Solar Thermal Enhanced Oil Recovery

Universitat Stuttgart - Institut f ur Wasserbau
Lehrstuhl f ur Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rainer Helmig
Diplomarbeit
Cyclic Steam Injection into the Subsurface
- solarthermal steam generation for
enhanced oil recovery
Submitted by
Christoph Klinginger
Matrikelnummer 2195007
Stuttgart, 26th January 2010
Examiners: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rainer Helmig, Dr.-Ing. Holger Class
Supervisor: Dr.-Ing. Andreas Bielinski
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Global Energy Demand and the Resource Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery through SAGD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Solarthermal Steam Generation for SAGD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Scope of this Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Fundamentals of the Applied Model 6
2.1 Essential Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1 Phases and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2 Primary Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Secondary Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 State of Aggregation and Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Flow and Transport Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Advection and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.3 Mass Transfer Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.4 Thermal Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.5 Thermal Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Mathematical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.2 Energy Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 The 2p1cni Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 MUFTE-UG: The Numerical Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 System Properties 15
3.1 Physical Properties of Water and Steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.1 Density and Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.2 Water Saturation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1.3 Enthalpy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Physical Properties of the Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1 Heat Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.2 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
I
CONTENTS II
3.2.3 Absolute Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3 Composite Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.1 Relative Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2 Capillary Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.3 Heat Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Simulations 24
4.1 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.1 Denition of the Model Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.1.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.3 System Property Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.1.4 Conditions at the Injection Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.2 Continuous Steam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2.1 The Injection Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2.2 Steam Chamber and Temperature Development . . . . . . . . . 31
4.3 Cyclic Steam Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.1 The Injection Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.3.2 Steam Chamber Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3.3 Temperature Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Comparison of the two Injection Routines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.1 Steam Chamber Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.4.2 Temperature Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.5 Sensitivity Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.5.1 Absolute Permeability K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.5.2 Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5.3 Specic Heat Capacity of the Soil Grains c
sg
. . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5.4 Heat Conductivity
pm
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.5.5 Capillary Pressure p
c
and Van Genuchten Parameter . . . 60
4.5.6 Results of the Sensitivity Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5 Summary 61
5.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.2 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
List of Figures
1.1 Schematic sketch of oil sand reservoir and well arrangement . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Schematic sketch of steam chamber growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1 Phase diagram of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Phase states and mass transfer processes considered in the 2p1cni model 13
2.3 The numerical simulator MUFTE-UG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.1 Water saturation pressure curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2 Specic enthalpy of liquid water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 h-T relation of saturated steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 h-p relation of saturated steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Relative permeability-saturation relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Capillary pressure-saturation relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.7 Heat conductivity of a uid lled porous medium . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1 Model domain for the simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Data retrieval nodes within the model grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Seasonal and daily injection cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4 p, T and S
g
at the injection node for continuous injection . . . . . . . . 30
4.5 Steam chamber growth for continuous injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.6 T distribution for continuous injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.7 T and S
g
underneath the overburden for continuous injection . . . . . . 34
4.8 p, T and S
g
at the injection node for cyclic injection . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.9 Steam chamber growth for cyclic injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.10 T distribution for cyclic injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.11 S
g
for continuous and cyclic injection after 5 years . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.12 S
g
for continuous and cyclic injection after 4 years and 5 months . . . . 43
4.13 T for continuous and cyclic injection after 5 years . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.14 Low T areas for continuous and cyclic injection after 5 years . . . . . . 46
4.15 High T areas for continuous and cyclic injection after 5 years . . . . . . 47
4.16 Propagation of various T fronts for continuous and cyclic injection . . . 48
4.17 p at Node2 and Node3 for continuous and cyclic injection . . . . . . . . 50
4.18 p distribution for continuous and cyclic injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
III
LIST OF FIGURES IV
4.19 T
sat
distribution for continuous and cyclic injection . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.20 S
g
at Node2 and Node3 for continuous and cyclic injection . . . . . . . 53
4.21 Model domain for sensitivity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.22 Heat conductivity-saturation relation for the sensitivity analysis . . . . 55
4.23 T front propagation for continuous and cyclic injection with varying K 56
4.24 T front propagation for continuous and cyclic injection with varying 57
4.25 T front propagation for continuous and cyclic injection with varying c
sg
58
4.26 T front propagation for continuous and cyclic injection with varying
pm
59
4.27 T front propagation for continuous and cyclic injection with varying p
c
60
List of Tables
2.1 Phase states and corresponding primary varibales for the 2p1cni model 8
4.1 Data nodes implemented in the model grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2 System property values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 System property values and range for the sensitivity analysis . . . . . . 55
V
Nomenclature
symbol meaning dimension
Q change of heat [J]
U change of internal energy [J]
W
v
volume changing work [J]
E extensive property
F
res
resulting force [N]
G
lin
linear Gravity number []
H enthalpy [J]
K intrinsic permeability [m
2
]
K
ob
intrinsic permeability of overburden [m
2
]
K
f
hydraulic conductivity [m/s]
Re Reynolds number []
S
saturation of phase []
S
e
eective water saturation []
S
w
water saturation []
S
w,r
residual water saturation []
T temperature [
C]
T
initial
initial temperature [
C]
T
sat
water saturation temperature [
C]
U internal energy [J]
V volume [m
3
]
V
pores
pore volume [m
3
]
V
total
total bulk volume [m
3
]
c
sg
specic heat capacity solid phase [J/kgK]
c
p
specic heat capacity at constant pressure [J/kgK]
c
v
specic heat capacity at constant volume [J/kgK]
d mean pore diameter [m]
d depth [m]
e intensive quantity corresponding to property E
g gravitational constant [m/s
2
]
VI
Nomenclature VII
g gravitational vector
h piezometric head [m]
h specic enthalpy [J/kg]
h
specic enthalpy of phase [J/kg]

h
g,sat
specic enthalpy of saturated steam [J/kg]
h
wet
specic enthalpy of wet steam [J/kg]
h
w,sat
specic enthalpy of saturated water [J/kg]
k
r
relative permeability []
k
r,
relative permeability of phase []
k
r,n
relative permeability of non-wetting phase []
k
r,s
relative permeability of steam []
k
r,w
relative permeability of wetting phase []
m mass [kg]
m Van Genuchten parameter []
m
gaseous
mass gaseous component [kg]
m
liquid
mass liquid component [kg]
n Van Genuchten parameter []
n outer normal vector
p pressure [Pa]
p
pressure of phase [Pa]

p
atm
atmospheric pressure [Pa]
p
c
capillary pressure [Pa]
p
g
gas phase (steam) pressure [Pa]
p
w
water phase pressure [Pa]
p
w,sat
water saturation pressure [Pa]
q
c
mass source/sink term
q
cond
conductive heat ux [W/mK]
q
h
energy source/sink term
q
s
steam mass ux [kg/sm
2
]
s entropy [J/K]
t time [s]
u specic internal energy [J/kg]
u
specic internal energy of phase [J/kg]

v ow velocity [m/s]
v Darcy velocity [m/s]
v
velocity of phase [m/s]

v
a,
seepage velocity of phase [m/s]
v
s
steam velocity [m/s]
x steam quality []
z height [m]
Nomenclature VIII
Van Genuchten parameter [1/Pa]
phase
boundary of control volume domain
heat conductivity [W/Km]
f
heat conductivity of uid phase [W/Km]
i
heat conductivity of material i [W/Km]
pm
equivalent heat conductivity of the porous medium [W/Km]
s
heat conductivity of solid phase [W/Km]
dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
dynamic viscosity of phase [kg/ms]
s
dynamic viscosity of steam [kg/ms]
kinematic viscosity [m
2
/s]
domain of control volume
porosity []
ob
porosity of overburden []
mass density [kg/m
3
]
mass density of phase [kg/m

3
]
w
mass density of water [kg/m
3
]
b
mass density of a body b [kg/m
3
]
f
mass density of a uid f [kg/m
3
]
sg
soil grain density [kg/m
3
]
subscript meaning
referring to phase
atm referring to atmospheric conditions
b referring to body b
f referring to uid f
g referring to gas phase
i referring to material i
initial initial conditions
n referring to non-wetting phase
ob referring to overburden
pm referring to porous media
s referring to steam
sat referring to saturated conditions
sg referring to solid phase
w referring to water phase
wet referring to wet conditions
Nomenclature IX
superscript meaning
c component
h enthalpy
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Global Energy Demand and the Resource Oil
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the worldwide economic
downturn since the end of 2008, has lead to a drop in the global energy demand,
accompanied by decreasing CO
2
emissions and energy investments. However, this
is assumed to be a short-dated development. On current policies, the global energy
demand would quickly resume its longterm upward trend, once economic recovery is
underway (IEA (2009) [14]). The worldwide primary energy consumption in 2008
was estimated to be 11.29 Gt of oil equivalent (BP (2009) [4]), oil being the biggest
primary energy source with around 34 % or an amount of 3.93 Gt.
With no major changes in government policies and measures, fossil fuels are going to
be the dominant source of primary energy in the near future. Oil will thereby remain
the largest single fuel source, although its share is assumed to drop from 34 % in
2009 to 30 % in 2030. The oil demand is projected to grow 1 % per year from 85
mb
/d
(million barrels per day) in 2008 to 105
mb
/d in 2030 (IEA (2009) [14]). With the
conventional oil production of non OPEC countries assumed to peak around 2010,
and the oil reserves to production ratio (
R
/P) being estimated at 42 years, the so-called
non-conventional oil deposits become economically more interesting (the
R
/P ratio is
an indication for the period the reserve will last assuming a constant consumption rate).
Low viscous oil determined by a relatively good ability to ow, is usually re-
ferred to as conventional oil. While highly viscous oil and oil bound to oil sand and
oil shale, thus being immobile, is dened as non-conventional oil. For this reason, the
oil density can be used to dier between conventional and non-conventional oils. Oil
with a density below 10
API (or above 1

g
/cm
3
) belongs to the non-conventional oils
(BGR (2009) [2]).
Such non-conventional oil deposits include bitumen from oil sand and heavy oil, of
which vast reserves and resources are found in Alberta, Canada and the Orinoco
tar belt in Venezuela (Butler (1991) [5]). According to the German Federal
1
1.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery through SAGD 2
Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR), reserves are dened as the
deposits geologically detected with a high accuracy and economically and technically
producible. Resources, are the deposits geologically proved but currently economically
not producible, and the deposits which have not been approved but are geologically
expected in a certain region.
The total oil in place of the worlds oil sands alone, is assumed to be 462 Gt, with
188 Gt dened as reserves and resources. The estimated total oil in place in the
Canadian oil sands is 272 Gt, of which 110 Gt are claimed to be reserves and resources.
The estimated amount of oil in place in the Venezuelan heavy oil elds (which accounts
for more than 97 % of the total heavy oil) is 240 Gt. Thereof, 54 Gt are dened as
reserves and resources (BGR (2009) [2]). The total potential, or estimated ultimate
recovery (EUR), of conventional oil is thought to be 400 Gt, with a remaining potential
of 249 Gt (reserves and resources combined).
These numbers indicate the enormous potential of the described non-conventional
reservoirs, even though one is advised not to directly compare between such numbers.
This is because dierent authors and institutions use dierent denitions of the
terms conventional and non-conventional oil deposits or reserves and resources.
Furthermore, the quality of the energy data provided by sources, such as governments
and companies, is not necessarily reliable due to low transparency, economical and
political interests, and know-how, as well as technical limitations.
1.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery through SAGD
Highly viscous oil, such as heavy oil or bitumen from oil sand, may be recovered using a
special method of the enhanced oil recovery technologies, called steam-assisted gravity
drainage (SAGD). It was developed, to remove the oil in a systematic manner, in order
to realise a more complete recovery of the reservoirs than achieved in common steam-
ooding processes. The steam-assisted gravity drainage process has since emerged as
the most eective and most promising in-situ technology for the recovery of heavy oil
and bitumen from oil sand, buried too deep for surface mining (Nasr et al. (1998)
[19]).
Gravity is naturally present in the reservoirs and is used as the main driving force to
eect the oil movement. This way, dierential ngering, occuring when viscous oils are
moved by pushing with a less viscous uid, can be avoided (Butler (1991) [5]). The
process of SAGD generally involves drilling paired horizontal wells close to the reser-
voir bottom, one well a short distance above the other (5 m to 10 m). The so-called
well pair is drilled to the desired reservoir depth, where it continues horizontically for
500 m to 700 m. Several such well pairs, lying parallel to each other, are drilled into
the deposit near the reservoir bottom (see gure 1.1).
1.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery through SAGD 3
injection
35m
well length appr. 500 700m
production
horizontal
distance appr. 100m
vertical
distance
5m
well pair, consisting of a production and injection well
reservoir
thickness
400m
reservoir depth
overburden
crosssectional area for 2d simulations
low permeable
y
x
z
Figure 1.1: Schematic 3D sketch of the typical well arrangement for SAGD in an oil
sand reservoir.
The top well of a well pair is used, to continuously inject steam into the oil sand for-
mation, creating a steam chamber. Thereby, the steam pressure is usually maintained
at a constant value throughout most of the process. The growing steam chamber is
surrounded by colder oil sand. At the interface between the steam front and the porous
medium, steam condenses, transferring heat to the surrounding medium. The heated,
less viscous oil near the condensation surface drains, due to gravitational forces, to the
bottom well, where it is produced (see gure 1.2). As the oil and steam condensates
drain downwards, the steam chamber grows upwards and sideways (Butler (1991)
[5]).
Heated oil flows to production well
Oil and condensate drain
Growing steam chamber
Continuous steam
injection
into chamber
continuously
Figure 1.2: Vertical 2D slice through an oil sand reservoir including two well pairs.
Schematic sketch of the steam chamber growth from the injection well, and the oil and
condensate ow down towards the production well (Butler (1991) [5]).
1.3 Solarthermal Steam Generation for SAGD 4
The most dominant features for a successful SAGD operation are the geology and the
reservoir properties. The reservoirs average pay zone depth should be above 15 m,
and characterized by a good vertical communication without any thief zones. Often
SAGD operations are compromised by insucient steam supply. However, as long as
the steam chamber can grow, the ultimate recovery of a SAGD operation can be in
the order of 60 % to 70 % (Jimenez (2008) [16]).
Reservoir conditions, the production strategy and the depth and quality of the
oil deposit dene the steam injection rate, which in turn determines the steam
injection pressure. A steam injection rate of around 180
t
/d (tonnes per day) per well
pair is assumed to be realistic. At a steam pressure of around 40 bar and a steam
quality of approximately 90 %, this equals an energy amount of 473 GJ.
Producing one barrel of oil using the SAGD technology, three barrels of water
and the energy equivalent of
1
/3 of a barrel of oil is needed. According to BGR (2009)
[2], 80 % to 90 % of the water can be reused, due to recycling processes.
1.3 Solarthermal Steam Generation for SAGD
As described earlier, the long-term trend of the global oil demand is expected to be
increasing, while no major new discoveries of conventional oil deposits are made. The
so induced rising oil price and the vast potential of non-conventional oil deposits, such
as oil sand, has made the depletion of these less traditional reservoirs more interesting.
For instance, bitumen production from the oil sand elds of Alberta, Canada has
almost doubled from the year 2000 to 2007, according to BGR (2009) [2]. This is
followed by an increasing demand for gas, to produce steam for enhanced oil recovery,
as most of the oil from the Alberta oil sands needs to be produced in-situ. The use
of increasingly large amounts of fossil fuel for steam generation presents a number of
economic and environmental problems. Common steam generators emit large amounts
of greenhouse gases, and the increasing demand for natural gas is feared to inuence
the regional natural gas market.
The motivation for this work is thus, the idea of using the energy of solar radi-
ation to generate and inject the steam needed for enhanced oil recovery purposes.
Solarthermal power plants use point (solar tower) or line (solar trough) focusing
systems consisting of mirrors, to concentrate direct solar radiation in terms of heat.
The captured thermal energy is used to generate steam, which in turn is used to
produce electricity. While line focusing systems are determined by a concentration
factor of up to 80 and operating temperatures up to 350
C, the concentration achieved

with point focusing systems is higher, and thus is the temperature (Voss (2005) [22]).
Usually, the solar energy is absorbed by a heat storage uid, such as oil or molten
1.4 Scope of this Work 5
salt. Unlike conventional solarthermal power plants, solarthermal steam generation
for enhanced oil recovery, would require steam at mid-level temperatures, directly
generated with no intermediate heat storage uid, and thus enhancing the overall
thermal eciency of the system (Kraemer et al. (2008) [17]).
The result of a solarthermal steam generation process would be an intermittent steam
injection rate, with higher injection rates in comparison to the traditional continuous
injection process (assumption of same total energy input). Assuming the reservoir
formation acts as a large thermal accumulator, work on the economical implications of
cyclic steam injection in the SAGD process by Birrel et al. [3] suggests, that the
eect of daily and seasonal variations on the average bitumen production is negligible.
Based on this assumption, a feasibility assessment of a solarthermal driven SAGD
process from both, a thermodynamic and economical point of view, is presented in
Kraemer et al. [17].
1.4 Scope of this Work
It needs to be understood, that the work presented here does not describe the inu-
ence of an intermittent steam injection process on the oil production. It is in fact a
hydrodynamical study, analysing and explaining the inuence of a cyclic steam injec-
tion process on the steam chamber growth and the temperature distribution in the
geological formation. The component oil is thus neglected in this work.
The fundamentals of the applied model, which are specied in chapter 2, determine
the model, which is used to describe the ow and transport processes for the water
steam system. The system properties, which complement the conceptual model, are
characterized in chapter 3.
As specied in chapter 4, the non-isothermal water steam model is used to simulate a
continuous and, based on the assumption of a solarthermal steam generation, a cyclic
steam injection process into water saturated porous media. The steam chamber and
temperature front propagation within the reservoir is analysed for both injection rou-
tines. To understand the consequences of a cyclic injection routine, its inuence on the
ow and transport patterns is compared to a continuous injection process.
A summary of the topic, results of this work and an outlook for future work related to
this topic is presented in chapter 5.
Chapter 2
Fundamentals of the Applied Model
2.1 Essential Terms
2.1.1 Phases and Components
Phases are homogeneous, immiscible matter, separated by a sharp interface
(e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]). A phase is characterized by continuous uid properties.
Thus, it is possible for several liquid phases to exist in a porous medium, while only
one gaseous phase can be present. The term phase is furthermore used to describe a
substances state of aggregation (see section 2.1.4), such as gaseous, liquid and solid.
This is, however, not a sucient enough description within the context of a multi-phase
system, as several liquid phases such as water and oil may exist within the pores.
The term components describes the constituents of a phase. These can be regarded as
the sole chemical substances, which inuence the physical properties of a phase.
2.1.2 Primary Variables
Primary variables are parameters dening physical properties of a system, and are used
to describe the degrees of freedom of a thermodynamical system. They are needed for
a denite solution of the system of equations, which describes the applied model. The
choice of primary variables is not explicit. Hence, a dierent set of primary variables
may be chosen for the same system.
The non-isothermal water steam model discussed in this work, is described by two
equations (one mass and one energy balance). The two unknowns pressure p and tem-
perature T or pressure p(T) and water saturation S
w
(see equation 2.11 and 2.12) are
used as primary variables (see also table 2.1).
It is usually dinstinguished between extensive and intensive variables. Extensive vari-
ables depend on the size of a system. Examples are the volume V or the mass m. In
contrast, intensive variables are independent of the systems size, such as the temper-
ature and the pressure.
6
2.1 Essential Terms 7
2.1.3 Secondary Variables
Secondary variables can be calculated from the primary variables, using constitutive
relationships and equations of state (e.g. Ochs (2006) [20]). These secondary pa-
rameters depend on the primary variables and help to describe the considered system
in detail. Examples are the density , the viscosity , the capillary pressure p
c
, the
relative permeability k
r
, the specic enthalpy h, and the heat conductivity .
2.1.4 State of Aggregation and Phase Change
As mentioned before, a substance such as water may occur in dierent states of aggre-
gation. These phase states may be solid, liquid and gaseous. The components transfer
between dierent phases, due to the change of the thermodynamic state (e.g. by vapor-
ization, condensation), is called phase transition (e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]). A phase
diagram shows a substances state of aggregation as a function of state variables. Such
a phase diagram is given in gure 2.1, describing the phase state of water, depending
on the primary variables pressure and temperature.
pressure p [bar]
critical point
0.00612
1
221
triple point
0
solid
gaseous
liquid
100 374.25
Temperature T [C]
Figure 2.1: Schematic phase diagram of water for temperature and pressure.
The number of existing phases in a multi-phase system is not necessarily constant.
Displacement processes or mass transfer processes between the phases may result in a
phase state change from a single-phase to a multiphase system or vice versa (Helmig
(1997) [12]). Such a process is called a phase change and may be accompanied by a
switch of the primary variables that are necessary to describe the system.
2.2 Flow and Transport Processes 8
In the non-isothermal two-phase one-component model (2p1cni) used in this work,
water is the only component. Consequently, the total amount of primary variables
sucient to describe the state of the system is two. Depending on the present phases
within the system, the used set of primary variables consists either of gas phase pressure
p
g
and water saturation S
w
(two-phase system), or gas phase pressure p
g
and temper-
ature T (single-phase system) (Ochs (2006) [20]). This primary variable switch is
shown in table 2.1.
phase state present phases primary variables
1 water, gas p
g
(T), S
w
2 water p
w
, T
3 gas p
g
, T
Table 2.1: Phase states and corresponding set of primary variables for the 2p1cni
model.
2.2 Flow and Transport Processes
A steam injection process into water saturated porous media may be described by
a non-isothermal two-phase one-component system. Therefore, a description of the
various ow, transport and energetic processes, that have to be considered, is given in
the following section.
2.2.1 Advection and Buoyancy
The process of advection is associated with the movement of a quantity within the
vector eld of a uid. An example in porous media would be the transport of a compo-
nents concentration according to the uids velocity eld. Darcys Law, emerging from
a series of experiments in a permeameter column, describes the slow linear single-phase
ow through porous media on a macroscopic scale (Darcy (1856) [8]). It states:
v = K
f
grad(h). (2.1)
Here, v is the Darcy velocity, h is the piezometric head and K
f
is the hydraulic con-
ductivity of water with
K = K
f
g
, (2.2)
where Kis the absolute permeability, the dynamic uid viscosity, the uids density
and g the gravitational constant.
Darcys Law is valid for seeping ow with a Reynolds number (Re) smaller than 1. The
dimensionless Reynolds number in a porous medium describes the ratio of inertial to
viscous forces and is given by:
Re =
dv
. (2.3)
Here, d is the mean pore diameter, v is the typical ow velocity and the kinematic
viscosity of the uid.
To determine the advective ux within a multiphase system, Darcys Law has
to be extended for various phases . The consideration of the phase density
, the
phase pressure p
, the relative permeability k

r,
of the phase, the phases dynamic
viscosity
, the intrinsic permeability K and the gravitational vector g with the

constant g, yields the velocity of the individual phase v
:
v
=
k
r,
K
_
grad(p
g
_
. (2.4)
The so-called Darcy velocity v
of the phase refers to a ow through the total cross-

sectional area of the porous media. To calculate the actual particle speed, the porosity
of the medium needs to be considered. This yields the seepage velocity v
a,
of the
phase :
v
a,
=
v
. (2.5)
The extended version of Darcys Law for multiphase systems, describes uid ow pro-
cesses due to viscous (advection) and buoyant forces.
Buoyancy ow is caused by density dierences within one phase (e.g. cold and hot
water) or between dierent phases (e.g. water and steam). It acts in the opposite di-
rection of gravitational forces.
Consequently, a balance of forces in vertical direction for a body with density
b
,
submerged in a uid with density
f
yields:
F
res
= buoyant forces gravitational forces = (
b
f
) gV. (2.6)
In the case of steam injection into water saturated porous media this results in a
buoyant ow, driven by the high density dierence between liquid water and steam. At
a pressure of 40 bar and a temperature of 250.35
C, the density of water is 798.37

kg
/m
3
,
whereas the density of fully saturated steam is 20.09
kg
/m
3
.
Therefore, buoyancy driven ow is suspected to play an important role in the context
of steam injection into water saturated porous media (Ochs (2006) [20]). Assuming
a hydrostatic pressure distribution in the system (h =
p
g
+ z = const.), leads to the
pressure gradient in z-direction:
grad(p
w
) =
w
g. (2.7)
Combining equation 2.7 with equation 2.4 for the Darcy velocity, results in the steam
velocity:
v
s
=
k
r,s
s
Kg (
w
s
) . (2.8)
Equation 2.8 describes the buoyant ow of steam, in the opposite direction of the grav-
itational vector, driven by the density dierence between steam and liquid water. The
comparison of equation 2.8 with equation 2.4 clearly indicates the dierence between
advection and buoyancy.
2.2.2 Diusion
The transport process of diusion occurs continuously, independent of the uids move-
ment. It originates from arbitrary Brownian movement of the molecules and corre-
sponds to the second law of thermodynamics which states, that the state of order of
any closed system decreases until equilibrium is reached (e.g. Ochs (2006) [20]).
As the system described only consists of the one component water, the process of
diusion is neglected. This can be justied, as the inuence of diusion within one-
component systems is very small in comparison to multi-component systems (Corey
et al (2009) [7]).
2.2.3 Mass Transfer Processes
The multiphase one-component model described in this work, contains the two phases
water and steam. Both consist of the one present component water. A mass transport
between the phases, hence only occurs in terms of evaporation and condensation (see
gure 2.2).
2.2.4 Thermal Convection
The transport of thermal energy through bulk motion of a uid is called thermal or
heat convection. Depending on its origin, it is distinguished between free and forced
convection. Forced convection is characterized by a uid motion, that is induced by
external forces, such as during steam injection. Free or natural convection occurs
when temperature gradients, and respectively density dierences, cause recirculation
processes within the uid.
For most thermal recovery applications, forced convection is the dominant form of
heat transfer (Hong (1994) [13]). In porous media, the rate of heat transport through
convection is a function of the uid-ow rate and the thermal properties of the uid
and the reservoir. This type of thermal convection is described through an energy
balance on the owing uid, as the specic phase enthalpy is considered within the
advection term (see equation 2.12).
2.2.5 Thermal Conduction
Another important energy transfer process is thermal or heat conduction. Thermal
conduction is a diusive process, caused by a temperature gradient. It is the result of
2.3 Mathematical Formulations 11
an energy transfer from high energetic molecules to less energetic ones. During steam
injection into a reservoir, thermal conduction is responsible for energy losses to the
overburden and the underlying strata (Hong (1994) [13]). It can also be an important
heat transfer process within the reservoir, when uid ow velocities are small.
According to Fouriers Law, one-dimensional stationary conductive heat transfer
is described by the following equation:
q
cond
=
i
grad(T). (2.9)
The energy ux related to an area is given by q
cond
, with the unit
J
/s m
2
. The thermal
conductivity
i
, is the ability of the material i to transmit heat. It is not only a material
property, but also depends on the geometry and composition of the system described,
as discussed in detail later.
2.3 Mathematical Formulations
In order to specify the depicted non-isothermal two-phase one-component system math-
ematically, the conservation laws of mass and energy are needed. In uid dynamics,
the Reynolds Transport Theorem (RTT) is used to formulate these basic conservation
laws (see equation 2.10). It states that the total rate of change of an extensive system
property E equals the rate of change of its corresponding intensive quantity e within a
xed control volume (CV), plus the net rate change across its boundaries (e.g. Ochs
(2006) [20]).
dE
dt
=
_
(e)
t
d +
_
(e)(v n)d. (2.10)

Using the RTT and considering an innitesimal small CV, a dierential formulation
for the conservation of a quantity E (e.g. mass) can be derived. A detailled description
of this process is given in Ochs (2006) [20]. The additional consideration of the pore
space and the phase saturation of the porous multiphase system, yields the balance
equations for each phase.
For the solution of the multiphase problem, the multiphase extension of Darcys
Law, as given in equation 2.4, is usually used to calculate the phase velocity v
(e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]).

2.3.1 Mass Balance Equation
Based on the conservation law of mass, which states

t
+ div(v) = 0, the balance
of mass is formulated for each component, inserting equation 2.4 for the velocity v.
Consequently, any mass transfer from one phase to the other can be accounted for
(e.g. Class (2001) [6]).
2.3 Mathematical Formulations 12
In case of the depicted two-phase one-component model, the formulation of one mass
balance equation, for the one component water is necessary (e.g. Ochs (2006) [20]):
)
t
. .
accumulation term
div
_
k
r,
K
_
grad(p
g
_
_
. .
advection term
q
c
..
source/sink term
= 0, {water, steam} (2.11)
with the constant porosity , phase density
, phase saturation S
, relative perme-
ability k
r,
of phase , dynamic viscosity
of phase , the intrinsic permeability K

and the phase pressure p
.
2.3.2 Energy Balance Equation
The rst law of thermodynamics states, that in a physical process, energy can not be
lost but only be transferred from one state to another. In order to describe the energy
transfer in a multiphase system, the balance of energy is formulated, as it is done with
mass (e.g. Class (2001) [6]).
The change of a systems internal energy U equals the change of heat Q across
the system boundaries plus the work W
v
done by change in volume. Assuming local
thermodynamic equilibrium, only one single energy balance equation is necessary to
describe the system (e.g. Ochs (2006) [20]).
)
t
. .
accumulation term uid
+(1 )
(
sg
c
sg
T)
t
. .
accumulation term solid
div
_
pm
grad(T)
_
. .
conduction term
div
_
k
r,
K
_
grad(p
g
_
_
. .
convection term
q
h
..
source/sink term
= 0 {water, steam} (2.12)
2.4 The 2p1cni Model 13
In equation 2.12, radiation is neglected, u
is the specic internal energy of phase

, h
is the specic enthalpy of phase ,

sg
and c
sg
are the soil grain den-
sity and the specic heat capacity of the solid medium,
pm
is the equivalent heat
conductivity of the system (porous medium including uids), and T is the temperature.
To solve the partial dierential balance equations, the following closure relationships
are necessary:
The sum of the phase saturations adds up to one:
= 1.
The sum of the pressure of the wetting phase and the capillary pressure equals
the pressure of the non-wetting phase: p
w
+p
c
= p
g
.
2.4 The 2p1cni Model
For the process of steam injection into the water saturated subsurface, a heterogeneous
system, containing the two phases liquid water (water phase) and gaseous water (steam
phase), is assumed. Hence, a non-isothermal two-phase one-component model (2p1cni),
with each phase itself consisting of the one component water, is described in this work.
The occuring mass transfer processes for the system are shown in gure 2.2.
water
Condensation
Evaporation
water
water phase (liquid water) steam phase (gaseous water)
Figure 2.2: Mass transfer processes in the two-phase one-component (2p1cni) model
for the two phases water and steam.
2.5 MUFTE-UG: The Numerical Simulator
In this work, MUFTE-UG is used as the numerical simulator. It stands for Multiphase
Flow Transport and Energy Model on Unstructured Grids. As shown in gure 2.3,
it consists of two parts. The MUFTE part of the simulator describes the physical
problems and the discretisation method of the system (Helmig et al. (1998) [11]).
The UG part with its multigrid data structures, grid renement techniques and the
numerical solvers deals with the partial dierential equations (Bastian et al. (1997)
[1]). MUFTE-UG in this work, solves the problem of multi-phase one-component non-
isothermal ow processes in a geological formation.
2.5 MUFTE-UG: The Numerical Simulator 14
(Helmig et. al 1997, 1998)
(Bastian et. al 1997, 1998)
(S. Lang, K. Birken,
K. Johannsen et. al 1997)
- multigrid data structures
- local grid refinement
- solvers (multigrid, etc)
- parallelization
- r,h,p-adaptive methods
- graphic representation
- user interface
UG (Wittum, Bastian)
Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR)

- problem description
- discretization methods
- physical-mathematical models
- physical interpretation
- refinement criteria
- numerical schemes
- constitutive relationships
MUFTE (Helmig)
Institute for Hydraulic Engineering (IWS)
Figure 2.3: The numerical simulator MUFTE-UG
Chapter 3
System Properties
3.1 Physical Properties of Water and Steam
3.1.1 Density and Viscosity
The molar density of water is implemented after Panday et al. (1995) [21] and is
a function of temperature and pressure. While the density of the liquid water phase
is assumed to remain constant with changing temperature, the density of the gaseous
water phase (steam) decreases with increasing temperature. Increasing pressure p
w
,
respectively p
g
, results in an increase of density for both phases, water and steam.
The dynamic viscosity of water is only determined by the temperature. Unlike the
viscosity of the liquid water phase, which decreases with increasing temperature, that
of the steam phase increases (e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]).
3.1.2 Water Saturation Pressure
The water saturation pressure, or vapor pressure p
w,sat
is a function of temperature,
and is implemented in the model after the IFC report (IFC (1967) [15]). In terms of
a closed system, it describes the pressure of the gaseoues phase (steam) in equilibrium
with its liquid phase (water) at a certain temperature. It is the pressure, at which the
amount of condensing water molecules equals that of the evaporating ones (e.g. Faer-
ber (1997) [10]).
Figure 3.1 shows the water saturation pressure as a function of temperature, as imple-
mented in the model. The water saturation pressure-temperature relationship is used
to determine the occurence of a second phase within the model, accompanied by a
primary variable switch (for details see section 2.1.4).
For gas being the only phase present, and p
g
p
w,sat
, the water phase appears. For
water being the only phase present, and p
g
p
w,sat
, the gas phase appears.
15
3.1 Physical Properties of Water and Steam 16
Figure 3.1: Water saturation pressure depending on temperature. As implemented in
the model.
3.1.3 Enthalpy
The amount of energy within a system capable of doing mechanical work, is called
enthalpy H. It is dened as the sum of the systems internal energy U and the volume
changing work pV (e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]). The division by the systems mass yields
the specic enthalpy: h = u +
p
.
The specic enthalpy of water is implemented after IFC (1967) [15]. While the spe-
cic enthalpy of gaseous water (steam) strongly depends on the volume changing work,
the denition of the specic enthalpy of liquid water often neglects this correlation, as
a result of the low compressibility of water: h u.
Figure 3.2 shows the specic enthalpy of liquid water depending on temperature (con-
stant pressure) and pressure (constant temperature). It is observed, that the specic
enthalpy of water is more dependent on temperature than on pressure.
(a) h-T relation of liquid water at constant p
(b) h-p relation of liquid water at constant T
Figure 3.2: Specic enthalpy of liquid water as a function of temperature at constant
pressure, and as a function of pressure at constant temperature. As implemented in
the model.
Dening the specic enthalpy of steam, it is theoretically distinguished between wet
steam, saturated steam and overheated steam. While wet and saturated steam are
determined through the parameters temperature T(p) and steam quality x, the specic
enthalpy of overheated steam is a function of T and p. The steam quality parameter
x is a mass ratio, dened as: x =
m
gaseous
m
liquid
+m
gaseous
.
Steam at boiling temperature, consisting of gaseous and liquid water (0.0 < x < 1.0)
is called wet steam. Steam at boiling temperature, containing 100 % gaseous water
(x = 1.0) is called saturated steam. Steam that consists of 100 % gaseous water with
a temperature above boiling point is called overheated steam.
For the given process of steam injection into saturated porous media, it is high
quality wet steam occupying the pore space besides water. Overheated steam
would require higher temperatures. The specic enthalpy of wet steam h
wet
is
calculated, using h
w,sat
of saturated water and h
g,sat
of saturated steam at boiling
temperature, and combining it with the steam quality x: h
wet
= (1x)h
w,sat
+xh
g,sat
.
The specic enthalpy of saturated steam as a function of temperature T, as im-
plemented in the model, is shown in gure 3.3. For more details see the Mollier
h,s-Diagram (Langeheinecke et al. (2003) [18]).
Figure 3.3: Specic enthalpy of saturated steam (x = 1.0) as a function of temperature.
As implemented in the model.
3.2 Physical Properties of the Porous Medium 19
Figure 3.3 indicates, that a pressure, respectively temperature increase only results in
an increased specic enthalpy for saturated steam up to a certain point. With pres-
sure, respectively temperature exceeding this point, a decrease in enthalpy is observed.
This is depicted schematically in gure 3.4. It is pointed out here, that the pressure,
respectively temperature to be exceeded for the enthalpy decrease depends on the
steam quality. With lower steam quality, a higher pressure, respectively temperature
is needed to cause the decline of the specic enthalpy. See the Mollier h,s-Diagram
(Langeheinecke et al. (2003) [18]) for more details.
pressure p [bar]
221
critical point
saturated steam wet steam
saturated water
100C
10
50
1
spec. enthalpy h [kJ/kg]
Figure 3.4: Schematic plot of the specic enthalpy of water as a function of pressure.
3.2 Physical Properties of the Porous Medium
3.2.1 Heat Capacity
The specic heat capacity of a material, is a measure of how much thermal energy
must be added to heat up 1 kg of the material by one Kelvin. The unit is
kJ
/kg K. The
heat capacity thus describes a substances ability to store heat. A body determined by
a high specic heat capacity stores heat well. In thermodynamics, it is distinguished
between the specic heat capacity c
p
at constant pressure, and c
v
at constant volume.
In terms of equation 2.12, the energy content of the uid phase is calculated using
the specic internal energy u. The energy storage term of the solid phase however, is
calculated using the specic heat capacity of the soil grain material c
sg
. As c
p
c
v
for
solid substances, a constant value, independent of pressure and temperature is used for
c
sg
.
3.3 Composite Properties 20
3.2.2 Porosity
The porosity is dened as the ratio between the pore volume and the total bulk
volume of the porous media: =
V
pores
V
total
.
It is a measure of the volume not lled with soil grains but uids, such as liquid water
and steam. It is furthermore distinguished between porosity and eective porosity,
which describes the pore space accessible for a uid entering the porous medium.
3.2.3 Absolute Permeability
The absolute or intrinsic permeability K of a porous medium describes the resistance
that the material opposes to uid ow. The unit is m
2
or D, with 1 D 10
12
m
2
. As
given in equation 2.2, it is only dependent on the properties of the porous medium,
because it is correlated to the hydraulic conductivity K
f
by including the uids vis-
cosity and density. For the computation of multiphase ow as shown in equation 2.11,
the hydraulic conductivity is extended with the relative permeability k
r,
of phase
(e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]):
K
f
= Kk
r,
. (3.1)
While the intrinsic permeability K is solely a property of the soil grains, the relative
permeability is dependent on the uid and the porous medium properties (for details
see section 3.3.1).
3.3 Composite Properties
Along the uid and soil properties, additional parameters combining uid and porous
medium properties are needed to describe the multiphase system. As these parameters
can neither be assigned solely to the porous medium, nor to the uid occupying the
pore space, they are called composite properties here. They result from the interaction
between the uid and the porous medium and are no conventional system properties.
Composite properties reect the conceptual model, that is used to reproduce the system
behavior (Ochs (2006) [20]).
3.3.1 Relative Permeability
The relative permeability is a dimensionless number depending on the tortuosity of
the porous media, pore space geometry and phase saturation. It is used to scale the
intrinsic permeability (see equation 3.1), with the product of K and k
r,
being called
the eective permeability of phase (e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]). The introduction of
k
r,
accounts for the fact, that in a multi-phase system, the presence of one phase in a
porous medium inuences the ow of the other phase.
In the model, the relative permeability-saturation relations of the two phases water and
steam are implemented after Van Genuchten, as shown in gure 3.5. With water
representing the wetting phase and steam being the non-wetting phase, the relative
permeabilities are calculated as follows:
k
r,w
=
_
S
e
[1 (1 S
1
m
e
)
m
]
2
k
r,n
= (1 S
e
)
1
3
[1 S
1
m
e
]
2m
. (3.2)
The parameter m results from the denition of the eective water saturation S
e
as a
function of the capillary pressure p
c
after Van Genuchten:
S
e
(p
c
) =
S
w
S
w,r
1 S
w,r
= [1 + ( p
c
)
n
]
m
, (3.3)
with the water saturation S
w
, the residual water saturation S
w,r
, and m, n and as
the three Van Genuchten parameters (see also section 3.3.2).
Figure 3.5: Relative permeability of the wetting phase (water) and of the non-wetting
phase (steam) as a function of the water saturation after Van Genuchten. As im-
plemented in the model.
3.3.2 Capillary Pressure
Considering two immiscible uid phases in a state of equilibrium, a pressure dierence
at the interface between the wetting and non-wetting phase occurs. It originates from
molecular cohesion eects, which cause a surface tension at the interface. The resulting
pressure dierence depends on the pore space geometry and the phase saturation, and
is called capillary pressure p
c
. In the model, it is calculated using the approach of Van
Genuchten (e.g. Class (2001) [6]), as depicted in gure 3.6.
p
c
=
1
(S
1
m
e
1)
1
n
. (3.4)
With m = 1
1
n
, the two Van Genuchten paramaters and n emerge. The pa-
rameter describes the entry behaviour of the non-wetting phase, and the parameter
n describes the materials uniformity, with a low value for n being associated with a
non-uniform material. The eective saturation S
e
is dened as given in equation 3.3.
Figure 3.6: Capillary pressure as a function of the water saturation after the approach
of Van Genuchten, with set to 0.0028
1
/Pa and n set to 4.0 . As implemented in
the model.
The heat conductivity is a parameter combining uid and soil grain properties with
respect to equation 2.12. It describes the averaged ability of the uid lled porous
media to conduct heat. It is implemented after the approach of Somerton, as shown
in equation 3.5 (e.g. Class (2001) [6]).
pm
=
Sw=0
pm
+
_
S
w
(
Sw=1
pm

Sw=0
pm
) (3.5)
In this case, the denition of the eective heat conductivity
Sw=1
pm
for the fully water
saturated and
Sw=0
pm
for the fully steam saturated porous media is necessary. In terms
of steam, saturated steam with a steam quality of x = 1.0 is assumed. To obtain the
needed eective heat conductivities, an average of the heat conductivity
sg
for the
soil grains and
f
for the uids (
Sw=1
pm
for water and
Sw=0
pm
for steam) needs to be
determined. Here, the conservative method of the geometric mean is used:
pm
=
(1)
sg

f
. (3.6)
With
sg
assumed to be 2.5
W
/m K (Quartz), the value of
Sw=1
f
(liquid water) being
0.621
W
/m K and that of
Sw=0
f
(steam) being 0.051
W
/m K . This yields a
pm
as a
function of the water saturation calculated after equation 3.5, as shown in gure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Heat conductivity as a function of water saturation. Approach of Somer-
ton, using the method of the geometric mean to calculate the eective heat conduc-
tivities for the fully water, and fully steam saturated porous media. As implemented
in the model.
Chapter 4
Simulations
Using a non-isothermal two-phase one-component model, described in Ochs (2006)
[20], steam injection into a water saturated system is simulated. The inuence of a
cyclic injection routine on the steam chamber growth and the temperature distribution
within the porous medium is analysed, and compared to the process of a continuous
injection.
To determine the inuence of the system properties on the simulation results, a
sensitivity study is carried out. Therefor, a set of porous medium and composite
properties, assumed to be most relevant for the depicted process, is chosen. Each
parameter is then seperately examined to determine its inuence on the ow processes
in the geological formation.
4.1 The Model
4.1.1 Denition of the Model Domain
The development of the steam and temperature front along the horizontal injection
well, such as described in section 1.2, is assumed to be constant. Therefore, the steam
and temperature front development is depicted using a two-dimensional model, that
represents a vertical y-z slice through the inner reservoir area, with a thickness in x-
direction of 1 m (see gure 1.1).
This results in the model domain shown in gure 4.1. The vertical model extension of
40 m represents the full assumed reservoir height of 35 m, plus a 5 m thick, low perme-
able overburden on top. The horizontal extension is chosen to include an equal area
to the left and right of the well pair, and is set to 120 m. This is, because the distance
between two well pairs of 100 m leads to the assumption, that at 50 m to the left and
right of the injection well, the steam front would link up with that of a neighbouring
well with the same injection routine.
Only the steam injection well (upper well of a well pair) is implemented in the model.
24
4.1 The Model 25
It is located 8 m above the reservoir bottom, in the middle of the reservoir at x = 60 m
(see gure 4.1).
The grid discretization of the model domain is set to 0.5 m, resulting in elements of
0.25 m
2
. This allows for a satisfying computation speed, while providing reliable sim-
ulation results, and is the conclusion of simulations with dierent grid discretizations,
to analyse the grid sensitivity.
To retrieve detailed information on the system properties for certain areas within the
model domain, seven data nodes are implemented at various locations in the grid (see
gure 4.2 and table 4.1).
35m
120m
Sw(initial) = 1.0
400m below
surface
hydrostatic pressure
distribution
hydrostatic pressure
distribution
left boundary:
injection well 8m above bottom boundary
reservoir
low permeable overburden
5m
p(y=360) = 37bar
p(y=400m) = 41bar
right boundary:
T (initial) and T (initial) and
y
x
top boundary: constant temperature and pressure
bottom boundary: noflow conditions
T(initial) = 10C
Figure 4.1: The model domain and its initial and boundary conditions as used for the
simulation of continuous and cyclic steam injection.
Figure 4.2: The model domain consisting of the permeable reservoir and the low per-
meable overburden. Locations of the data nodes implemented to retrieve information
on the system properties, as given in table 4.1.
4.1 The Model 26
designation x [m] y [m]
Node1 60.0 1.0
Node2 60.0 8.0
Node3 60.0 20.0
Node4 60.0 34.5
Node5 30.0 34.5
Node6 90.0 34.5
Node7 60.0 38.0
Table 4.1: Node names and coordinates of the seven nodes implemented in the model
grid.
4.1.2 Initial and Boundary Conditions
A reservoir depth of 400 m at the reservoir bottom is assumed. This determines the ini-
tial reservoir temperature and the pressure distribution (see gure 4.1), and is referring
to conditions found in the Canadian oil sand elds.
The domain is assumed to be initially fully water saturated: S
w
= 1.0.
The initial reservoir pressure is given by a vertical hydrostatic pressure distribu-
tion, using p = p
atm
+d
w
g. With p
atm
assumed to be 1.013 bar and d as the
total depth in meter.
The initial temperature T
initial
is assumed to be 10
C. A vertical temperature
distribution, according to the geothermal temperature gradient (estimated to be
0.03
C
/m), is neglected because of the reservoir being only 35 m in height.
The bottom boundary of the domain is determined by a no-ow condition. The
right, left and upper boundary of the domain is characterized by the temperature
and pressure of the initial situation. The denition of the upper boundary con-
dition in combination with the very low permeable overburden, accounts for the
fact, that while thermal energy can be lost from the reservoir into the overburden
by conduction, no relevant ux of water or steam into the overburden is possible.
4.1.3 System Property Values
The system properties described in detail in chapter 3 are either dened by a constant
value, or as a function of the primary variables, often including empirically derived
parameters. Only those properties, respectively parameters, associated with a constant
value are given in table 4.2. For details on the remaining parameters see chapter 3.
4.1 The Model 27
The porosity
ob
and absolute permeability K
ob
are properties of the overburden and
account for the dierence in permeability between the reservoir and overburden.
The values of the porosity and permeability of the reservoir are chosen to be rather
low in comparison to observed eld data from Canadian oil sand elds. This is, to
account for the fact, that the presence of an oil phase in reality leads to a decrease
of the relative permeability of water. This procedure is random, but is considered to
be a rst good approach to the problem. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the absolute
permeability is discussed in detail in section 4.5.1.
parameter value unit
specic heat capacity c
sg
850
J
/kg K
porosity 0.1 -
porosity
ob
0.05 -
absolute permeability K 40 mD
absolute permeability K
ob
0.0001 mD
soil grain density
sg
2650
kg
/m
3
Van Genuchten parameter 0.0028
1
/Pa
Van Genuchten parameter n 4 -
residual saturation S
w,r
of water and S
g,r
of steam 0.0 -
Table 4.2: Values of the system properties.
4.1.4 Conditions at the Injection Well
The injection of steam into the model domain is realised by using a source term. Mass
and energy is injected at Node2 (see gure 4.2), and characterized by a mole and en-
thalpy ux (
mol
/s and
J
/s).
To analyse the inuence of a solarthermal steam generation, respectively cyclic steam
injection, on the temperature and steam development in the subsurface, a cyclic injec-
tion process is compared to a continuous one. Two injection approaches, determined
by dierent injection conditions, are thus used.
On average, a daily injection of 0.3 t per meter well length (for details see chapter 1),
and a steam quality of approximately 90 % (x = 0.9) is assumed for both injection
routines.
For the continuous injection approach, this simply results in a mass and enthalpy ux
at the injection node of:
12.5
kg
/hr
32875
kJ
/hr.
4.1 The Model 28
For the cyclic injection approach based on solarthermal steam generation, the locally
available hours of direct solar radiation, which vary with the seasons, determine the
actual injection rate. For this work, statistical climate data for Edmonton in Alberta,
Canada has been used (Environment Canada (2009) [9]). The data suggests a
yearly average of approximately 6.3
hrs
/d of bright sunshine. Based on an average daily
injection of 0.3
t
/m, respectively 109.5
t
/m per year, the mass and enthalpy ux for the
cyclic injection process is calculated to be approximately:
47.6
kg
/hr
125238.1
kJ
/hr.
A combination of two injection cycles determines the actual injection period for the
cyclic injection process, as a function of time. One describes the dierent seasons for
the given location of Edmonton (see gure 4.3(a)). The other represents the actual
daily injection window depending on the season (see gure 4.3(b)). As the possible
daily injection period varies with the seasons, so does the daily injected amount of
energy.
To guarantee the same energy input after one full seasonal cycle (12 months) for cyclic
injection as for continuous injection, the actual injection rates have been calculated as
described above. It is important to notice, that in case of cyclic injection, it is not the
actual injection rate changing with the seasons, but the duration of injection.
4.1 The Model 29
(a) Seasonal cycle
(b) Daily cycle
Figure 4.3: Seasonal distribution and daily injection window at the location of Edmon-
ton in Alberta, Canada, described by a sinusoidal function. Spring is represented by
the areas marked green, summer is marked orange, autumn is brown and winter is light
blue. The actual daily injection time is 3 hrs in winter, 6 hrs in spring and autumn,
and 10 hrs in summer.
4.2 Continuous Steam Injection 30
4.2 Continuous Steam Injection
As described in section 1.2, the application of steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
for enhanced oil recovery purposes is based on the injection of high-pressure, high-
quality steam. The steam is usually produced by fossil fuel burning steam generators,
using gas, oil or LPG (liquied petroleum gas).
Such a steam generation process delivers a continuous steam injection rate, in case the
fossil fuel and water supply is sucient.
4.2.1 The Injection Well
A constant mass and enthalpy ux is given at the injection well (see section 4.1.4).
Figure 4.4 shows a plot of the temperature, pressure and steam saturation versus time
at the injection node. It indicates, how a high injection pressure during the start-up
phase decreases over time, followed by a similar development of the temperature. The
steam saturation at the injection node is constant over the whole time.
Figure 4.4: Pressure, temperature and steam saturation at Node2 (injection node at
x = 60 m and y = 8 m) for a continuous injection process.
4.2.2 Steam Chamber and Temperature Development
The steam chamber growth and the temperature front development from the injec-
tion well are analysed within the model domain. Therefore, steam saturation and
temperature are depicted for various time steps after the start of injection. Figure 4.5
and 4.6 show S
g
, respectively the steam chamber growth, and T for the process of a
continuous injection after 3, 6, 9, 27, 30, 33, 51, 54, and 57 months.
Buoyant forces cause the steam to rise upwards from the injection well. Once the
low permeable overburden (indicated by the black horizontal line) is reached, steam
accumulates underneath it and the steam chamber growth is dominated by a horizontal
spreading underneath the overburden. To a smaller degree, this horizontal growth
is also observed in the middle of the steam chamber. The distribution of the steam
saturation within the steam chamber is rather homogeneous, with a higher steam
saturation around the injection well.
For the given injection rate, the development of the temperature front is mainly driven
by convection, and hence, basically follows the steam chamber growth. However,
due to conduction, a loss of thermal energy from the reservoir into the overburden is
observed.
Figure 4.7 shows the development of S
g
and T at Node4, directly underneath the
overburden at x = 60 m and y = 34.5 m. A constant steam saturation and temperature
is observed, with the steam accumulating underneath the low permeable overburden.
A continuous injection rate results in a continuous growth of a steam chamber,
characterized by a homogeneous saturation distribution within the chamber, and a
similar development of the temperature front.
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Figure 4.7: Temperature and steam saturation at Node4, directly underneath the over-
burden (x = 60 m and y = 34.5 m) for a continuous injection process.
4.3 Cyclic Steam Injection 35
4.3 Cyclic Steam Injection
The objective of the hydrodynamical study of cyclic steam injection into the subsurface
is the idea, to use solarthermal steam generation plants instead of fossil fuel burning
steam generators. The solarthermal plant would use direct solar radiation to generate
steam, and thus delivering a cyclic steam injection rate, depending on the daily available
hours of direct sunlight (see section 1.3 and 4.1.4).
4.3.1 The Injection Well
The injection rate determines the injection pressure, and consequently the steam
temperature. A cyclic injection routine, due to a solarthermal steam generation
process, thus results in a daily change between an injection and a non-injection
window, and the change of the daily injection duration with the seasons (see g-
ure 4.3(b) and 4.3(a)). This injection routine determines the pressure, temperature
and saturation uctuations obtained at the injection well.
Figure 4.8 depicts those oscillations at the injection node for one full seasonal cycle
(one year) for p, T and S
g
in the fth year of injection. The broad spectrum of the
data is the result of the daily shift between injection and non-injection phase. In the
model, the actual injection rate is the same for all seasons. The daily injection window
however, changes with the seasons, thus does the daily amount of injected steam (see
gure 4.3(b)).
It needs to be noticed, that in reality, the actual steam production and injection rate
may vary according to the daily and seasonal variation of the energy of the solar
radiation (assumption of sucient water supply).
As shown in gure 4.8, the change from a short injection window to a long one
(e.g. spring to summer), results in more steam being injected into the steam chamber,
forcing it to grow faster. This causes a sudden pressure increase, which is reduced with
a growing steam chamber. The pressure uctuations are followed by the temperature
oscillations, according to the water saturation pressure-temperature relation.
For a shift from a long to a short injection period (e.g. summer to autumn), a sudden
pressure decrease, followed by a temperature decline, is observed. This is because
an insucient amount of steam is injected to obtain the expansion of the steam
chamber, causing steam to condense at the front, resulting in a near collapse of the
chamber. As water is more dense than steam, less pore volume is needed, resulting
in a pressure decline. With a then small, but slowly growing steam chamber, the
pressure rises again. The maximum pressure during injection, to which the injection
pressure generally converges, at the given injection rate, is approximately 44 bar.
The steam saturation at the injection well basically uctuates within a given range,
according to the daily injection cycle, disregarding the change of seasons. An exception
is observed during the low-injection months of winter (see gure 4.8(c)). This is,
because the steam chamber diminishes as a consequence of the short injection window,
resulting in low steam saturations.
In the model, the steam injection is realised by dening a constant mass and
enthalpy ux. Hence, in the case of a cyclic injection process, the described injection
pressure uctuations make it impossible to ensure a certain steam quality at the
injection node. This is, because a change in pressure would be accompanied with a
change of the specic steam enthalpy, with respect to a constant steam quality (see
gure 3.4). The change of the specic enthalpy is however assumed to be minor for a
steam quality of 90 %. Thus, the needed adjustment of the steam enthalpy is neglected
in the model.
4.3.2 Steam Chamber Growth
Using a cyclic injection process, the steam chamber growth varies with time, depending
on the seasons. Figure 4.9 shows the steam saturation within the model domain at 3,
6, 9, 27, 30, 33, 51, 54, and 57 months after the start of injection. It indicates a fast
steam front propagation during the high-injection months (summer), while during low-
injection months (winter), the steam chamber is reduced in volume. This is because the
daily amount of injected steam varies with the seasons. It appears, the steam injection
during the seasons following summer, is not enough to sustain the steam chamber
extension reached during the summer months. The consequence is a hysteresis process,
resulting in a circular ush and drainage of the pores.
Furthermore, a rather heterogeneous steam saturation establishes within the steam
chamber, with layers of dierent saturations being observed. This layering of dierent
saturation areas is a result of the daily injection cycle, as the injected steam rises due to
buoyancy eects, leaving less saturated layers below during the non-injection period.
(a) p at Node2 (b) T at Node2
(c) S
g
at Node2
Figure 4.8: Pressure, temperature and steam saturation at Node2 (injection node at
x = 60 m and y = 8 m) for a cyclic injection process.
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4.3.3 Temperature Development
In case of a cyclic injection routine, the propagation of the temperature front does not
necessarily follow the steam chamber growth. Figure 4.10 indicates a fast temperature
front propagation during high-injection months, with large areas of high temperatures.
The temperature front propagation is mainly driven by convection, and hence follows
the steam chamber growth. During low-injection months however, the temperature
front keeps growing even though the steam chamber is reduced in size. The areas of
high temperatures are much smaller and restricted to the area close to the injection
well. The reason for this development is, that the temperature propagation is mainly
driven by conduction in these months. Hence, the thermal energy injected during high-
injection months is distributed within the reservoir during low-injection months.
The inuence of conduction during low-injection months is also observed at the transi-
tion between the reservoir and the low permeable overburden. In summer months, the
heat lost into the overburden, is horizontally less spread than the temperature front
underneath it. This is, because the heat loss into the overburden is a result of the
rather slow process of conduction, while the horizontal spreading of the temperature
front underneath the overburden is driven by convection. In contrast, during winter
months, the main force driving the temperature propagation is conduction, leaving the
temperature front within the overburden and underneath it equally spread.
F
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4.4 Comparison of the two Injection Routines 41
4.4 Comparison of the two Injection Routines
To analyse the inuence of a cyclic injection on the ow processes in the subsurface,
the steam chamber and temperature front propagation of the cyclic and continuous
steam injection routines are checked against each other. The two processes must be
compared at a point in time, determined by the same cumulative energy input. For
the way of injection described in section 4.1.4, this is given after one full seasonal cycle,
respectively after every 12 months. The point in time for the following comparison is
thus chosen to be after ve full injection cycles, respectively ve years.
4.4.1 Steam Chamber Growth
The propagation of the steam front is not found to be equal for both injection
approaches at one point in time, which is determined by the same cumulative energy
input. This is because of the varying inuence of condensation in case of a cyclic
injection routine.
Figure 4.11 shows the steam saturation for the continuous and cyclic injection process
ve years after the start of injection. A less horizontal steam chamber expansion
underneath the overburden, and a more heterogeneous steam saturation distribution
is observed in case of the cyclic injection. The steam chamber volume at the given
point in time is clearly bigger in case of the continuous injection.
However, it is pointed out, that with the cyclic injection process, the steam chamber
volume is decreasing in the second half of a full seasonal cycle (see gure 4.9). Thus,
the steam chamber expansion is more similar between the two approaches earlier
within the full injection cycle. This point in time though, would be characterized by
the cyclic cumulative energy input being higher than the continuous one. Figure 4.12
shows the steam saturation for the continuous and cyclic injection routine at the end
of the fth summer, at a time of 4 years and 5 months after the start of injection.
For the case of a cyclic injection process, it clearly indicates, that the steam chamber
expansion at this point in time is similar to that of the continuous injection.
As the mobilisation of heavy oil is achieved with the reduction of the oils vis-
cosity due to the transfer of thermal energy (see section 1.2), it is not solely the steam
chamber growth inuencing the enhanced oil recovery. In fact, the temperature front
propagation and the temperature distribution within the reservoir is assumed to be of
main interest for the production of heavy oil.
(a) Continuous injection
(b) Cyclic injection
Figure 4.11: Steam saturation S
g
in the model domain for a continuous and cyclic
injection process, ve years after the start of injection (after 5 full seasonal cycles).
Figure 4.12: Steam saturation S
g
in the model domain for a continuous and cyclic
injection process, four years and ve months after the start of injection (after summer).
4.4.2 Temperature Development
It is observed, that the propagation of the temperature front is quite dierent between
the two injection routines. Figure 4.13 shows the temperature for a continuous and
cyclic injection process ve years after the start of injection. For the case of a cyclic
injection, a smaller horizontal expansion of the high temperature front underneath the
overburden is observed. The propagation of the temperature front is thus dierent
between the two injection routines.
As the energy input is the same for both injection routines, the thermal energy must be
dierently distributed in case of the cyclic process. Therefor, the temperature distribu-
tion within the formation is analysed. Figure 4.14 and gure 4.15 show the distribution
of low and high temperature areas within the model domain. It is observed, that while
the low temperature front is very similar for both injection routines, as shown in g-
ure 4.14(a) and 4.14(b), the high temperature areas are dierently distributed, as shown
in gure 4.15(a) and 4.15(b). In case of the continuous injection process, an increased
accumulation of thermal energy underneath the overburden is observed, while in case
of cyclic injection, the high temperature areas are more concentrated within the cen-
tral area around the injection well, which is also determined by a higher maximum
temperature.
The dierent distribution of high temperature areas between the two injection rou-
tines is shown more detailled in gure 4.16. It is observed, that while the depicted
245
C front has propagated further for the continuous process, the fronts of higher
temperatures are more developed for the cyclic injection routine, and higher overall
temperatures are reached.
Figure 4.13: Temperature T in the model domain for a continuous and cyclic injection
process, ve years after the start of injection (after 5 full seasonal cycles).
Figure 4.14: Areas of low temperature T in the model domain for a continuous and
cyclic injection process, ve years after the start of injection (after 5 full seasonal
cycles).
Figure 4.15: Areas of high temperature T in the model domain for a continuous and
cyclic injection process, ve years after the start of injection (after 5 full seasonal
cycles).
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o
n
a
l
c
y
c
l
e
s
)
.
In summary, a diering temperature front propagation is observed, when comparing
the two injection routines. This is even though the cumulative energy input being the
same at the point of ve years after the start of injection.
While the thermal energy is accumulated underneath the overburden in case of contin-
uous injection, the heat is more concentrated within the central area of the reservoir
in case of cyclic injection. This suggests, that the upward transport of thermal energy
due to buoyancy is less with a cyclic injection process. A smaller inuence of buoyant
forces in turn, indicates a smaller volume of steam being present.
This observation may be explained by the cyclic injection routine itself. On the one
hand, as a cyclic injection results in the repetitive heating of the same porous media
area. This is, because the thermal energy transferred to the medium during injection
periods, is distributed throughout the formation during non-injection periods. On the
other hand, it seems likely, that the oscillation of the injection pressure, originating
from the cyclic injection routine, inuences the propagation of the temperature front.
Figure 4.17(a) depicts the injection pressure oscillations of the cyclic injection routine
in comparison to the continuous injection, at the injection well. In case of a cyclic
process, the high pressure of the injection area propagates fast into the reservoir, re-
sulting in a higher pressure level within the reservoir for the main injection period (see
gure 4.17(b) and 4.18). As described in section 4.1.4, a pressure increase results in
an increase of the water saturation temperature according to gure 3.1. Hence, areas
of high pressure are characterized by a high water saturation temperature, as shown
in gure 4.19. In such areas, the energy needed to evaporate water, lling the pores, is
consequently more in case of the cyclic process relative to the continuous injection case.
As a result, less steam develops, which is indicated by lower steam saturations within
the formation (see gure 4.20). This suggests, that with cyclic injection, the amount
of thermal energy stored and transported with steam is less than with the continu-
ous process. Hence, the thermal energy within the hot water phase is proportionately
more with the cyclic steam injection process, which explains the fact, that the thermal
energy is less accumulated underneath the overburden, but more concentrated in the
central area of the reservoir.
(a) Node2
(b) Node3
Figure 4.17: Pressure at Node2 (x=60 m and y=8 m) and Node3 (x=60 m and y=20 m)
in the fth year of injection for the continuous and cyclic injection process.
(
a
)
5
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(a) Node2
(b) Node3
Figure 4.20: Steam saturation Sg at Node2 (x=60 m and y=8 m) and Node3 (x=60 m
and y=20 m) in the fth year of injection for the continuous and cyclic injection process.
4.5 Sensitivity Study 54
4.5 Sensitivity Study
A sensitivity analysis is carried out to obtain an indication for the inuence of various
system properties on the development of the temperature front for a steam injection
process. Therefor, ve properties listed in table 4.3 are selected, and an upper and
lower boundary value is assumed (high and low value). For each parameter, simulation
runs determined by the high and low value are compared to the reference scenario,
given in table 4.3. The model domain of the sensitivity analysis is a section of the
model domain shown in gure 4.1. As the study only analyses the inuence on
a short time scale (thus only the inuence on the daily injection oscillation for a
cyclic injection process), the domain is given by a 20 mx20 m box around an injection
well, which is located 5 m above the reservoir bottom (see gure 4.21). The initial
temperature of the model domain is higher than for the domain given in gure 4.1, to
allow for a proper temperature front development within the short time of simulation
for the sensitivity study. The top, left and right domain boundary conditions are
those of hydrostatic pressure distribution and initial temperature.
The inuence of the given parameters on the temperature front 1
C above ini-
tial temperature is analysed for a continuous and cyclic injection process, assuming
an injection rate of 0.5
t
/d. For the cyclic injection, an injection window of 12
hrs
/d, and
thus an actual injection rate twice that of the continuous process, is assumed. The
propagation of the temperature front is compared between the reference scenario, and
the high and low value scenario for each parameter (see gure 4.23 to 4.27). For the
cyclic injection, the point in time for the comparison is 14.5 d. For the continuous
injection it is 15 d. This allows for a comparison of the parameters inuence between
the two processes, as the cumulative energy input is the same at these points in time.
low permeable overburden
bottom boundary: noflow conditions
injection well 5m above bottom boundary
T (initial) = 35C
Sw (initial) = 1.0
new model domain for sensitivity analysis (20m x 20m)
reservoir
Figure 4.21: Model domain for the sensitivity analysis within the reservoir.
parameter unit reference value high value low value
absolute permeability K mD 75 1000 1
porosity - 0.3 0.5 0.1
specic heat capacity c
sg
J
/kg K 850 1050 650
heat conductivity
pm
W
/m K see gure 4.22
Van Genuchten parameter
1
/Pa 0.0028 0.01 0.0001
Table 4.3: Reference, upper and lower value for the system properties, chosen to be
analysed in the sensitivity study.
Figure 4.22: Heat conductivity as a function of water saturation. Approach of Somer-
ton, to calculate the eective heat conductivities for the fully water, and fully steam
saturated porous media. For the reference value, the method of the geometric mean is
used. The high and low value is calculated, using the method of the arithmetic mean,
respectively harmonic mean (e.g. Class (2001) [6]).
4.5.1 Absolute Permeability K
For the sensitivity analysis, the absolute permeabilty K is varied within the range
given in table 4.3. Figure 4.23 indicates, that the inuence of a change in K is of the
same trend for the continuous and the cyclic injection routine.
A low absolute permeability leads to a more radial distribution of the temperature
front. While a high absolute permeability results in a less radial propagation. The
reason for that is described in detail in Ochs (2006) [20]. The so-called
q
s
/K ratio (ratio
between steam injection rate and absolute permeability) is an indication of the balance
between viscous and buoyant forces. It originates from the linear gravity number
(Gr
lin
), derived by Van Lookeren. Based on this approach, a decrease of the absolute
permeability at a constant injection rate, results in an increasing
q
s
/K ratio. This
increases the inuence of the viscous forces, which results in a more radial spreading
and more concentrated distribution of the steam front, respectively temperature front.
A high absolute permeability, on the other hand, increases the inuence of the buoyant
forces, hence causing a less radial but more linear spreading, dominated by an upward
movement of the steam, due to density dierences. In gure 4.23(b) however, it is
observed, that for this example of a cyclic injection, a high K does not result in
an increased upwards growth of the temperature front. Due to condensation, the
thermal energy sinks with the hot water, resulting in a wider horizontal spreading of
the temperature front near the domain bottom.
(a) Continuous injection (b) Cyclic injection
Figure 4.23: Propagation of the temperature front (T 36
C), with varying absolute

permeability K. After 15 d for the continuous injection, and 14.5 d for the cyclic
injection.
4.5.2 Porosity
The inuence of the Porosity on the temperature front propagation is similar for a
continuous and cyclic injection process (as shown in gure 4.24). The change of poros-
ity basically has two eects relevant for the temperature front propagation. In a fully
water saturated system, a higher porosity results in more volume of water. This on the
one hand, decreases the average specic heat capacity of the system, as c
w
is smaller
than c
sg
. This in turn would result in a faster temperature front propagation. On the
other hand, more volume of water simply results in the necessity of a higher energy
amount, to heat the water. Hence, with a constant energy input, the time needed to
heat a larger volume of water increases, which would result in a slower temperature
front propagation.
It is observed, that a low porosity results in a faster growth, while a high porosity
slightly slows the temperature front propagation. Thus, the latter of the eects de-
scribed above has the dominating inuence.
For both cases, the general shape of the front is similar to that of the reference case.
C) , with varying porosity

. After 15 d for the continuous injection, and 14.5 d for the cyclic injection.
4.5.3 Specic Heat Capacity of the Soil Grains c
sg
The specic heat capacity c
sg
of the solid phase describes the ability of the soil grains to
store thermal energy. Consequently, a high value for c
sg
, indicating a good heat storage
ability, results in a slow propagation of the temperature front. A low value for c
sg
,
hence accelerates the growth of the temperature front. This is observed in gure 4.25,
which shows the inuence of a varying c
sg
on the temperature front development for a
continuous and cyclic injection. The general trend resulting from a change of c
sg
is the
same for both injection processes.
C) , with a varying specic

heat capacity c
sg
of the solid phase. After 15 d for the continuous injection, and 14.5 d
for the cyclic injection.
pm
The heat conductivity
pm
is a parameter, describing the average ability of the uid
lled porous medium to transmit heat. This suggests, that an increasing
pm
results in
a faster temperature front propagation and a less concentrated heat distribution. This
is also indicated by gure 4.26. The inuence of
pm
is rather small here, as the high
and low value has been set up accordingly to table 4.3, respectively gure 4.22.
Instead of changing the method to obtain the eective heat conductivity
pm
, the
direct variation of the soil grain heat conductivity
sg
may have more inuence (see
section 3.3.3).
sg
is set to 2.5
W
/m K here, although it may be an uncertainty too. This
however is not analysed within this work.
C) , with a varying heat

conductivity . After 15 d for the continuous injection, and 14.5 d for the cyclic injec-
tion.
4.5.5 Capillary Pressure p
c
and Van Genuchten Parameter
The capillary pressure p
c
is a function of the residual saturations S
w,r
and S
g,r
of
the water and steam phase, the water saturation S
w
, and the two Van Genuchten
parameters n and (see section 3.3.2). For the sensitivity study, the latter one of
the two Van Genuchten parameters is changed within the range given in table 4.3.
According to equation 3.4, an increase of results in a decreasing p
c
, and vice versa.
As shown in gure 4.27, a change of within the given range has barely any inuence
on the temperature front propagation for the time period analysed. The slightly slower
propagation with an increase of , respectively decrease of p
c
, can not be explained
within this work.
C) , with a varying capillary

pressure. After 15 d for the continuous injection, and 14.5 d for the cyclic injection.
4.5.6 Results of the Sensitivity Study
Of the various parameters analysed within the sensitivity study, the absolute permeabil-
ity K is identied as the system property with the biggest inuence on the temperature
front propagation. While a low K results in a more radial spreading of the front, a
high K leads to a more linear propagation. The reason for that is described by the
so-called
q
s
/K ratio (see section 4.5.1).
The remaining parameters (see table 4.3) are of small or no inuence.
Chapter 5
Summary
The work presented in this thesis, is inspired by the idea to increase the eciency of
oil production from non-conventional heavy oil deposits in a way less harmful to the
environment.
Oil extraction from non-conventional reservoirs, such as the oil sand elds in Al-
berta, Canada, is increasing, as the demand for oil rises in a manner, production
from conventional deposits is soon expected to fall below. Enhanced oil recovery
technologies, often relying on steam, are usually necessary to produce oil from such
non-conventional reservoirs. The so induced increasing demand for steam, which is
produced by fossil fuel burning steam generators, presents various environmental and
economical problems.
The motivation for the presented work is thus the idea of solarthermal steam
generation plants for the steam assisted gravity drainage technology. Solarthermal
steam generation will lead to a cyclic injection process due to daily and seasonal
variations of solar radiation.
A two-dimensional, non-isothermal water steam model is used to simulate steam
injection into saturated porous media through a single injection well. The applied
model does not include oil, neither as a phase nor as a component. Hence, the
inuence of a cyclic injection process on the oil production is not subject of this thesis.
The underlying mathematical model concept and the reservoir properties of the system
are described in chapter 2 and chapter 3 of this work. In chapter 4, the inuence of
a cyclic injection routine on the uid ow and transport processes is analysed and
compared to a continuous injection routine, using the described model. Furthermore,
a sensitivity study identies the absolute permeability K as the system property,
which inuences the temperature front propagation the most amongst the analysed
parameters. This is because of its inuence on the balance between viscous and
buoyant forces, as described in detail in Ochs (2006) [20].
61
5.1 Conclusion 62
5.1 Conclusion
The hydrodynamical study of the two dierent steam injection processes, yields the
conclusion, that there is a dierence between the cyclic and continuous injection
routine with respect to the steam chamber and temperature development within the
reservoir.
For the continuous injection process described in this work, the dominant transport
mechanism of thermal energy is convection. Hence, the temperature front development
basically follows the continuous steam chamber growth, as long as the steam front is
propagating.
In contrast, the temperature front development does not necessarily follow the
steam chamber growth in case of cyclic injection. In addition to convection, the
transport of thermal energy due to conduction plays an important role during
non-injection periods. As a result, the temperature propagates continuously within
the reservoir, while due to condensation, the steam chamber volume is reduced during
injection pauses.
Furthermore it is observed, that although the cumulative energy input is the same
for both injection routines, the temperature front develops dierently with cyclic
injection. The thermal energy is thus dierently distributed. The presented work
suggests, that the reason for the dierent distribution of thermal energy within the
reservoir, is the cyclic injection routine itself. This is because, based on the assumption
of the same cumulative energy input, a higher injection rate is needed in case of the
cyclic injection routine. The consequence is a higher pressure distribution within the
reservoir. This in turn results in higher temperatures where water and steam are in
equilibrium according to the curve of saturation-vapor pressure over temperature (see
gure 3.1). Hence, less steam develops within the reservoir, resulting in a decline of
buoyant transport.
In summary, two distinct inuences of the cyclic injection routine on the steam
ow and energy transport in the subsurface are established in this thesis:
Vibrant steam chamber growth with a heterogeneous steam saturation distribu-
tion
Increased concentration of thermal energy within the central area of the reservoir.
The inuence of a cyclic injection routine and its consequences on the protability of
the bitumen and heavy oil business can not be evaluated, based on the work presented
in this thesis.
5.2 Outlook 63
5.2 Outlook
The applied 2D model represents a simplication of the situation in the reservoir and
neglects the component oil. A statement about the inuence of a cyclic injection
routine on the oil production rate, respectively the adaptability of solarthermal steam
generation for SAGD, is thus not possible. Open questions remaining are:
Would the temperature distribution within the reservoir in case of cyclic injec-
tion still dier from continuous injection, if steam and temperature fronts of
neighbouring injection wells link up?
Would a dierent temperature distribution within the reservoir inunce the oil
production and if yes, in which way?
How would the uctuating steam chamber growth in case of cyclic injection in-
uence the oil production rate?
Tasks for future work related to this topic may therefore be:
Implementation of production well to complete well pair
Model implementation of several well pairs
Development of a non-isothermal water steam oil model.
Bibliography
[1] Bastian, P., Birken, K., Johannsen, K., Lang, S., Eckstein, K., Neuss, N., Rentz-
Reichert, H., and Wieners, C. UG - A Flexible Software Toolbox for Solving
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cations of manipulating steam injection rates in SAGD projects - re-examination
of the Dover project. Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology, 44, 2005.
[4] BP. BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2009 0. bp.com/statisticalreview,
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[5] Butler, R. M. Thermal Recovery of Oil and Bitumen. Prentice Hall, 1991.
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prozesse in NAPL-kontaminierten porosen Medien. Dissertation, Institut f ur
Wasserbau, Universit at Stuttgart, 2001.
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[10] Faerber, A. Warmetransport in der ungesattigten Bodenzone: Entwicklung einer
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Universit at Stuttgart, 1997.
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H., and Bastian, P. Architecture of the Modular Program System MUFTE-UG
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[12] Helmig, R. Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface. Springer,
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[13] Hong, K. C. Steamood Reservoir Management - Thermal Enhanced Oil Recovery.
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method for recovery of bitumen from oil sand. Applied Energy, 2008.
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Band 4. Auage. Vieweg Verlag, 2003.
[19] Nasr, T. N., Golbeck, H., Korpany, G., and Pierce, G. SAGD Operating Strategies.
SPE International Conference on Horizontal Well Technology in Calgary, Alberta,
Canada, 1998.
[20] Ochs, S. Steam injection into saturated porous media - process analysis including
experimental and numerical investigations. Dissertation, Institut f ur Wasserbau,
Universit at Stuttgart, 2006.
[21] Panday, S., Forsyth, P. A., Falta, R. W., Wu, Y., and Huyakorn, P. S. Consider-
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Lehrstuhl f ur Hydromechanik und Hydrosystemmodellierung

specic enthalpy of phase [J/kg]

pressure of phase [Pa]

specic internal energy of phase [J/kg]

velocity of phase [m/s]

dynamic viscosity of phase [kg/ms]

mass density of phase [kg/m

API (or above 1

C, the concentration achieved

, the relative permeability k

, the intrinsic permeability K and the gravitational vector g with the

of the phase refers to a ow through the total cross-

C, the density of water is 798.37

(e)(v n)d. (2.10)

(e.g. Helmig (1997) [12]).

of phase , the intrinsic permeability K

is the specic internal energy of phase

is the specic enthalpy of phase ,

C), with varying absolute

C) , with varying porosity

C) , with a varying specic

C) , with a varying heat

C) , with a varying capillary

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