Derivation of Penman Equation for estimating water evaporation from an open pan The Penman equation for estimating

evaporation from an open pan of water was essentially derived from an energy balance that focuses on net radiation input (including solar and long-wave radiation) and convective heat exchange between the water and the atmosphere. Heat exchanged with the environment through the pan is ignored. This energy balance can be written as follows: K + L - H = Evw EQ. 1

where : K= short wave net radiation input (cal/cm2 day) L = long wave net radiation input (cal/cm2 day) H = convective heat exchange from the water to the atmosphere (cal/cm2 day) E= quantity of water evaporated (cm/day) v = heat of vaporization (cal/gm) w= density of water (g/cm3) Radiation inputs can be measured or estimated in a variety of ways. The derivation of the Penman equation centers around the connective heat transfer from the water body to the atmosphere, H. If the water surface temperature (Ts) is known, H can be calculated from the following equation: H = KH va (Ts Ta) Where: KH = convective heat transfer coefficient va = velocity of air Ts = temperature of the water surface Ta = temperature of the atmosphere However, it is relatively rare to have surface water temperature data. The need for water temperature data can be circumvented by using an approximation of the slope of the relationship between temperature and saturated water vapor pressure at atmospheric temperature, . The slope of the relationship between water vapor pressure and temperature can be approximated as = e*s e*a Ts Ta EQ 3 EQ. 2

Where: = slope of the relationship between water vapor pressure and temperature at as specific temperature e*s = saturation vapor pressure at Ts e*a = saturation vapor pressure at Ta For a given temperature can be calculated from the following equation: = 2508.3 exp (T +237.3)2 17.3 T EQ 3-b (T +237.3)

(same as Eq. 7-6 in Dingman)

Equation (3) can be re-arranged as follows: Ts Ta = e*s e*a EQ 4

And the right-hand side can be substituted into equation (2) to give H = KH va {e*s e*a} EQ 5

If we add and subtract atmospheric water vapor pressure, ea , within the brackets of EQ 5, we obtain H = KH va {e*s e*a + ea ea } And we can rearrange EQ 6 to obtain: H = KH va {e*s ea } KH va {e*a ea } EQ 7 EQ 6

According to the mass transfer approach to evaporation, E = KE va {e*s ea} And this equation can be rewritten as {e*s ea } = E N KE va E N for {e*s ea } in EQ 7 to obtain KE va EQ 10 EQ 9 EQ 8

We can now substitute H = KH va E KE va

KH va {e*a ea }

We can now substitute this expression for H back into the original energy balance (EQ 1) to obtain: Evw = (K+L) KH va E KE va + KH va {e*a ea} EQ 11

Equation 11 can be solved for evaporation, E, in three steps: Evw + KH E KE = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea} KH va {e*a ea} EQ 12

E{vw+ KH } = (K+L) + KE

EQ 13

E = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea}/ {vw+ KH / KE}

EQ 14

If we multiply the numerator and denominator of the right hand side of Equation 14 by , we obtain: E = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea} { vw+ KH / KE} EQ 15

This equation can be simplified further by recognizing the mathematical similarity between the convective heat exchange coefficient KH and convective mass transfer coefficient KE:
KE =

Dwv 0.622 a DM P w 6.25 {ln [(zm - zd)/zo]}2 DH ca a DM 6.25 { ln [(zm - zd)/zo]}2

EQ 16

KH

EQ 17

Where Dwv = diffusivity of water vapor in the atmosphere a = density of air DM = diffusivity of momentum in the atmosphere P = atmospheric pressure w = density of water zm = height at which wind velocity is measured zd = zero plane displacement = 0.7 vegetation height zo = roughness height = 0.1 vegetation height DH = diffusivity of heat in the atmosphere ca = heat capacity of the atmosphere In general, diffusivity is the proportionality constant between a rate of diffusion and the appropriate concentration gradient. For instance, the diffusivity of water vapor in the atmosphere Dwv is the proportionality constant between the rate of water vapor diffusion, and the water vapor concentration gradient in the atmosphere. Fwv = Dwv (d ea/ dz) EQ 18

Where Fwv = vertical flux (rate of upward movement) of water vapor

(d ea/ dz) = change in atmospheric water vapor pressure (ea ) with elevation (z). Diffusivity of momentum and heat are similar to the diffusivity of water vapor except that the gradient for momentum flux is velocity and the gradient for heat flux is temperature. The ratios of Dwv /DM and DH /DM are approximately 1 under stable atmospheric conditions (air temperature declines with elevation at the same rate as the temperature of rising air would decline due to reduced atmospheric pressure). To simplify the calculation of KE and KH, it often assumed that atmospheric stability predominates. If we assume the diffusivity ratios are 1, then the ratio of KH /KE becomes: K H = c a P w KE 0.622 EQ 19

This is very similar to the psychrometric constant, , which has been defined as = ca P 0.622 v and so the ratio of KH /KE can be rewritten as KH = vw KE Substituting vw for KH /KE in equation 14 gives E = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea} { vw+ vw } which can be rearranged and simplified as: E = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea} vw {+ } EQ 23 EQ 22 EQ 21 EQ 20

We can also rearrange equation 21 to solve for KH and substitute vw KE for KH to give E = (K+L) + vw KE va {e*a ea} vw {+ } Dividing all terms by v gives E = (K+L)/vw + KE va {e*a ea} {+ }
Which is the now familiar form of the Penman Equation.

EQ 24

EQ 25

Monteiths modification of the Penman equation to account for transpiration: To account for the difference between pan evaporation and leaf transpiration it is useful to represent the transport processes in terms of atmospheric conductance, which has been defined as: Cat = va 6.25 {ln [(zm - zd)/zo]}2 EQ 26

Both KH and KE can be expressed as functions of Cat:

KE =

Dwv 0.622 a DM P w 6.25 {ln [(zm - zd)/zo]}2 DH ca a DM 6.25 {ln [(zm - zd)/zo]}2

Dwv 0.622 a Cat DM P w va DH ca a Cat DM va

EQ 27

KH

EQ 28

Convective heat transfer from the vegetative canopy can be expressed as: H = KH va (Ts Ta) = DH ca a Cat (Ts Ta) DM va EQ. 29

Which can be simplified if we assume DH /DM =1. Water vapor transport from the canopy is a two step process, as previously discussed, that involves canopy conductance (Ccan) as well as atmospheric conductance (Cat). Since conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, and the overall resistance to water vapor transport will be the sum of canopy and atmospheric resistance, the overall conductance (Ct) is: Ct = 1 = 1/Cat +1/Ccan Cat (1+ Cat/Ccan) EQ 30

Thus vapor transport from the vegetative canopy can be expressed as: ET = KE va {e*s ea } = Dwv 0.622 a Cat {e*s ea} DM P w (1+ Cat/Ccan) EQ 31

Which can be simplified by assuming Dwv /DM =1, and rewritten using = ca P/ 0.622 v and solved for {e*s ea}as follows:

{e*s ea}= ET v w (1+ Cat/Ccan) ca a Cat

EQ 32

The right hand side of EQ 32 can then be substituted into Equation 7 and following the same steps from Equation 10 to Equation 25 in the derivation of the Penman equation leads to the following expression: ET = (K+L) + KH va {e*a ea} vw {+ (1+Cat/Can )} For KH va we can substitute ca a Cat ET = (K+L) + ca a Cat {e*a ea} vw {+ (1+Cat/Can )} EQ 34 EQ 33

Also note that relative humidity, Wa = ea/e*a, and, therefore, ea = Wa e*a. Consequently, the term {e*a ea} = {e*a Wa e*a }. By factoring out e*a the we can also show {e*a ea} = {e*a Wa e*a }= {1 Wa}e*a. Substituting the right hand expression into EQ 34 gives ET = (K+L) + ca a Cat {1 Wa}e*a. vw {+ (1+Cat/Can )} EQ 35

which expresses the Penman-Monteith equation in terms of atmospheric conductance and canopy conductance. Data required to estimate ET include air temperature, net radiation input, wind speed, vegetation height, relative humidity. Other parameters (e.g., , ca , a) can be obtained from air temperature. Like the Penman equation, it can be used to estimate instantaneous ET if instantaneous measures of radiation, wind, relative humidity and air temperature are used. Using daily or monthly average values of temperature, wind speed and relative humidity reduces the accuracy of the equation because it would not capture some of the interactions between the parameters. ET can be very different if high winds occur at night, when there is little radiation and relative humidity is high, as opposed to during the day. In estimating water use by corn in the Midwest, the Illinois State Water Survey uses a model (Ceres Maize) that uses the Penman-Monteith Equation with hourly measurements of atmospheric data. Water use by corn is then used to estimate soil moisture availability, which is then used as an indicator of drought severity. References
Monteith, J.L and M.H. Unsworth. 1990. Principles of Environmental Physics. Edward Arnold, London.

Smugge, T.J and J.C. Andre. 1991. Land Surface Evaporation: Measurement and Parameterization. Springer-Verlag.