ADHESIVELY BONDED ASSEMBLIES

71. ADHESIVELY BONDED ASSEMBLIES

71.1. THE PROCESS
Bonds are made by positioning a lm of liquid or semiliquid adhesive between the parts and immobilizing the assembly until the adhesive solidies. The adhesive may be applied in the solid or molten state or as a pure liquid or solution, as summarized in Table 7.5.1. Conversion to the nal solid lm (curing) may involve heating, cooling, evaporation, or a combination of these. The cure may require seconds, hours, or days and is usually accelerated by increasing temperature. Ease of assembly is closely related to the technique of adhesive application and cure, as shown in Table 7.5.2.

71.2. TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Adhesive bonding is apt to be employed in preference to other joining methods when one or more of the following characteristics are important: (1) when there are limitations to the weight of the nished assembly, (2) when porous, fragile, or heat-sensitive materials must be joined, (3) when the appearance of other fastening methods would not be satisfactory, (4) when it is necessary to provide sound deadening or vibration attenuation in the nished assembly, (5) when the parts to be joined must be electrically insulated from each other to avoid galvanic corrosion or for other reasons, and (6) when materials of dissimilar composition, thickness, or modulus must be joined together.

Table 7.5.1. Typical Application Methods for for comman adhesives

*positive-displacement pump or pressure-time dispensing value.

Table 7.5.2. Manufacturing of Various Adhesive-Application Methods*

*N = no; Y = yes; F = fast; S = slow; M = medium; V = variable (depends on the adhesive). *positive-displacement pump or pressure-time dispensing value.

Although adhesively bonded joints can be engineered for high strength, adhesive bonding may not be suitable if strength requirements or temperature variations are extreme. Other fastening methods also may be indicated if provision must be made for disassembly and reassembly of the component. Adhesives are used routinely to bond parts of extremely diverse size, shape, and composition to one another. Parts generally must tolerate a surfacecleaning operation prior to bonding, and they must be rather stable chemically in the intended service environment. The majority of adhesively bonded parts are not load-bearing because other assembly techniques historically have been more economical for these applications. This situation is changing, however, and there is now increasing use of loadbearing adhesives in the automotive, aircraft, and construction industries. Adhesive

use is unrelated to the size of the assembled objects. Adhesives perform well in applications ranging from minute electronic assemblies to large building panels. Part geometry is usually not a problem because special applicators are available for hard-to-reach surfaces. Typical adhesively bonded assemblies include brake-band and brake-disk assemblies, helicopter blades, plywood and wood furniture, aircraft honeycomb structures, paper bags and other paper products, and pulleyshaft and gear-shaft assemblies. Adhesives are used to fasten bushings, nameplates, decorative appliance panels, insulating and sound-deadening parts, oor tiles, and automobile rear-view mirrors to glass windshields and to lock threaded fasteners permanently. Figure 7.5.1 illustrates typical adhesively bonded assemblies.

71.3. ECONOMIC PRODUCTION QUANTITIES

Adhesive assembly is practical at virtually any production level. However, the number of joints to be made usually determines the type of application and curing equipment used. Thus prototype quantities or very short production runs may involve hand brushing or troweling, whereas high-volume production of the same items might involve automatic spray or roller coating equipment to apply the same adhesive. Since adhesives are used as thin lms, the cost of the adhesive material itself is usually minimal. It is common to pay more for part handling, surface preparation, xturing, and curing than for the adhesive.

71.4. SUITABLE MATERIALS

Nearly any solid material can be bonded to any other. Teon (registered trade name for Du Ponts polytetrauoroethylene), polyethylene, and polypropylene are inherently dicult to bond because they have little tendency to stick to anything, including adhesives. Such surfaces usually must be modied by chemical treatment prior to bonding. If the bonded materials have greatly dierent coecients of thermal expansion, an adhesive primer or a double-face adhesive-tape system may be advisable.

Figure 7.5.1. Some typical adhesively bonded assemblies. (a) Automotive brake lining. (b) Pocket calculator faceplate. (c) Beverage can with bonded side seam. (d) Glass fruit bowl with adhesively bonded stem. (Courtesy GMI Technical Institute.) Table 7.5.3. Adhesives Commonly Used for Joining Various Materials
Materials to be joined ABS Polyesters Adhesive Table 7.5.4 reference

Epoxy Alpha-cyanoacrylate Nitrile phenolic Aluminum and its alloys UV/radiation curing adhesives Epoxy Epoxy-phenolic Nylon-epoxies Polyurethane rubber Polyesters Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamides Polyvinyl-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Brick Epoxy Epoxy-phenolic Polyesters Ceramics Acrylics Epoxy Cellulose esters Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Polyvinyl butyral Chromium Concrete Epoxy Polyesters Epoxy Acrylics

e c b w

e d g a c h i b e d a w e j k l e a e

Copper and its alloys

Polyesters Epoxy Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamide Polyvinyl-phenolic Polyhydroxyether

a e c h i m e b t e w d c j x

Fluorocarbons

Epoxy Nitrile-phenolic Silicone

Glass

Epoxy Acrylics Epoxy-phenolic Alpha-cyanoacrylate Cellulose esters UV/radiation curing adhesives Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Polyvinyl butyral

k l

Table 7.5.3 lists a number of materials that are commonly bonded with adhesives and indicates the adhesives commonly used. Table 7.5.4 describes the characteristics of common adhesives. The bond strength of adhesives that use a catalyst or curing agent is often inversely related to the cure time. Fast-curing adhesives (including hot melts) may cause production problems by setting up too quickly. Cleanup also may be a problem with fastcuring adhesives.

Table 7.5.3. Adhesives Commonly Used for Joining Various Materials

(Continued)
Materials to be joined Lead Epoxy Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Polyesters Leather Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Poly vinyl butyral Polyhydroxyether Polyvinyl acetate Flexible adhesives Alpha cyanoacrylate Magnesium Polyesters Epoxy Polyamide Polyvinyl-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Nylon-epoxy Nickel Epoxy Neoprene Polyhydroxyether Paper Animal glue Starch glue Urea, melamine, resorcinol, and phenol formaldehyde Epoxy Polyesters Adhesive Table 7.5.4 reference

a k a k l m n g c a e h i h e g m

P q

e a

Cellulose esters Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Polyvinyl butyral Polyvinyl acetate Polyamide Flexible adhesives Phenolic and melamine Epoxy Alpha-cyanoacrylate Flexible adhesives Polyamide Epoxy Flexible adhesives Phenol and resorcinol formaldehyde Polyesters Polycarbonate Polyesters Acrylics UV/radiation curing adhesive Epoxy Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyurethane rubber

j k l n h g e c g e g q

a a w x e c g

Table 7.5.3. Adhesives Commonly Used for Joining Various Materials (Continued)
Materials to be joined Polyester, glassPolyesters Adhesive Table 7.5.4 reference

reinforced Epoxy Acrylics Polyacrylates Nitrile-phenolic Polyethylene Polyester, isocyanate modied UV/radiation curing adhesives Butadiene-acrylonitrile Nitrile-phenolic Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyformaldehyde Polyester, isocyanate modied Butadiene-acrylonitrile Nitrile-phenolic Polymethyl methacrylate Alpha-cyanoacrylate UV/radiation curing adhesive Polyester Nitrile-phenolic Polypropylene Polyester, isocyanate modied Nitrile-phenolic Butadiene acrylonitrile Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polystyrene Vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate Epoxy

e w t b a

g b c a

g b e

c x a b a

b g c x

UV/radiation curing adhesives Polyesters Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyvinyl chloride, rigid UV/radiation curing adhesives Polyesters Epoxy Polyurethane Acrylics Alpha-cyanoacrylates Rubber, butadiene styrene Epoxy Urethane rubber Alpha-cyanoacrylates Rubber, natural Epoxy Flexible adhesives Alpha-cyanoacrylates Rubber, neoprene Epoxy Flexible adhesives Alpha-cyanoacrylates Butadiene-acrylonitrile

e g x

a e g w c g

e g c e h c e h c

Table 7.5.3. Adhesives Commonly Used for Joining Various Materials (Continued)
Materials to be joined Adhesive Table 7.5.4 reference

Rubber, silicone Rubber, urethane

Silicone Flexible adhesives Alpha-cyanoacrylate Silicone

t h c t e g m e w a l c h i b b d

Silver

Epoxy Neoprene Polyhydroxyether

Steel

Epoxy Acrylics Polyesters Polyvinyl butal Alpha-cyanoacrylate Polyamides Polyvinyl-phenolic Nitrile-phenolic Neoprene-phenolic Nylon epoxy

Stone Tin Wood

See Brick Epoxy Animal glue Polyvinyl acetate Ethylene-vinyl acetate Urea, melamine, resorcinol, and phenol formaldehyde

e o n u q

Source: Adapted from Robert O. Parmley, Standard Handbook of Fastening and Joining, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1989.

71.5. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Design for shear, tension, and compression, not cleavage or peel. Adhesive bonds resist shear, tensile, and compressive forces better than cleavage or peel. Thus the designs shown in Fig. 7.5.2b are preferable to those of Fig. 1.5.2a . 2. The width of the joint overlap is more important than its length. Bond strength is not proportional to bond area except in cases of pure tension and compression. In a lap joint loaded in shear, the stresses are concentrated at the bond ends. Joint strength therefore is increased more by widening the joint than by lengthening it. 3. Match expansion coecients. Large shear stresses are generated when materials with dierent thermal expansion coecients are the rmally cycled after bonding. Ideally, an adhesive should have an expansion coecient midway between those of the adherends. Plastics-to-metal bonds may be a problem because of the large dierences in thermal expansion of these materials. Fillers are often added to an adhesive to control (usually reduce) its coecient of expansion. Faster heat-up rates may be possible when the expansion behavior of the adhesive is close to that of the parts. 4. Thin bond lines are preferred. A thin layer of adhesive is usually advantageous; 25 m (0.001 in) is typical; thick glue lines consume excess adhesive, have a statistically greater chance for cracks and voids, and do not respond as quickly to tem-

Table 7.5.4. Adhesive Characteristics

Table 7.5.4. Adhesive Characteristics (Continued)

Table 7.5.4. Adhesive Characteristics (Continued)

Figure 7.5.2. The designs shown in b utilize shear, tensile, and compressive stresses instead of cleavage and peel stresses and are

therefore preferred to those of a.

perature changes. An exception would occur when high-impact strength is desired. Then a thicker, more exible adhesive might well be preferred. 5. Design for easy cleaning. Dirty surfaces are a major cause of poor joint performance. Vapor degreasing is a preferred method of preparing surfaces. Solvent wiping may be sucient if the wipe rags are not allowed to become dirty. Dip cleaning is risky because of the possibility of gradual or sudden contamination of the dip tanks. (See Chap. 8.1 for information on designing parts for easy cleaning.) 6. Smooth surfaces are preferred. Smooth surfaces are more easily wet by a spreading liquid adhesive. A greater percentage of the area of part surfaces can contact the adhesive when each surface is smooth. Surfaces are often roughened by abrasive treatment before bonding to remove loosely held surface material, even though surface contact with the adhesive is thereby reduced. Loosely held surface layers are the greater evil. 7. Simple butt joints should be used only when fairly large bond surfaces are involved and when cleavage stresses are not anticipated. Figure 7.5.3 illustrates some of the ways in which a butt joint can be modied to increase resistance to cleavage failure. 8. When simple lap joints are stressed in tension, they tend to deform as shown in Fig. 7.5.4. This deformation introduces cleavage stresses (for rigid adherends) or peel stresses (for exible adherends) at the joint ends. Commonly used designs to minimize these stresses are shown in Fig. 7.5.5.

Figure 7.5.3. Butt joints. Simple butt joints leave little resistance to cleavage stresses. Some common modications are shown here.

Figure 7.5.4. Generation of cleavage or peel stresses in simple lap joints in tension.

Figure 7.5.5. Joint modications that increase lap shear strengths.

9. Corner joints involving members of various thicknesses are shown in Fig. 7.5.6. Many variations are possible. The preferred design is usually the one that involves the least preparation (including handling) cost. Sometimes the cost of an extra machining or forming operation is oset by the easier cleaning or assembly methods that may then be possible. 10. Figure 7.5.7 depicts a number of common techniques for joining rods and tubes adhesively. That design is best which requires the least machining and assembly time. Corners are usually best handled with elbows.

Figure 7.5.6. Common corner-joint designs.

Figure 7.5.7. Designs for joining rods and tubes.

Citation
EXPORT

James G.Bralla: Design for Manufacturability Handbook, Second Edition. ADHESIVELY

BONDED ASSEMBLIES, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999, 1986), AccessEngineering

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