten vor, die jfingst an der Universit~t yon Minnesota erarbeitet wurden. Der Akzent liegt bei Problemen mit stetigem und pseudo-stetigem plastischem FlieBen und den Folgen einer Niehtlinearit~t der Fliel~bedingung. Die Beispiele betreffen ebene Form~nderung sowie axialsymmetrische und allgemein dreidimensionale Aufgabenstellungen. Dariiber hinaus wird die m6gliche Erweiterung der kinematischen Methode der Traglastverfahren auf verfestigende Werkstoffe mit oder ohne Volumen~nderung er6rtert. Zum Abschlu~ wird eine einfache periodische Bildung yon Scherb~ndern untersucht.

Introduction

Plastic limit analysis is a well-established method for evaluating limit loads on engineering structures. There is plentiful literature describing its fundamentals and applications in civil and geoengineering. Full-scale and model tests have been conducted to compare solutions with the response of real structures and the results are incorporated in design codes. Yet, research interest in limit analysis solutions seems continuing, particularly as a reference for numerical solutions. Also, a relative ease in solving geometrically complex multi-dimensional problems renders limit analysis attractive as an alternative to numerical codes. I n this paper, some analytical kinematic solutions of limit analysis problems in geotechnics t h a t have been recently obtained at the University of Minnesota are presented. The kinematic method of limit analysis hinges on constructing a velocity field t h a t is admissible for a rigid-perfectly plastic material obeying the associative flow rule. B y equating the rate of energy dissipated in the velocity field and the rate of external work, an upper bound to the true load inducing collapse or a lower bound to the true load resisting collapse is obtained. Simple translational and rotational velocity fields t h a t approximate failure mechanisms observed in tests often yield satisfactory results; in these fields the energy is dissipated exclusively along velocity discontinuities. The rate of energy dissipation per unit area of discontin u i t y is (Fig. l a )

b = ~[v,]

~[w].

(1)

* Presented at the workshop on Limit Ana.lysis and Bifurcation Theory, held at the University of Karlsruhe (FRG), February 22--25, 1988

A. Dreseher: Analytical methods in limit analysis

139

c "t L.~Fig. 1. a Stress vector and velocity jump; b velocity discontinuity as thin material layer; c velocity discontinuity as shock

iv t]

- ,, /~vg

For the linear Mohr-Coulomb yield condition the velocity jump is inclined at the angle of internal friction, qb, and (1) reduces to

2)

c[ v ~]

(2)

where c is the cohesion; eq. (2) is independent of the magnitude of the stress vector and implies shear-type of velocity discontinuity.

Steady and pseudo-steady flow problems

Limit analysis in geotechnics has been applied predominantly to incipient flow problems, e.g., stability of slopes, bearing capacity of foundations. Many engineering problems are processes, however, and an advanced rather than initial state of deformation may become important. In some cases, a state can be identified where neither the external load nor the failure mechanism undergoes changes with time and the process can be regarded as steady, e.g., tilling operations, discharge of bulk materials from bins, and snow plowing. In solving steady flow problems for frictional/cohesive solids, rigid-motion mechanisms can be successfully applied. However, the interpretation of the strong velocity discontinuity as a thin material layer undergoing shear/dilation (Fig. l b), and that is valid for incipient flow, is no longer correct. In steady flow, the particles travel across stationary discontinuity which can be regarded as a shock (Fig. 1 c). This also applies to pseudo-steady flow problems where the failure mechanism is geometrically self-similar. From the principle of mass conservation the relation between the densities, ~1 and ~ , and the velocity normal components, V~ and V~, on both sides of the shock is (cf. [12])

o,(v~-

v~)= ~,,(v~-

v,)

(~)

where V~ is the speed of propagation of the velocity discontinuity. The consequence of (3) is the different density in the various rigid-motion regions separated by velocity discontinuities. This affects the magnitude of external work due to gravitational forces (y ~ const.) and, thus, the magnitude of the limit load. Furthermore, in contrast to incipient flow, the geometry of a steady or pseudo-steady flow problem may not be uniquely defined and be part of the solution. This can be illustrated in pseudosteady wedge indentation into a weightless frictional/cohesive solid with translationa] failure
P[kN] = 30 ~ ~ = ~ 5 ~ c=12 kN/m 2

~
a
re

200 ~ d Shield (1955)/

_t
i I d[m]

l~ig. 2a and b. Wedge indentation; a failure mechanism, b force of indentation vs depth of indentation

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Ingenieur-Arehiv 59 (1989)

mechanism consisting of two blocks, see Fig. 2a and [12]. The inclination and the length of the lips are unknown, and must be so selected that the mass displaced by the wedge equals the mass of the deformed region. The densities in the deformed region can be determined from (3) with Vp resulting from translation of the velocity discontinuities. The solid line in Fig. 2b shows the dependence of the limit force on the depth of indentation obtained by optimizing the geometry of the above failure mechanism to arrive at minimum load. The results represented by the dashed line pertain to the solution obtained in [24] where the method of characteristics was used. Clearly, the rigid-motion mechanism, however simple, yields lower limit load. This is not surprising as the inclination of the lips differs in both solutions; two different boundary-value problems were actually solved.
P cdw

c _

so

/
]
///#"

/9= 60"

/I l//

45~
o

6O
I

//
/ / # .1

4o

2O

9 # /i .,~ " " ,s

incipient

d
I
a b 4

I
8

IW
12

Fig, 8a and b. Wedge cutting; a failure mechanism, b cutting force vs depth of wedge

Figure 3 a shows an example of translational steady failure mechanism around a wedge prism cutting an initially flat layer of an incompressible material. If behind the prism an open grove is postulated, the material must undergo uplift to preserve mass conservation (three-dimensional mechanism). This also applies to dilating material. Figure 3b gives a relationship between the least cutting force and depth of the wedge for various wedge angles. The failure mechanisms admissible for steady or pseudo-steady flow are also admissible for incipient flow whereas the opposite does not necessarily hold. This may lead, sometimes, to underestimating of the limit load if the problem is regarded as incipient. For instance, considering the wedge cutting process as incipient, with flat upper surface of the layer and velocities corresponding to steady flow, lower limit load is obtained due to area reduction of dissipating energy surfaces. This is shown in Fig. 3b by dashed lines.

Nonlinear yield

condition

Motivated by soils behavior at moderate compressive normal stresses, linear Mohr-Coulomb yield condition has been utilized overwhelmingly in the limit analysis calculations. However, the extrapolation of this yield condition into the range of tensile stresses greatly overestimates the failure of frictional/cohesive materials. This is often corrected by postulating a tension cut-off which, for plane-strain problems, leads to nonlinear portion of the yield condition (Fig. 4a). For high normal stresses, where grain crushing becomes significant, a linear yield condition no longer adequately describes the material behavior. There is some evidence in the case of frozen soils and powder-like materials that their yield condition is nonlinear even at low normal stresses (Fig. 4b).

A. Drescher: Analytical methods in limit analysis

141

c~
E

b Fig. 4a and b. Mohr-Coulomb yield condition; a linear with a tension cut-off, b nonlinear Nonlinearity of the yield condition affects the admissible shape of velocity discontinuities separating rigid-motion blocks; for plane-strain problems and linear condition either a strMghtline or log-spiral are admissible. For a nonlinear condition any curvilinear shape is admissible as long as the local inclination of the velocity discontinuity to the velocity jump does not fall outside the range of angles ~' defining local slope (Fig. 4b). Consequently, the shape alone of velocity discontinuities defines neither the type of rigid-motion mechanism nor the direction of velocities in each rigid-motion region. For example, straight velocity discontinuity m a y apply equally to translational and rotational mechanisms. For nonlinear yield condition the rate of energy dissipation becomes dependent on the magnitude of the stress vector acting at the velocity discontinuity. This is because only one component of the stress vector can be eliminated from (1). To remove this indeterminancy, the inclination of the velocity jumps along discontinuity must be known which, in turn, depends on the shape of the discontinuity and the mechanism selected. This greatly complicates the calculation of the best limit load and, except slope stability problems, little has been done to arrive at optimization schemes. I n [3], nonlinear differential equations through variational cMcules formulation , governing the bearing capacity of a strip footing on a slope and a rotational failure mechanism were derived. An effective numerical algorithm for solving these equations was recently presented in [26]. The difficulties associated with solving nonlinear equations can be avoided if the nonlinear condition is properly approximated b y a linear one [16]. A rigorous upper bound approximation for loads inducing collapse is obtained if the linear condition lies outside the nonlinear condition. If the slope of a nonlinear yield envelope is a monotone decreasing function of t h e normal stress, any linear condition represented b y a straight line tangent to the envelope lies entirely outside (Fig. 4b). K n o w n solutions for the linear yield condition can be then utilized, and the optimization procedure reduces to finding the best linear yield condition, i.e., the location of the tangency point. For the problem of stability of a free-of-surcharge slope, nonlinear stability factor N n can be expressed as
N n = 7H/c = N~c'Ic (4)

where N l is the stability factor for the linear yield condition with angle ~b'. Numerical results for a horizontal slope inclined at angle fl, rotational failure mechanism (log-spiral) and nonlinear yield condition considered in [26], are shown in Table 1. Upper values in each row were obtained in [26], lower ones were calculated from (4) in [16] using iVt factors given in [7]. The difference in both solutions is less than 1%. Table 1. Stability factors N n (yield condition ~t = c(1 + A~n)~/~; c = 90, A = 0.004) m Slope angle fl 90~ 1.2 1.6 2.0 5.13 5.15 4.73 4.76 4.52 4.55 75~ 6.77 6.79 6.04 6.07 5.66 5.70 60~ 8.95 8.99 7.61 7.65 6.97 7.02 45~ 12.55 12.60 9.70 9.85 8.78 8.82

142 4 Three-dimensional and axisymmetrie failure mechanisms

Ingenieur-Archiv 59 (1989)

The rigid-motion failure mechanisms have found application to problems geometrically other than plane, i.e., where the extent of the mechanism is finite in all directions [23]. More recent examples are: the stability of frictionless slopes [2, 17], the incipient flow of rubble ice around off-shore structures [18], and the steady flow mechanism shown in Fig. 3a. Figure 5a shows a symmetrical half of a three-dimensional translational failure mechanism in a frictional/cohesive slope loaded over a finite area [22]. In Fig. 5b the relationship between the limit load and the loaded area is depicted; the limit load decreases with increasing length of the loaded area, asymptotieMly approaching the limit load for slope of infinite length. In other words, local failure mechanisms yield always greater stability than the plane ones. Another three-dimensional failure mechanism in pseudo-steady pyramidal rock-splitting was considered in [19]. The translational failure mechanisms may also find application in stability analyses of shallow cylindrical or prismatic excavations, wells and boreholes. Although the geometry of a cylindrical well suggests axisymmetric failure, local imperfections may trigger failure that is limited to a portion of the wall. Figure 6 a shows application of a translational failure mechanism for analyzing formation of an empty cylindrical channel in a frictional/cohesive material discharged from a bin [13]. The single-block mechanism is bounded by three flat shear velocity discontinuity surfaces and cy]indrical discontinuity surface coinciding with the bin wall where shear/separation is assumed, i.e., a tension cut-off of the bonding yield condition with friction qbw = 4) and cohesion cw =< c. Stability graphs useful in bin design can be then constructed, an example of which is given in Fig. 6b. It is interesting to note that the number of like blocks in Fig. 6a is not unlimited if ~ > 0. This is because all flat surfaces must be inclined at angle 4 to the velocity of the block, which causes its vertical sides to diverge towards the well. In other words, an increase of the number of blocks does not lead to axisymmetric mechanism. Axisymmetric failure mechanisms toward a cylindrical well induce circumferential strainrates g0 = ~ > 0 (compressive), and rigid-motion mechanisms with ~0 = 0 are inadmissible.
o b

q ~[\\

o ),'b/c=1.25 4=20, /3"45~

-ff
8

/~

b 0

Fig. 5a and b. Frictional/cohesive slope; a failure mechanism, b surface limit load vs load area

H 0.4

uns~ble )/

.@jfro,,on
b 0 //"

_ _~ //

R2/H=0.4

s-table 0.05
I

l~ig. 6a and b. Cylindrical slope; a local failure mechanism, b s~ability chart;

A. Drescher: Analytical methods in limit analysis Z

143

h R~ Vz

H
~ ,

i i
b

o- 2

ir

Fig. 7. a Octahedral cross-section of the Mohr-Coulomb yield condition, b velocity characteristics in cylindrical slope c deformed velocity characteristics The construction of velocity fields applicable to axisymmetrie problems requires a detailed inspection of the various possible relations between the three principal strain-rates, and that result from the flow rule associative with the linear Mohr-Coulomb yield condition [9]. Referring to Fig. 7a, which shows a cross-section of the Mohr-Coulomb pyramid by an octahedral plane, three strain-rate regimes are possible for motion toward the axis of symmetry: a. corner A (the Haar-von Karman regime), b. corner B, and e. side AB. The principal strainrates satisfy then the expressions
~1 -~ h2 ~- 83 - - (h2 - - ~1 - - ~a)
(h I

sin 4 = 0,

~1>0, 4<0,

ha>0

atA;

~- h2) (1

--

sin 4) @ 4( 1 + sin 4) = 0,

~1 < 0, h2 < 0, h] > 0 at B; h~<0, 4:0, ha>0 onAB.

(5)

hi(1 -- sin 4) @ ha(1 + sin 4) = 0,

For frictionless materials, (5) reduces to the incompressibility condition

~v~ ~v~ v~ ~r +-~-z + - = ~

(6)

which greatly simplifies construction of admissible velocity fields. It suffices, indeed, to postulate the distribution of one of the velocity components, say Vr, and the component Vz can be then obtained by integration of (6). Examples of incompressible velocity fields are given in [5, 6, 11]. However, if 4 > 0 and regimes A and AB are considered, this procedure fails because (5) expressed in terms of the velocity components become now nonlinear and contain more than two partial derivatives. A semi-inverse approach for regime A was suggested in [14]. The pattern of the principal strain-rate trajectories is postulated first, i.e., the orientation ~ = ~(r, z) of principal strain-rate hi with respect to the r-axis, which is related to the velocity components by

a-i- + ~

(\ ~vr
-k

~-/tan (2~)

= 0.

(7)

Then (5)1 can be written as 1 q- c~s i~-) [ -1- (1 ~- sin 4) = 0. (8)

Equations (7) and (8) are hyperbolic with the characteristics inclined at =[==/4 -- 4/2 with respect to ~:, [9]. Given proper boundary conditions, equations along the characteristics can be numerically integrated, and the Velocities determined within the failing region. In Fig. 7b a simple characteristics mesh (2 -----const.) for a cylindrical well is shown, whereas Fig. 7c illustrates initial deformation with linearly distributed velocity Vz at the boundary; velocity Vr results from the solution. The solution is admissible, for inequalities (5)1 are satisfied everywhere. However, for very small ratios R1/H, any linear distribution of Vz at the boundary leads to ~a and ~2 both being negative in the region close to the well; this also holds if across the

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lngenieur-Archiv 59 (1989)

characteristic bounding field the velocity undergoes a jump. Thus, the equation governing the strain-rates is no longer (5)~ but (5)2 (regime B). For regime B, (5)2 becomes

~Vr

a-~- + ~

~V~

4-

Vr (1 + sin 4))
r (1 -- sin ~b)

= 0

(9)

and combined with (7) yields a set of hyperbolic equations with the characteristics inclined to at angle (orthogonal). Furthermore, as opposed to regime A, strong velocity discontinuities corresponding to regime B are not admissible. Effective schemes for solving different characteristics in unknown beforehand regions have not been demonstrated. d

~"~

IIII

Fig. 8a and b. Cube indentation; a failure mechanism, b motion of an elemental triangle Even less explored than axisymmetric, are three-dimensional failures where neither translational nor rotational mechanisms are employed. Experimental observation of the failure mode seems indispensable here. The problem of cube indentation into an incompressible frictionless material may serve as an example [25]. Experiments performed on model material (paraffin) revealed that beneath the cube a ridge forms, with its sin:faces symmetrical with respect to a vertical plane passing through one of the cube base diagonal; two-fold symmetry (Fig. 8a). Four adjacent regions are bounded by surfaces which give curvilinear intersection with the horizontal surface. The shape of the ridge, moving downward as block, can be approximated by a hyperbolic paraboloid with straight line intersections by planes parallel to the cube's sides. Thus, each of the adjacent blocks can be conceived as composed of elemental thickness triangles, with their outer sides matching the curvilinear outer surface (Fig. 8b). Each triangle translates with different velocity yielding a non-translational velocity field within the blocks.

Strain-hardening/softening materials

Although limit analysis only applies to perfectly plastic solids, attempts to extend the kinematic approach for evaluating loads on materials hibiting exhardening behavior have been presented in the literature [1]. In steady and pseudo-steady flow problems, the strains in deforming region are known if the mechanism of failure is prescribed. Given the stress-strain curve, the local Stresses can be evaluated, and the total rate of energy dissipation equated to the rate of external work. However, the loads so obtained do not necessarily represent upper bounds to the true loads, even if the geometry of the problem is uniquely defined. In fact, the selection of the kinematic field in a hardening material is equivalent to the selection of spacial distribution of perfectly plastic materials with different yield conditions. For inhomogeneous solids limit analysis does apply providing the distribution of inhomogeneities is true. Since the distribution of inhomogeneities resulting from the kinematical solution may differ from the true one, no bound to the true load can be established; Thus, load evaluation for hardening materials that is based on the kinematic approach may be only regarded as approximate, engineering approach. Nonetheless, its simplicity in solving geometrically complex problem may warrant attention. Figure 9a Shows a portion of the mechanism for pseudo-steady pyramidal indentation into an incompressible material with 'an exponential stress-strain curve as in Fig. 9b, see [20]. The energy dissipation across velocity discontinuity surfaces is calculated by integration of specific

A. Drescher: Analytical methods in limit analysis energy dissipation given by

145

In the selection of the geometry of the mechanism, the hypothesis of minimum applied effort was used. The results of calculation compare favorably with experiments on metals (Fig. 9c). The approach was extented in [15] on steady plane-strain penetration processes in contracting/ dilating hardening soils (Fig. 10).

(k o+b) h 2
P 200

aluminum

a hl

-e~
C

../7;
60"

Fig. 9a--c. Pyramidal indentation; a failure mechanism, b stress-strain curve, c indentation force vs included semi-angle of the pyramid

j
I

i i

Po

p*

P0

i
i
I I l ] l l l l i l l h

iv
I I I I I I I i

lllilll]illl]l
a

~,

po
b

I Ill
II

I Ill

III

i
I

P0

l~ig. 10. a Failure mechanism around wedge; b failure mechanism around wall tip Attempts were also undertaken to model experimentally observed formation of shear-bands during discharge of granular material from hoppers [21]. In plane-strain experiments, constant rate of discharge was observed that might suggest modeling the process as steady. However, X-ray observations revealed formation of non-stationary shear-bands; with progressing flow, shear-bands periodically appear at some location, move downward and become inactive (Fig. l l a). Periodic formation of shear-bands was also observed in plane-strain wedge indentation into a sand [4]. In the kinematic modeling, straight-line discontinuity was allowed to rotate around the end point (Fig. l l b ) . With progressing rotation the strains in the band increase, and due to hardening or softening the rate of energy dissipation varies. If material softening is assumed, the rate of energy dissipation initially decreases, reaches a minimum, and then increases (due to geometrical effects), eventually surpassing the dissipation at initial location of the band (Fig. 11 c). Assuming that minimum internal effort governs band formation, at the instant when dissipation in rotating band equals dissipation at initial location a new shear-band forms and the process becomes periodic. I t should be noted that the magnitude of the rate of energy dissipation in unsteady flow depends on the thickness d of the shear-band ; the thinner is the band the greater is the rate with which the rate of energy dissipation decreases.

146

Ingenieur-Arehiv 59 (1989)

_1_

V3~i

~- 82<8,

Fig. l l a - - e . Discharge from a hopper; a periodic formation of shear bands, b rotating velocity discontinuities, e energy dissipation vs time

Final remarks

Two r e s e r v a t i o n s can be raised a g a i n s t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e k i n e m a t i c m e t h o d of l i m i t analysis to geotechnieal p r o b l e m s . The first stems f r o m furnishing a n u p p e r b o u n d to loads i n d u c i n g collapse. Thus, in slope s t a b i l i t y a n d b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y p r o b l e m s , where failure should be prev e n t e d , a n unsafe e s t i m a t e of l i m i t l o a d is o b t a i n e d . A safe e s t i m a t e is o b t a i n e d , however, if failure is required, e.g., plowing, cutting. T h e second r e s e r v a t i o n is based on t h e u n a d e q u a c y of t h e associative flow rule in describing p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s in f r i c t i o n a l materials. F o r n o n - a s s o c i a t i v e flow rules, no useful t h e o r e m s c a n be d e r i v e d t h a t p r o v i d e m e a n s for e v a l u a t i n g b o u n d s t o l i m i t load. H o w e v e r , d i s c a r d i n g solutions based on t h e associative flow rule m i g h t n o t be fully w a r r a n t e d for t h e reasons given below: 1. Since a n o n - a s s o c i a t i v e m a t e r i a l c a n n o t be stronger t h a n t h e a s s o c i a t i v e one, k i n e m a t i c solutions for t h e associative m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e a n u p p e r b o u n d to l i m i t loads i n d u c i n g collapse for a n o n - a s s o c i a t i v e m a t e r i a l . Thus, whenever failure is required, k i n e m a t i c solutions b a s e d on t h e associative flow rule still p r o v i d e safe e s t i m a t e s . 2. I n p r o b l e m s where b o u n d a r i e s do n o t i m p o s e severe restrictions on collapse, l i m i t loads o b t a i n e d for a n associative m a t e r i a l m a y n o t differ f r o m t h o s e corresponding to a non-associative m a t e r i a l , see [8, 10]. 3. N o n - a s s o c i a t i v e n e s s of flow rules is d e r i v e d f r o m m a t e r i a l s h e a r / d i l a t i o n response in elem e n t tests. The m e a s u r e m e n t s of v o l u m e changes are l e a s t reliable a n d m a y u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e a c t u a l m a t e r i a l d i l a t i o n if local n o n u n i f o r m i t i e s occur; t h e a c t u a l d e p a r t u r e from associativeness m a y be smaller t h a n measured.

References

1. Avitzur, B. : Strain-hardening and strain-rate effects in plastie flow through conical converging dies. J. Eng. Ind. ASME 89 (1967) 556--562 2. Azzouz, A. S.: Baligh, M. M.: Loaded areas on cohesive slopes. J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE 109 (1983) 724--729 3. Baker, R. ; Frydman, S. : Upper bound limit analysis of soil with non-linear failure criterion. Soil Found, 23 (1983) 34--42 4. Butterfield, R. ; Andrawes, K. Z. : An investigation of a plane strain continuous penetration problem. Geotechnique 22 (1972) 597--617 5. Britto, A. M. ; Kusakabe, O. : Stability of unsupported excavations in soft clay. Geoteehnique 32 (1982) 261 --270 6. Britto, A. M. ; Kusakabe, 0.: Stability of axisymmetric excavations in clays. J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE 109 (1983) 666--681 7. Chert, W. F. : Limit analysis and soll plasticity. Amsterdam: Elsevier 1975 8. Chen, W. F. ; Chang, IV[.~. : Limit analysis in soil mechanics and its application to lateral earth pressure problems. Solid Mech. Arch. 6 (1981) 331--399 9. Cox, A. D. ; Eason, G. ; Hopkins, tI. G. : Axially symmetric plastic deformations in soils. Philos. Trans, R. Soc. Lond. A (1961) 1--45 10. Davis, E. H. : Theories of plasticity and the failure of soil masses. In: Lee, I. K. (ed.) Soil mechanics: Selected topics, pp. 341--380. London: Butterworth 1968 11. Drescher, A. : Limit plasticity approach to piping in bins. J. App1. Mech. ASME 50 (1983) 549--553

A. Drescher: Analytical methods in limit analysis

147

12. Drescher, A. ; Michalowski, R. L. : Density variation in pseudo-steady plastic flow of granular media. Geotechnique 34 (1984) 1--10 13. Drescher, A. ; Vgenopoulou, I. : A theoretical analysis of channeling in bins and hoppers. Powder Technol. 42 (1985) 181--191 14. Dreseher, A. : Kinematics of axisymmetric vertical slopes at collapse. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomeeh. 10 (1986) 431--441 15. Drescher, A. ; Kang, Y. : Kinematic approach to limit load for steady penetration in rigid-plastic soils. Geotechnique 37 (1987) 233--246 16. Drescher, A.; Christopoulos, C.: Limit analysis slope stability with nonlinear yield condition Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 12 (1988) 341--345 17. Gens, A.; Hutchinson, J . N . ; Cavounidis, S.: Three-dimensional analysis of slides in cohesive soils. Geotechnique 38 (1988) 1--23 18. Kolymbas, D.: Ice forces on conical offshore structures. Comp. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng. 60 (1987) 217--231 19. Michalowski, 1~. L. : Limit analysis of quasi-static pyramidal indentation of rock. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. Geomeeh. Abstr. 22 (1985) 31--38 20. Miehalowski, R. L. : An approximate solution to a problem of pseudo-steady flow of strain-hardening material. Int. J. Mech. Sei. 28 (1986) 195--200 21. Miehalowski, R. L. : An analytical modeling of kinematical discontinuities in hardening/softening materials (presented at Engineering Mechanics -- 6th Conference, SUNY Buffalo, May 20--22, 1987) 22. Michalowski, R. L. : Three-dimensional analysis of locally loaded slopes Geotechniqne (in print) 23. Shield, 1~. T. ; Drueker, D. C.: The application of limit analysis to punch-indentation problems. J. Appl. Mech. ASME 75 (1952) 453--460 24. Shield, 1~. T.: Mixed boundary value-problems in soil mechanics. Q. AppI, Math. 11 (1953) 61--75 25. Triplett, T. G. ; Dreseher, A. : Analysis of pillar punching into soft claystone floor in southern Illinois. In: Cundall, P . A . ; Sterling, R . L . ; Starfield, A.M. (eds.) Key questions in rock mechanics: Proc. 29-~h U.S. Symp. on l~oek Mechanics, June 1988, Minneapolis, pp. 59--65. t~otterdam: Balkema 26. Zhang, X. J.; Chen, W. r . : Stability analysis of slopes with general nonlinear failure criterion. Int. J. Numer. Anal. Methods Geomech. 11 (1987) 33--50

Received June 14, 1988

A. Dreseher Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA