Contents

Introduction............................................................................................... 2 Chapter I.................................................................................................... 3 Classification of Sentences.........................................................................3 I.1. The Classification of Sentences according to the Criterion of Communicative Function...................................................................................................................... 4 I.2. The Classification of Sentences according to Polarity...........................................5 I.3. Shift of Communicative Function..........................................................................6 I.4. The Classification of Sentences according to Sintax.............................................6 Chapter II................................................................................................... 9 Coordiation and Subordination....................................................................9 II.1. Coordination...................................................................................................... 11 II.2. Subordination................................................................................................... 12 II.3. Subordinate Clauses Classification....................................................................14 Chapter III................................................................................................15 Types of Clauses.......................................................................................15 III.1. Functional classification....................................................................................15 III.2. Nominal Clause................................................................................................. 15 III.3. Object Clause.................................................................................................... 19 III.4. Relative Clauses................................................................................................ 25 III.5. Adverbial Clauses............................................................................................. 26 Chapter IV................................................................................................35 Wh-elements............................................................................................ 35 IV.1. Pronominal wh-elements..................................................................................35 IV.2. Adverbial wh-elements.....................................................................................42

............................................................................................................... 47 Conclusion............................................................................................... 47 Bibliography............................................................................................. 48

Introduction

We selected and treated with great pleasure and interest the fundamental, useful and exciting subject for theory and practice in grammar, with the desire to bring more knowledge in this field. The present subject is very impotant for the study of English, its scope and importance requiring a laborious research and documentation work, in order to assembly the information and the knowledge of its development. In the First Chapter we started from a few significant details about grammar and its areas of study: Syntax and Morphology. Then we classified their basic unit from many points of view. So, we classified the Sentence according to Communicative Function, Polarity, and Syntax. The Second Chapter focuses on the complex phenomenon of Coordination and Subordination. The Simple and Complex Sentences are seen linguistically and methodologically. Further more, the connective words are analized as coordinators and subordinators. The Third Chapter contains a classification of Subordinate Clauses. Every type of Clause is named, defined, and we gave each and every some features linked to its position in the Complex Clause or time sequence. The Fourth Chapter is fully dedicated to the functions and features of a special class of subordinators: the wh-elements, which are classified in pronominal wh-elements and adverbial wh-elements. We took each and every of them and showed the Subordinate Clauses in which they occur. The present paper deals with many grammatical aspects linked to the category of Syntax. A detailed analysis of these concepts become the corner stone for the rest of the extended research. I hope that this work will be a help to those who learn English.
2

Chapter I Classification of Sentences

The word grammar has many meanings. For some people, grammar specifies the correct way to speak or write. For others, the word 1 refers to the inflections 2. For still others, the grammar is about how humans organize ideas into words. But, for us, the word means something quite specific: grammar describes how we choose and arrange our words. Grammar is about how units of language3 are sequenced, since quite obviously language proceeds sequentially, linearly: in speech, one sound is uttered before the next, one syllable before the next, one word before the next, and so on; in writing, one word precedes the next, one phrase precedes the next, one clause precedes the next, and so on. So at some point in the production of language, humans must take all their thoughts, requests, desires, and hopes that are relevant within a particular context of situation and produce language that expresses those meanings and organizes those ideas sequentially. The same is true in the inverse for the perception of language. Just as words and phrases form the constituents of the clause rank, so too clauses themselves can combine in several ways as the constituents of the sentence 4. The idea of the sentence, however, is a difficult one for grammar for many reasons. First, when linguists think of language, they tend to think of sound. Sound 5 is the primary mode of communication in language. And people do not speak in sentences. People speak in words, and phrases, and clauses.

one or more sounds which can be spoken or written to represent an idea, object, action; the smallest unit of spoken /written language which has meaning, and can stand alone.
2 3

the word endings. the system of human expresion by means of words 4 the terms "sentence" and "clause" are not synonyms/equivalent. The term "clause" names "a structural unit" used only in complex sentence syntax. Outside the complex sentence syntax frame, the term "clause" does not exist. Note that a clause can be named "a (component) sentence" in certain contexts, though a sentence cannot be a clause.
5

speech

Grammar is traditionally subdivised into two different inter-related areas of study: Morphology and Syntax. Morphology is the study of how words are formed out of small elements. Syntax is the study of the way phrases and sentences are structured by words. Traditional grammar sees Syntax as a language described in terms of a taxonomy of the range of different types of syntactic structures found in language. The central assumption of this is that sentences are built up of a series of constituents (i.e. syntactic units), each of which belong to a specific grammatical category and serves a specific grammatical function. Syntax basic unit is the sentence. The sentence can be independent: You are kind. or it can be in some specific relations with other sentences, making up a complex sentence: You are kind when you smile. The complex sentence is the syntactic unit superior to simple sentence, consisting of two or more sentences; it is always independent.

I.1. The Classification of Sentences according to the Criterion of Communicative Function If viewed from the point of view of their communicative 6 functionality, sentences fall into four types, which are specialized cross-linguistically, as shown below: a. The declarative sentence type is used to make statements; it is patterned according to the dominant word order specific to each language, being taken as Standard form as to the other three types. In English unmarked declaratives observe the SVO (Subject-VerbObject) word order type. E.g. Good students take good marks.

b. Interrogatives or questions are specialized for requesting missing information. In point of the constituent structure they are based on Subject-Auxiliary Inversion as in: E.g. Has Mary bought the dress? Will Mary buy the dress?
6

willing to talk and give information.

If the respective IP does not include an auxiliary verb (Be, Have or Modal), the auxiliary Do/Does or Did is inserted to carry tense markers: E.g. Did Mary buy the dress yesterday?

The intonational contour of questions is distinct from that of declaratives. c. Imperatives are specialised for expressing commands, orders or requests. Syntactically they are characterised by the absence of the Subject You from Sentencestructure. E.g. Stop crying!

d. Exclamatory sentences or exclamatives are used by speakers to express feelings, psychological reactions of surprise, admiration, disapproval , and so on. They resemble questions by their introducers which are wh-words. E.g. How beautiful this city is! What an intelligent answer (this is)! In point of word order, exclamatives may either have the arrangement of declaratives or the one based on inversion, specific to questions. Quite often they undergo deletion of the predicative (verbal) constituent. E.g. How amusing! What an interesting answer!

I.2. The Classification of Sentences according to Polarity

Most of the sentence types above may vary according to the polarity 7 criterion. Thus declaratives, interrogatives and imperatives may be either affirmative or negative, the latter variant being illustrated below: E.g. Good students do not take bad marks. Has Mary not bought the dress? Dont complain about your family! Negative contraction (aux. + contracted negator) often occurs in spoken language.

I.3. Shift of Communicative Function Some of the sentence types may deviate from their major function in communicative context, the respective configuration being used to serve a different communicative goal. Thus questions may be used with the force of imperatives. E.g. Why dont you try to solve the problem? What about going to the cinema? Besides, the negative question form may be used with the force of an exclamative, expressing admiration or surprise. E.g. Isnt she a lady! Hasnt she grown! The use of Sentence types for Speech Act purposes is part of the domain of pragmatics8, a linguist discipline.

I.4. The Classification of Sentences according to Sintax Sentence Syntax studies the Sentence independently of other sentences.

the state of having or developing two opposite qualities.

the study of the way words and phrases are used in conversation to express meanings, feelings, and ideas which are sometimes different from the actual meaning of the words used. 6

Complex Sentence Syntax studies the manner in which the Clauses subjoin in order to make up Complex Sentences, the relationship established between these clauses in the Complex Sentence. The syntactic relations between the Simple Sentences of a Complex Sentence are the same as the ones between the elements of a Simple Sentence: coordination (between similar clauses) subordination (between clauses which depend on each other)

A Compound Sentence is a sentence in which two or more main clauses are subjoined by coordination. E.g. A. She is a swimmer and she loves the water. Complex Sentence is a sentence made up by one or more main clauses and one or

more secondary clauses. E.g. She was a swimmer when she was young.

The relation between the elements in a Simple Sentence and the relation between the clauses in a Complex Sentence are similar, as one can meet similar categories: to the Subject in the Simple Sentence corresponds the Subject Clause in the Complex Sentence, to the Direct Object in the Simple Sentence corresponds the Direct Object Clause in the Complex Sentence, and so on. The clauses in a Complex Sentences are linked to each other: asyndetically: without any link-word syndetically: by coordinating/subordinating conjunctions (relative pronouns and

adjectives, interrogative pronouns and adjectives, relative adverbs or adverbs with the meaning of a conjunction). Sentences are subcategorized by the number and type of clause relations they exhibit. Another distinction we should make is between the Simple and the Multiple Sentence. The Simple Sentence has but one Clause (e.g. She is a hard worker.); the Multiple Sentence has more than one Clause (e.g. She is a hard worker and she works in a factory.).
7

The Multiple Sentence is further distinguished by the type of grammatical relationship that holds between the Clauses. If the grammatical relationship is paratactic, the clauses are coordinated (e.g. She is a teacher and she teaches at an elementary school. ). If the grammatical relationship is hypotactic, the clauses are subordinated (e.g. She is a teacher at an elementary school because she likes children.). Parataxis is the grammatical arrangement of "equal" constituents, clauses in this case. The word parataxis literally means "equal" (para) "arrangement" (taxis). Parataxis is the hallmark of coordination. In most cases, the equality of the clauses is evident both grammatically and semantically. Coordination can link constituents at any rank. It creates parallel grammatical structures - structures that are identical in function and usually form as well. Hypotaxis, on the other hand, is the arrangement of "unequal" constituents. The word hypotaxis literally means "beneath" (hypo) "arrangement" (taxis), and hypotaxis forms the basis of subordination. The inequalities between hypotactic clauses are evident both grammatically and semantically. The subordinate structure takes on the grammatical function of subject, object, complement, or adverbial in the main clause. The Subordinate Clause is overtly marked as a subordinate structure, often with a subordinator like if, since, that, when, whatever, while, who, whoever, etc. The Subordinate Clause is itself divisible into phrases having grammatical functions at the clause rank (Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, or Adverbial). And the Subordinate Clause assumes a "part-to-whole" relationship within its Main Clause, becoming only one part of the whole sentence. Subordinate Clauses can be further subcategorized by their form and function. Subordinate Clauses take the form of either "Full" Clauses or "Reduced" Clauses. Full Subordinate Clauses often exhibit an overt subordinator, and the grammatical functions we discussed earlier for constituents at the clause rank, like Subject, Object, Complement, or Adverbial. Complex Sentence is a superior logic form of lexical structure, in which clauses are the basic building blocks. In a Complex Sentence, all constituent clauses work together
8

towards building the meaning. As a minimum, a Complex Sentence contains: A.one Main Clause (plus) B. one or more Subordinate Clauses

Clause is the name used to mark the constituent units/elements in a Complex Sentence. A clause may or may not have total/perfect meaning; therefore, it needs other clauses to fulfill it. Main Clause is the Constituent Clause containing the main/principal verb in a Complex Sentence. Main Clause may or may not have a complete/perfect meaning; if it doesn't, then it needs Subordinate Clauses to fulfill it. Subordinate Clause is a secondary/dependent clause in a Complex Sentence. Subordinate Clauses help building the meaning in Main Clause, or in other Subordinate Clauses.

Chapter II Coordiation and Subordination

As we have seen in the first chapter, sentences can be complex or simple. Complex Sentences include as units of meaning and form elements of Simple Sentences and go beyond them, i.e. besides a Simple Sentence unit they also have at least one other major formal element and the whole of the meaning of another Simple Sentence, constituting a
9

semantic and syntactic entity. Complex Sentences are used in order to express the complex nature of reality, are very frequent in any kind of speaking or writing, help to constitute texts. Linguistically9, Complex Sentences presuppose Simple Sentences and their parts as elements. Methodologically10, our grammatical explosion so far has been centred around the elements found in Simple Sentences and in Complex Sentences alike but has not emphasized their Complex Sentences application. For linguistic and methodological reasons we therefore concentrate our description on those aspects and elements that differentiate Complex Sentences from Simple Sentences and that cannot be understood by looking at one of the units in isolation. We distinguish two main types (complementary to each other and including transitions between them) of syntactic means specific to Complex Sentences: Coinjoing: two main types of conjoiner (connector also, on the contrary, Subjoining: three main types of subjoiner (subordinator although, if, while, after;

nevertheless; coordinator and, or, but) relative who, which, that; interrogative where, when, why, whoever). Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units, but in coordination the units of the same level, whereas in subordination they are on different levels. Assembling clauses in a Complex Sentence is achieved using: 1. juxtaposition 2. connecting words Juxtaposition means joining two clauses together using the following orthographic marks11. This method should better be discouraged because it forms elliptical meanings. In contrast, using connecting words helps clarifying the meaning of the complex sentence, and it helps identifying particular subordinating relations developed between Clauses.
9

from the term Linguistics which means the study of language in general and of particular languages, their structure, grammar, history.
10

from the term Methodology which means the set of methods used for study or action in a particular subject, as in science or education. 11 commas, semicolons, and colons

10

Connecting words are divided in two main groups, each marking the existing relation between clauses: A. of coordination B. of subordination II.1. Coordination Coordination is the ratio of two or more syntactic units that are on the same level. In the Compound-Complex Sentences, the sentences which are coordinated to each other are on the same level, no matter if they are all Main Clauses, or Subordinated Clauses dependent on the same Main Clause. In a Compound-Complex Sentence, there can be three types of coordination, depending on the kind of elements that relate the sentences: copulative, disjunctive, adversative. Coordination can also be made asyndetically. To each type of coordination, there are some specific conjunctions:
1. copulative conjunctions: and, bothand, not onlybut, also, neither/nor,

neithernor. E.g. Call her later and tell her the truth. Both her father and her mother punished her. Not only did he visited Lisa but he also brought her flowers. The girl did not eat her lunch, neither/nor did she sleep. Mark neither came nor phoned us.
2. disjunctive conjunctions: or, eitheror.

E.g.

Will you visit me or shall I remind you? The children may either play an instrument or sing in this class.

3. adversative conjunctions: but.

E.g.

I would like a cup of coffee but I have already drunk one.

11

II.2. Subordination Subordination is the syntactic relation between two terms from which one determines the other, depends on it from grammatical point of view. Subordination lets us show the relative importance of the parts of a sentence and also Subordination helps make a sentence fit its context12. A Subordinate Clause, also calles a Dependent Clause, is a group of words that has its own subject and predicate but cannot stand alone as a Simple Sentence. It must be included in or connected to an Independent Clause, one that can stand by itself as a sentence. E.g. He is a good dancer because he took classes.

The subordinating relations in a Complex Sentence are set between Subordinate Clauses and their Main Clauses, which can be the Main Clause of the Complex Sentence or subordinated to the Main Clause of the Complex Sentence. E.g. She wanted to know when I had bought the car I was driving. 1. She wanted to know (Main Clause) 2. when I had bought the car (Subordinate Clause for 1 but Main Clause for 3) 3. I was driving (Subordinate Clause for 2) The Subordinate Clauses are linked to their Main Clauses by: a) subordinating conjunctions E.g. He was so happy after he got a job.

b) that E.g. He understood (that) she didnt want to come. That he was late made her angry. c) wh-elements: relative or interrogative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, what.

12

the parts of a piece of writing, a speech which surround a word or passage and which influence or help to eplain its meaning.

12

E.g. E.g. E.g.

The girl whose car is parked here is my best friend. relative adverbs: where, when, how, why. I dont know where she is. their derivates: whoever, whichever, whatever, wherever, whenever, however. Go wherever you want to!

Wh-elements are used as mark of subordination in: calls.) relative sentences (e.g. There was a time when he had anything.) indirect interrogative sentences (e.g. I dont understand why he doesnt return my

The main structural types of subordinator are: A. Subordinator: whether, if although, unless, after E.g. Unless he tries, he will not succed.

B. Preposition/Adverb+subordinator: except that, rather than, even if, so that E.g. Even if she wants it, she doesnt do anything to obtain it.

C. Subordinator+Adverb: if only E.g. If only I knew the truth, I would be happier!

D. Prepositional Phrase+ Subordinator: in order that, for the purpose that E.g. She goes to work in order that her children have everything they want.

E. Prepositional phrase: in case, for fear E.g. She saves money in case she loses her job.
13

II.3. Subordinate Clauses Classification A functional classification of Subordinate Clauses is: a. Subordinate Clauses introduced by that: E.g. I told you that it wasnt my fault.

b. Relative Clauses, which behave functionally as Attributive Adjectives: E.g. The woman who is passing by is my teacher.

c. Adverbial Clauses, which function as Adverbials of Time, Place, Purpose, Cause/Reason E.g. He will find out everything when he comes back/if he wants to.

14

Chapter III Types of Clauses

III.1. Functional classification Subordinate clauses may perform any syntactic function within the Complex Sentence: they may function as Subject, Object, Predicative or Adverbial of the Main Clause. On the basis of these functions, there emerges a classification similar in some ways to the functional classification of smaller units (words and phrases) as Noun Phrases, Adverbials etc. By means of Subordinate Clauses we may express our thoughts in a more complete, detailed manner.

III.2. Nominal Clause The principals of the functional classification are most clearly displayed of the category of Nominal Clauses which have the function of a noun in a complex sentence. Just as noun phrases may occur as a Subject, Object, Predicative, Appositive, so every Nominal Clause may occur in all these functions:
15

1) Subject Clause E.g. What John did is not our problem. Why I am acting like this is not your business. 2) Object Clause E.g. I didnt know why you were crying last night.

3) Predicative Clause E.g. The secret is why she did it.

4) Appositive E.g. Sarah who is his sister doesnt care about him.

Subject Clauses The Subject Clause discharges the same role in the Complex Sentence as that of a Subject in a Simple Sentence. The Position of Subject Clause The Subject Clause may have the initial position (especially in literary style) or not initial position. E.g. That she will win is certain.

The Subject Clause may undergo extra position, meaning that it is moved at the end of the sentence. The Empty Noun Phrase Position left after extra position is filled by the introductory pronoun it which becomes the normal subject of the sentence. E.g. It is certain that she will come.
16

Classes of Words that trigger a Subject Clause The presence of certain adjectives, nouns, verbs in the Main Clause requires the use of a Subject Clause. a) ADJECTIVES - most of them express some comment of the speaker of the state of

affair given in the sentence. E.g. It is amazing (bad/good/marvelous/likely/possible/probable/strange) that she won.

They occur in the parttern: IT+BE(seem/appear) + ADJECTIVE + THAT-CLAUSE. E.g. It is strange that he asked that.

b) NOUNS - most of them are in the same semantic field as the adjectives above: amazement, certainty, doubt, idea, mystery, pity, surprise, shock. They occur in the pattern: IT+BE (appear/seem)+NOUN+ THAT-CLAUSE. E.g. It is no mistery that she got married. It was a shock that he failed the exam. c) VERBS Intransitive verbs: seem, appear, happen, turn out. E.g. It seems that she is in love. It turned out that he was lying. Transitive Verbs expressing psychological state: irritate, satisfy, surprise. E.g. It surprises me that you went to France.

The Direct Object is (+animate) and the whole sentence express the reaction of this animate participant to the fact reported in the Subject Clause. Constraints upon the Moods and Tenses in Subject Clauses
17

a. the Indicative Mood is used in the Subject Clause after the adjectives: apparent, certain, clear, evident, likely, marvelous, obvious, plain, true, and after the nouns: a fact, secret, wonder; E.g. a Present Tense in the Main Clause is followed by any tense in the Subject Clause: It is a surprise that he has been/ was/ will be there. a Past Tense in the Main Clause is followed by a Past Tense or a Past Perfect in the

Subject Clause: E.g. It was a surprise that he had been there. It was obvious that everything had worked as planned. b. The Subjunctive Mood is used in the Subject Clause after: the adjectives: appropriate, advisable, compulsory, desirable, essential, fitting,

imperative, important, inevitable, natural, necessary, normal, obligatory, right, recommendable, urgent, vital, etc. The verb in the Subject Clause is in the Analytic Subjunctive (with the auxiliary should): e.g. It is desirable that he should tell the truth. It is urgent that they should go to the hospital. after the adjectives likely, possible, probable the verb in the Subject Clause is in the Analytic Subjunctive (may/might + Infinitive) when the sentence is in the affirmative. In the interrogative and negative the auxiliary should is used: e.g. It is likely that it may be sunny tomorrow. Is it possible that he should do so much for her? c. After words expressing psychological reactions such as the verbs alarm, amaze, irritate, the adjectives amazing, disgraceful, gratifying, odd, strange, surprising, unthinkable, the nouns pity, shame, surprise, the verb in the Subject Clause is in the Indicative Mood or in the Analytic Subjunctive: the Indicative is used when reference is made to an actually existing state of things; the Subjunctive stresses the subjective reaction, emotional attitude of the speaker (the Subjunctive is used when the idea or the feeling is emphasized).
18

e.g.

It is surprising that he is resigning. (the resignation itself is an assumed fact). It is surprising that he should resign. (the very idea of his resigning is surprising).

Predicative Clause The Predicative Clause discharges the same function in the Complex Sentence of that of the Predicative in the Simple Sentence. The Copula Verb belongs to the Main Sentence. The Predicative Clause together with the Copula Verb forms a Compound Nominal Predicate to the Subject of the Main Clause. Classes of Words that trigger a Predicative Clause The Predicative Clause is used in sentences when the Main Clause consist of: a Subject expressed by an Abstract Noun: reason, question, idea, fact, reason + a

copula verb: be, seem, look, appear. E.g. The idea seems to enjoy him. Sequence of Tenses in Predicative Clauses A Present Tense in the Main Clause is followed by any tense in the Predicative Clause. E.g. The idea is that he works/worked/will work hard.

The Past Tense in the Main Clause is followed by a Past Tense or Past Perfect or Future in the Past. E.g. The problem was that/ if she said/had said/would say this.

In clauses introduced by as if the Subjunctive is used: E.g. Her mother still treats her as if she were five years old.

III.3. Object Clause

19

The Object Clause has the function of an Object to the Predicate in the Main Clause. There are three types of Object Clauses: Direct, Indirect and Prepositional Object Clause. Direct Object Clauses The Direct Object Clause discharges the same function to that of a Direct Object in a Simple Sentence, being in fact, an extension of the group of words which can normally express a Direct Object. E.g. I dont know what you can do in this situation. Classes of Verbs that trigger a Direct Object Clauses Monotransitive Verbs (think, afirm) and Ditransitive Verbs. E.g. I think the boy needs a puppy. The position of Direct Object Clauses The Direct Object Clause is usually placed after the verb. Sometimes for stylistic reasons the Direct Object Clause can be found in initial position. E.g. Why he sent you that letter, I dont know.

After verbs such as: consider, find, owe, put, take, think, the Direct Object Clause is anticipated by the introductory pronoun it. The construction occurs in three patterns: a) VERB+IT+THAT-CLAUSE E.g. I find it that she did the right thing.

b) VERB+IT+ADJECTIVE+THAT-CLAUSE E.g. I found it strange that nobody lived there.

c) VERB+IT+INDIRECT OBJECT+THAT-CLAUSE E.g. I owe it to my teachers that I learned to be a good person.

20

Tenses and Moods in Direct Object Clauses Object Clauses undergo certain changes in their form to show the dependence on the Main Clause, to show the temporal action/ simultaneity/ anteriority or subsequence between the actions of the Main Clause and the Direct Object Clause. a. if we have a Present Tense in the Main Clause (Present Tense/ Present Perfect) we have any logical tense in the Subordinate Clause. E.g. I am telling her that I am happy/ was happy/ will be happy.

b. the Future Tense in the Main Clause can be accompanied by any logical tense in the Object Clause, except future. E.g. I will say what I want.

c. a Past Tense in the Main Clause is accompanied in the Direct Object Clause by: -another Past Tense action if the actions are simultaneous: E.g. I didnt know who said that.

However, the Present Tense is used instead of Past Tense if it expresses general or universal truths or if the action exceeds the movement of speaking. E.g. E.g. E.g. I noticed that the Sun rises from the East. the Past Perfect if the action is anterior to the action of the Main Clause. I knew that he had visited you. the Future in the Past for subsequent actions or states. Everyone supposed that the party would take place next month.

We can use the Future in the Past if the Object Clause express actions or states whose validity exceeds the moment of speaking or if it express a universal truth.
21

E.g.

We were said that the global warning will affect us.

However there are some constraints on the moods in the Direct Object Clause: a. when the verb in the main clause expresses a request, a recommendation or a suggestion such as: demand, insist, order, propose, require, recommand, regret. The Subjunctive Mood the analytic form with the modal verb in British English, or the Synthetic in American English or in formal style is used in the Object Clause. E.g. He recommands that they shoud go. He recommands that they go. In everyday English, the verb: propose, recommend, suggest, may be followed by the Indicative Mood (Present or Perfect). E.g. He suggests that she should write her homework. He suggests that she write her homework. He suggests that she writes her homework. b. after the verb wish in the Main Clause, the verb in the Object Clause is in the Subjunctive Mood. Synthetic Past Subjunctive is used to express regret for an action that didnt take

place in the past. E.g. I wish I had been there when you needed me.

The verb wish in the Main Clause can be put into the Past Tense without changing the form of the Subjunctive. E.g. E.g. I wished I had been there when you nedded me. The Present Subjunctive is used to express regret for a present state: He wishes he were taller. He wished he were taller. The Analytical Subjunctive of the auxiliary would to express desire for the future action or a polite request.
22

E.g.

I wish you wouldnt smoke so much.

Indirect Object Clauses Indirect Object Clauses are an extension on the plain of the Complex Sentence of an Indirect Object in a Simple Sentence. E.g. He asked a question to whoever he met.

Prepositional Object Clauses Discharge the same function as Prepositional Objects in Simple Sentences and they occur after a number of prepositions that are required by certain verbs. The deletion of the preposition The preposition is always omitted when the clause is introduced by the conjunction that: after intransitive verbs such as: think of, depend on, hope for, worry about, can be

followed either by a Prepositional Object or That-Clause. E.g. She worries about her mother. She worries that her mother would not listen to her. The preposition is not deleted if the object represented by That-Clause is anticipated by the empty pronoun it. E.g. She insisted upon it that I was going to tell a lie.

Transitive verbs (a large part) combine a Direct Object expressed by a [+animate] Noun Phrase and a Prepositional Object. The latter can be replaced by a That-Clause. ( to advise somebody of/ to worn somebody against/ to notify somebody of). E.g. He worned her about his intention to divorce.
23

He worned her that he intended to divorce. Tenses and moods in Object Clauses In Prepositional Object Clauses the rules concerning the sequence of tenses are applied: E.g. truth. When the verb in the Main Clause expresses a psychological state (to be sorry, surprised, amazed, happy, disappointed) the verb in the Subordinate Clause is either in the Indicative Mood or in the Analytic Subjunctive with should. The Indicative Mood suggests that the whole sentence is a statement of fact, while the Subjunctive Mood stresses the subjunctive reaction of the speaker. E.g. I am disappointed that you dont come. I am disappointed that you shouldnt come. After these constructions in the Present Tense we can have: E.g. action. E.g. I am amazed that she has driven/ drove/ should have drive so carefully. Present Indicative or Should + Infinitive for simultaneous actions. I am amazed that she drives so carefully. I am amazed that she should drive so carefully. Present Perfect or Past Tense or Should + Perfect Infinitive to express a previous He agreed on that she told the truth/ she had told the truth/ she would tell the

If the verb in the Main Clause is in the Past we have in the Prepositional Object Clause: E.g. Past Tense or Should + Infinitive for simultaneous actions. I was amazed that she drove/ should drive so carefully. Past Perfect or Should + Perfect Infinitive for anterior or previous actions.
24

E.g.

I was amazed that she had diven/ should have driven so carefully.

In all these cases the differences between the sentences with the Subjunctive and those with the Indicative is that in the former case the idea of the action is stressed (the evolution of a possible action in the latter the actual fact is expressed) - the description of the real action.

III.4. Relative Clauses Relative Clauses act as modifiers of Noun Phrases; therefore they act as Attributive Adjectives or Phrases. For example: E.g. People who think deeply. (deeply thinking people Attributive Adjective)

There are two types of Relative Clauses: Restrictive Relative Clauses (which are essential to the meaning of the sentence) Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses (which merely add some information to the

sentence).

Restrictive Relative Clauses (Defining Relative Clauses) They are essential to the meaning of the sentence because they help to identify the Subject or any other nominal part (the antecedent) and as a result they cannot be omitted without losing the clarity of the sentence. E.g. The woman who is standing there is watching us. Sequence of tenses in Restrictive Relative Clauses They allow freedom of general logic to govern the tenses without any constraints of the tense.

25

Non-Restrictive (Non-Defining Relative Clauses) They are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. These clauses give additional information which is not essential to the meaning of the Complex Sentence. They can be omitted without changing the meaning of the whole sentence. They are placed between commas or dashes. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses are less common than the restrictive ones and they can be found in writings but only seldom in speech. E.g. Your classmate, whose mother works in a shop, called.

Given that an Non-Restrictive Clause adds some additionally information we can assume that Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses are derived from Coordinate Sentences. The evidence that supports the derivation is that they are synonymous structures. E.g. Anna, who is your girlfriend, told me this. Anna is your girlfriend and told me this.

Appositive Attributive Clauses The Appositive Relative Clauses convey more or less essential information following a noun such as: assumption, belief, doubt, fact, idea, felling, impression, opinion, problem, question, reason, thought. E.g. His feeling that something wrong will happen scares us. Mood Constraints in Appositive Relative Clauses After the nouns such as: recommandation, command, suggestion, wish, clame we use the Analytical Subjunctive formed with should. E.g. Her wish that she should become a singer did not become true.

III.5. Adverbial Clauses

26

The Adverbial Clauses may be placed in various semantyc categories such as time, place, manner and so on. These categories may be related to those for Adverbial Phrases in general and for Prepositional Phrases of the level of the Simple Sentence. The Adverbial Clauses occur in a final, initial or middle position within the Main Clause.

Adverbial Clauses of Time The Adverbial Clauses of Time discharge the same function as the Adverbial Modifier of Time at the level of the Simple Sentence. Sequence of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Time The Adverbial Clauses of Time are subject to many constraints as part of the set of rules called the sequence of tenses. a. Simultaneous actions The action of the verb in the Temporal Clause occurs at the same time or during the action of the verb in the Main Clause. The Present Tense or the Past Tense in the Main Clause are followed by the same

tenses (Present or Past) in the Temporal Clause. E.g. She tells the same story whenever I met her. She told the same story whenever I met her. When I met her she was hurrying to a dance class. The Future Tense in the Main Clause is followed by the Present Tense in the Temporal Clause. E.g. I will call you until you give me my money back.

- The Future in the Past in the Main Clause is followed by the Past. E.g. Mark said that he would come when he had time.

b. Anteriour actions
27

The action of the verb of the Temporal Clause takes place before that of the Main Clause. The Present or the Future Tense in the Main Clause is followed by the Present

Perfect in the Temporal Clause. E.g. We will visit you when we have had time. The Past Tense in the Main Clause is followed by Past Perfect in the Temporal

Clause. E.g. The children played after they had done their homework.

The Past Tense may be used instead of the Past Perfect in Temporal Clause introduced by after, til or until if anteriority results from the context. E.g. Mrs Adam didnt say a word until she (had) received a definite answer. The Future in the Past in the Main Clause is followed by the Past Perfect in the

Temporal Clause. E.g. John promised he would say the truth as soon as he had met her. The Present Perfect in the Main Clause is followed by the Past Tense in the

Temporal Clause introduced by since. E.g. I havent seen him since we met in the park.

When the two actions occur in the same time, the Present Perfect is used in the Temporal Clause. E.g. We have met a lot of people since we started to work.

c. Subsiquent actions The action of the verb in the Temporal Clause takes place after that of the Main Clause.

28

- The Past Tense or the Past Perfect in the Main Clause is followed by the Past Tense in the Temporal Clause. The time relation is indicated by the conjunctions till, until, before, when. E.g. My sister (had) fallen asleep before the movie finished. The Past Perfect in the Main Clause is followed by the Past Tense in the Temporal

Clause. This rule is applied in sentences conteining the correlatives hardlywhen, scarcelywhen, no soonerthan (+positive verb). The adverbs hardly, scarcely and no sooner may be placed in front position with the subject auxiliary inversion. E.g. I had hardly got there when I saw her smiling. Hardly had I got there when I saw her smiling.

Adverbial Clause of Place The Adverbial Clauses of Place show the place where the action is performed, the direction of action performed by the verb. They correspond to the Adverbial Modifier of Place in Simple Sentence. Sequence of Tenses The Adverbial Clause of Place do not apply any sequence of tense constraints because they are very remoted from the idea of time. Therefore, the verb in the Adverbial Clause of Place in logically conditioned by the verb in the Main Clause. E.g. The book is/was/will be where I left it. Adverbial Clauses of Manner Adverbial Clauses of Manner Proper The Adverbial Clauses of Manner Proper show the way in which the Subject performs the action. E.g. Nobody lied to me as/like you did.
29

Sequence of Tenses They allow freedom of logique to guvern the tenses in them. E.g. Her brother acts/acted as if he rules/ruled the world.

Adverbial Clause of Quantity, Degree and Aproximation Sequence of Tenses A Past Tense in the Clause of Proportion is followed by the same tense in the Main

Clause. E.g. E.g. The more he learnt the better it was for him. The Present Tense in the Subordinate Clauses is followed by Future. The sooner you realize the better it will be.

Adverbial Clause of Comparison Sequences of Tenses in Adverbial Clause of Comparison In an Adverbial Clause of Comparison introduced by as/then we can use any tense required by logic. E.g. Last year you spoke English better than you do now. This is not as easy as I thought it would be. She loved her sister more than she loves or will ever love me.

Adverbial Clauses of Reason/Cause

30

The role discharged by this clauses is similar to that of the Adverbial Modifier of Cause at the level of the Simple Sentences. E.g. He has fallen because he was running.

Adverbial Clause of Concession Adverbial Clause of Concession express contradictions with the Main Clause which is similar to relation between Adversative Clause as part of the Compound Sentences. E.g. Although he hadnt eaten for days he looked strong and healthy.

Adverbial Clauses of Purpose Adverbial Clauses of Purpose discharge the same function as Adverbial Modifiers of Purpose in Simple Sentence. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose can express affirmative or negative purpose. Clauses of Affirmative Purpose E.g. Give me much information so that I can figure it out. My grandmother sends me money in order that I could buy books.

Tense and Mood Constraints The Adverbial Clause of Purpose usually contains an Analytic Subjunctive formed by means of the Modal Auxiliaries will/would, can/could, may/might, shall/should. The choice of the auxiliary depends on two factors:

31

-the tense of the verb in the Main Clause: will, can, may, shall are used when the Main Verb is in the Present, Present Perfect or Future Tense; would, could, might, should are used when the Main Verb is in the Past Tense. -the introductory conjunction: so that may be followed by any auxiliary, in order that is followed by may, shall; while that is normally followed by may. e.g. one. He did this in order that everybody should see who he was. Ill call her so that she will/can/may know what to do. Thirty dictionaries were brought so that each student in the class should have

Clauses of Negative Purpose e.g. You must call her so that she wont forget to bring you the book. Tense and Mood Constraints The Adverbial Clauses of Negative Purpose usually contains an Analytic Subjunctive formed by means of the Auxiliaries will/would, shall/should, may/might or the Indicative Mood. As with Clauses of Affirmative Purpose, the choice of the auxiliary depends on the tense of the verb in the Main Clause and on the introductory conjunction: for fear that may be followed by any of the three auxiliaries, so that, lest and in case are normally followed by shall/should. e.g. She didnt speak too loud for fear that the baby might wake up. You must give her a list so that she wont forget what to do. He was talking on law voice lest he should disturb us. The Indicative Mood (Simple Present or Past Tense) is used only in clauses introduced by in case. e.g. Ill call her in case she should forget to bring me the book. Ill call her in case she forgets to bring me the book.
32

Adverbial Clauses of Result Show the same relation as that expressed by Adverbial Modifiers of Result in Simple Sentences, that is the ultimate part of the relation cause to effect. E.g. I was tired, so that I went to bed early. The Use of Tenses in Adverbial Clauses of Result The Adverbial Clauses of Result overlap with those of Purpose both in meaning and in form. The chief difference is that Clauses of Result are factual rather than suppositional, hence they may contain an ordinary verb without a modal auxiliary. When the clause contains a modal auxiliary, it may be ambiguous between a Clause of Purpose and one of result: E.g. The teacher talked loudly so that every student could hear her.

In one interpretation the clause expresses purpose: So that every student could/ would/ should/ might hear ; in another interpretation the clause expresses result: So that every student heard The verb in the Clause of Result can be used in any tense logically required: E.g. Susan sang so warmly that everyone was impressed. Susan sang so warmly that no one will forget her.

Adverbial Clauses of Condition The Adverbial Clauses of Condition have no correspondent on the plane of the syntax of Simple Sentence, condition being expressed with the help of a verb inside the clause. Conditional Clauses state the dependence of one circumstance upon another. A Complex Sentence containing a Clause of Condition is made up of two parts:
33

the Subordinate Clause of Condition/If Clause which refers to the condition which the Main Clause which expresses the result or the effect of the condition. Types of Conditional Clauses

would have to be fullfilled in order to make possible the action of the Main Clause.

Conditional Clauses can be interpreted from two points of view: a. from the point of view of their relation to present reality, Conditional Clauses may appear as: real13 unreal14

b. from the point of view of the relation in time to the moment of speaking or writing, Conditional Clauses may refer to three periods: future, present, past. The overlapping between these two points of view leads to three types of Conditional Sentences: Type I: Future possible sentences; Type II: Present unreal sentences; Type III: Past unreal sentences. Type I: FuturePossible Sentences (Clauses of Real or Probable Condition) Conditional Clauses belonging to this type express a possible situation not contradicting present reality and they usually refer to a future or present period. E.g. I will go to the seaside if it is sunny. Type II: Present-Unreal Sentences (Clauses of Unreal, Improbable Condition referring to the Present or Future) They express an action which refers to an unreal, improbable situation in the present or future. E.g.
13

If I were you I would buy a car.

not contradicting present reality in contradiction with present reality

14

34

Type III: Past-Unreal Sentences (Clauses of Unreal / Impossible Condition referring to the Past) They express a hypothetical condition which has failed to be fulfilled. E.g. I would have given you money if I had known you needed them.

Chapter IV Wh-elements

The subordinate relations between a Main Clause and one or more Subordinate Clauses are established my means of subjoining. A special class of subjoiners/subordinatores are the wh-elements which can be classified into pronominal wh-elements and adverbial whelements. IV.1. Pronominal wh-elements
35

Pronominal wh-elements can be: relative or interrogative pronouns: who/whom, what, which, whoever/whomever, possessive pronouns: whose, of which

whatever, whichever.

Who introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Who is that boy is still a problem.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. He is exactly who I want to see.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. Mark asked who the boy was.

4. Restrictive Relative Clauses: E.g. My friend who knows English well helps me very much.

5. Non-Retrictive Relative Clauses E.g. 6. E.g. 7. E.g. She truts only who she loves. It was he who told the truth. Adverbial Clauses of Exception My classmate, who is very tall, invited me to the cinema. Introductory Emphatic Sentences

36

Who is only selected for [+human] nouns. It functions as a subject in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces.

Whoever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Whoever tells you that is a lier.

2. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. He sang the piano to whoever wanted to listen.

3. Adverbial Clauses of Concession E.g. You may be sure that whoever crosses the line will be punished.

In present day English, whoever has in many contexts both universal (anyone who) and definite meaning (the person who).

Whom introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. Give the flowers to whom comes first!

2. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. His success depends on whom he can make help him.

Whom is also used for [+human] nouns. It function as an object in the Subordinate Clause it introduces.

37

Whomever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. He tells the story to whomever he meets.

2. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. His relies on whomever knows German.

What introduces the following Subordinated Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. What to do was his question.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. To tell the truth was what he wanted to do.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. Grandmother cant decide what she should cook.

4. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. He gives a bone to what dog he finds.

5. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. She was interested in what he had to say.

6. Adverbial Clauses of Exception E.g. She look for only what made her happy.

What is selected for [-human] nouns. It has the function of a subject or object in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces.
38

Whatever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Whatever happens doesnt concern.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. The problem is whatever happens will affect him.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. A mother would do whatever makes her children happy.

4. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. He is ready to whatever may come.

5. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. She was interested in whatever he did.

6. Adverbial Clauses of Concession E.g. Whatever you did it or not your mother will punish you. Which introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Which dress she should choose obsesses her.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. The problem was which way they should go.

3. Direct Object Clauses

39

E.g.

The boys cant decide which game they should play.

4. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. The students cant decide to which teacher they should give the flowers.

5. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. 6. E.g. They couldnt decide in which way to solve the exercise. Restrictive Relative Clauses This is the car which everybody wants to drive.

7. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. 8. E.g. 9. E.g. This dress, which colour I dont like at all, is wanted by many women. Introductory Emphatic Sentences It was the song which reminded me of childhood. Adverbial clauses of concession I choose only which dress I like.

Which is used for [-animate] nouns. It discharges the functions of subject, object or attribute in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces. Whichever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Whichever she should do obsesses her.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. The problem is whichever comes they will be sad.

3. Direct Object Clauses

40

E.g.

The boys cant decide whichever they should play.

4. Indirect Object Clauses E.g. The students are ready to which may come.

5. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. They couldnt decide on whichever they should do.

6. Adverbial Clauses of Concession E.g. Whichever you do they wont believe.

Whose introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Whose dress is the most beautiful is not important.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. The question was whose essay was the best.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. I cant tell whose car is faster.

4. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. The boy, whose dog is small, is passing by.

5. Adverbial Clauses of Exception E.g. They will accept only whose opinion is more interesting.

Whose is used for [+human] nouns, for [-human] nouns being used of which (The house of which windows are dirty is my cousins. ). It functions as an attribute in the Subordinate Clause it introduces.
41

IV.2. Adverbial wh-elements Adverbial wh-elements are relative/connective adverbs: where, when, why, how, wherever, whenever, however. Further on, we will show which type of sentences they relate and in what pattern they occur. Where introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Where he goes is not important.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. He felt home was where his family was.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. Id like to know where he lives.

4. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. It all depends on where she wants to go.

5. Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. The supermarket where you can buy everything is here.

6. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. She knew that Craiova, where she was born, is a very beautiful city.

7. Appositive Attributive Clauses

42

E.g. 8. E.g.

Mark has no idea where he can buy a good computer. Adverbial Clauses of Place His mother always meets him where she least expects.

9. Adverbial Clauses of Excepion E.g. He goes to the parties except where house music is listented to.

Where discharges the function of adverbial modifier of place in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces.

Wherever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject clauses E.g. Wherever he goes preocupies me.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. Home is wherever your friends are.

3. Adverbial Clauses of Place E.g. Wherever you may go treat people kind!

When introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. When he returns is depends on the weather.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. The question was when he succed.

43

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. I want to know when we calls me.

4. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. There are many hopes for when they will come back.

5. Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. Monday is the day when you should start your diet.

6. Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses E.g. 7. E.g. 8. E.g. All these years, when the economical crisis grew up, I knew nothing about him. Appositive Attributive Clauses Mike has no idea when Diana will return. Adverbial Clauses of Time When he calls me I will tell him the truth.

9. Adverbial Clauses of Exception E.g. We go to visit our grandparents every month except when father has to work.

Where discharges the function of adverbial modifier of time in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces. Whenever introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Whenever it rains concerns me.

2. Predicative Clauses
44

E.g.

Wasted time is whenever you do nothing.

3. Adverbial Clauses of Time E.g. He visits his cousins whenever he has the opportunity.

Why introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. Why he behaves like that surprises me.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. This is why I didnt want to see you.

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. I cant imagine why he said that.

4. Preopositional Object Clauses E.g. It all depends on why he left us.

5. Appositive Attributive Clauses E.g. My curiosity why he behaved like that had an answer.

Why discharges the function of adverbial modifier of cause in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces. How introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. How he will succed is not clear to anyone.

2. Predicative Clauses E.g. This is how things should be done.

45

3. Direct Object Clauses E.g. I know how Sarah acted that evening.

4. Prepositional Object Clauses E.g. It depended on how things would happen.

5. Appositive Attributive Clauses E.g. John had no ideea how to behave in public.

6. Adverbial Clauses of Manner E.g. She played the violin how she could.

How discharges the function of adverbial modifier of manner in the Subordinate Clauses it introduces. However introduces the following Subordinate Clauses: 1. Subject Clauses E.g. However he plays is not important to me.

2. Adverbial Clauses of Manner E.g. Sing however you fell!

3. Adverbial Clauses of Concession E.g. However well you know a person you may still be dissapointed of him/her.

46

Conclusion

The present paper is an attempt at rounding off the rough corners of grammar dealing with one of the most important area of its study, Syntax. We managed to put together all the important aspects regarding Complex Sentences, and we analysed the wh-elements. Our research is based on analysing the funtions of Subordinate Clauses. We started from the definition of grammar and the classification of the Sentence as the basic unit of Syntax. Furthermore we generously gave plenty of examples regarding coordinating and subordinating sentences, analysing the ways in which sentences link to each other. We aimed at establishing a classification of Subordinate Clauses in a Complex Sentence. We considered that this classification is of great relevance to the full understanding in learning English. Starting from the functions of the words in a Simple Sentence we proceeded to further analyse the funtions of Subordinate Clauses in a Complex Sentence.
The next step we took was to work with the subjoiners proper. We undertook a close study on the functions and features of the wh-elements. We focused our attention on the way of both

pronomonal and adverbial wh-elements occur in the Complex Sentence. Our research is a small step into understanding the complexity of English Language. The study remains opened for those willing to further research the subject. We hope that this work is a good beginning for further researchers.

47

Bibliography
1. Banta, Andrei, Descriptive English Syntax, Iai, Institutul European, 1996; 2. Berk, Lynn, M., English Syntax. From Word to Discourse, Oxford & New York, Oxford University Press, 1999; 3. Burton-Roberts, N., Analysing Sentences. An Introduction to English Syntax, 2nd edition, Londra & New York, Longman, 1997; 4. Cerban, Mdlina, The Syntactic Structure of Complex Sentences, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 2012; 5. Chioran, D., Panovf, I., Poenaru, I., English Syntax. Exercises, Bucureti, Teora, 1995; 6. Chomsky, Noam, Aspects of the theory of Syntax, Cambridge, the MIT Press, 1965; 7. English Grammar. A University Handbook, Leipzig, Veb Verlag Enzyklopdie; 8. Gleanu-Frnoag, Georgiana, Comiel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz colar, Bucureti, Omegapres, 1992; 9. McCawley, J., The Syntactic Phenomena of English, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1998; 10. Miller, B.D.H., Modern English Syntax, Great Britain, 1971; 11. Morley, G. David, Syntax in Functional Grammar (an introduction to lexicogrammar in systemic linguistics), London & New York, CONTINUUM, 2000; 12. Murar, Ioana, Trantescu, Ana-Maria, Pisoschi, Claudia, English Sintax. Compound and Complex Sentences, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 2011; 13. Radford, Andrew, English Syntax. An Introduction, Cambridge, 2004; 14. Van Valiu, Robert D., LaPolla, Randy J., Syntax. Structure, meaning and function , Campridge University Press, 1997. Web Sites:
1. http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/grammar/

2. http://www.scribd.com/doc/52593194/ENGLISH-PAPER-COMPOUNDCOMPLEX-SENTENCE 3. http://www.scribd.com/doc/52593194/ENGLISH-PAPER-COMPOUNDCOMPLEX-SENTENCE

48

49