DESIGNING FOR MACHINING: GENERAL GUIDELINES

28. DESIGNING FOR MACHINING: GENERAL GUIDELINES

28.1. THE MACHINING PROCESS
All machining, whether heavy single-point planing or turning, form-tool turning or milling, grinding, honing, or lapping, involves essentially the same process at the point where the cutting tool meets the work. Figure 4.1.1 illustrates this process. Material lying in front of the cutting tool is compressed as the tool advances and fail in shear in a narrow zone extending at an angle from the cutting edge to the surface of the workpiece ahead of the tool. For practical purposes in single-point cutting this shear zone can be considered a plane. As the cutting tool advances into the work, the shear plane also constantly moves forward. The material that passes through the shear plane is deformed. This material comprises the chip. In the case of ductile materials, it is apt to consist of a continuous ribbon of deformed and heated metal moving away from the workpiece along the face of the cutting tool. In the case of nonductile or brittle materials, the shear action periodically causes fracture, and the chips consist of discrete pieces rather than a continuous ribbon of material. Since the energy expended in cutting is manifested as heat, the chip, the cutting tool, and even the workpiece experience a considerable rise in temperature. This temperature rise can be reduced when a uid coolant is applied to the cutting tool. In addition to reducing temperature, the coolant

lubricates the tool in its movement against the workpiece and, more important, the movement of chips against the face of the tool.

Figure 4.1.1. Action of a metal-cutting tool.

Grinding operations including honing and lapping exhibit the same basic interaction between workpiece and cutter. However, the cutter in such abrasive-machining operations is an abrasive particle, which may be very small. The shape of the abrasive particle also may vary considerably from that of the metal-cutting tool shown in Fig. 4.1.1.

28.2. TYPICAL MACHINED PARTS

Machined parts are universally used in industrial and consumer products of every description. They are found in applications for which precision is required. If high dimensional accuracy is not necessary, stampings, castings, or stock shapes or molded parts used as is will be more economical. However, if surface nish, atness, roundness, circularity, parallelism, or close t is involved, some machining of the workpiece will practically always be involved. Almost invariably, if the part is in motion, is in contact with a part that is in motion, or ts precisely with another part, machining operations will be employed in its manufacture. For most interchangeable parts, machining is a probable step in the manufacturing sequence. Of course, wonders are worked with stampings and molded components and with new precision techniques such as powder metallurgy, ne-blanking, and investment casting, but these processes usually only reduce rather than eliminate the need for machining if the part has a truly precision application. Machined parts can be as small as the miniature screws, shafts, gears, and other parts found in wristwatches and small precision instruments. They can

be as large as the huge turbines, turbine housings, and valves found in hydroelectric power stations. Metals in a broad variety, both ferrous and nonferrous, are the normal materials used for machined components. However, plastics (with or without reinforcement), hard rubber, carbon, graphite, wood, and ceramics are also employed.

28.3. RECOMMENDED MATERIALS FOR MACHINABILITY

Table 1.4.14 in Chap. 1.4 contains a summary of the machinability of common metals, including those generally suitable for a broad cross section of machining operations. The other chapters in this section cover parts produced by specic machining operations and provide additional and more specic materials recommendations. Chapters 2.2 to 2.4 in Sec. 2 include additional recommendations of materials that can be machined advantageously. Table 4.1.1 summarizes how changes in certain materials properties aect machinability.

Table 4.1.1. Eects of Material Properties

Probable eect of decrease in material factor on Material factor Machinability
a

Finishability

Tool life

Strength/hardness Ductility
c

Improves Improves
b d

None Improves Improves Improves None None Improves Improves Improves

Improves Improves Improves Improves Reduces Reduces Improves Reduces Improves

Strain hardenability

Improves Improves None None

Coecient of friction Heat conductivity Heat capacity

e f e

Chemical reactivity Grain size Abrasive insolubles

None Improves Improves

Free-machining additions
a Machinability b Tensile

Decreases

Decreases

Decreases

refers to ease of chip removal.

strength and hardness are the simplest, but not always reliable, guides to

machinability. High-temperature alloys, for example, are dicult to machine in spite of their low room-temperature hardness and strengths. High strain hardenability and reactiveness to tool materials are the reasons.
c While

lower ductility seems to help machining, inadequate ductility (like that of resistance is desirable; hence the use of cutting uids is recommended.

molybdenum and tungsten) can cause spalling at exit cuts or on clamped edges.
d Low frictional e Low heat

conductivity (especially if combined with low heat capacity, as in titanium)

contributes to high tool temperature and local high workpiece temperature.

f

Chemical reactivity of certain metals (such as titanium) can cause galling, smearing, and

welding of machined metal to the tool.

Source: Machine Design.

28.4. DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS: MACHINED PARTS

1. If possible, avoid machining operations. If the surface or feature desired can be produced by casting or forming, the cost is almost always lower. (See Fig. 4.1.2.) 2. Specify the most liberal surface nish and dimensional tolerances possible, consistent with the function of the surface, to simplify the prime machining operation and to avoid costly secondary operations like grinding, reaming, lapping, etc. (See Fig. 4.1.2.) 3. Design the part for easy xturing and secure holding during machining operations (see Fig. 4.7.4). A large, solid mounting surface with parallel clamping surfaces should be provided to assure a secure setup. 4. Avoid designs that require sharp corners and sharp points in cutting tools because these make the tools more subject to breakage. 5. Use stock dimensions whenever possible if so doing will eliminate a machining operation or the need for machining an additional surface. (See Fig. 4.1.3.) 6. It is preferable in all single-point machining operations to avoid interrupted cuts, if possible, because they tend to shorten tool life or prevent the use of faster-cutting carbide or ceramic tools.

Figure 4.1.2. Avoid tolerances that necessitate machining operations if the as-cast, as-forged, or as-formed dimensions and surface nishes would be satisfactory for the parts function.

Figure 4.1.3. Use stock dimensions whenever possible, and minimize the amount of machining.
7. Design the part to be rigid enough to withstand the forces of clamping and machining without distortion. The forces exerted by a cutter against a workpiece can be severe, as can the clamping forces necessary to hold the workpiece securely. Parts that may be troublesome in this respect are those with thin walls, thin webs, or deep pockets and deep holes that require machining. Also design the part

Figure 4.1.4. Design the part to be rigid enough so that it will withstand cutting and clamping forces without signicant deection and so that cutting tools and toolholders also do not deect.
so that a rigid cutter can be employed while still permitting access to the surface. (Figure 4.1.4 illustrates this point. See also Fig. 4.4.8.) 8. Avoid tapers and contours as much as possible in favor of rectangular shapes, which permit simple tooling and setups. 9. Reduce the number and the size of shoulders because they usually require extra operational steps and additional material. 10. Avoid undercuts, if possible, because they usually involve separate operations of specially ground tools. (See Fig. 4.1.5.) 11. Consider the possibility of substituting a stamping for the machined component. If tooling is available, or if quantities are sucient to amortize the tooling cost, a stamped-sheet-metal part invariably will be lower in cost than one made by machining, provided of course that the dimensional accuracy and surface nish are adequate for the components function. (Figure 4.1.6 illustrates one such example.) 12. Avoid the use of hardened or dicult-to-machine materials unless their special functional properties are essential for the part being machined. 13. For thin, at pieces that require surface machining, allow sucient stock for both rough and nish machining. In some cases, stress relieving between rough and nish cuts also may be advisable. Rough and nish machining on both sides is sometimes necessary. Allow about 0.4 mm (0.015 in) stock for

nish machining. 14. It is preferable to put machined surfaces in the same plane or, if they are cylindrical, with the same diameter to reduce the number of operations required. When surfaces cannot be in the same plane, they should be located, if possible, so that they all can be machined from one side or from the same setup.

Figure 4.1.5. Avoid undercuts as much as possible because they require extra machining operations, which may be costly.

Figure 4.1.6. Stampings are often less costly than machined castings.
15. Provide access room for cutters, bushings, and xture elements. 16. Design workpieces so that standard cutters can be used instead of cutters that must be ground to a special form. (See Fig. 4.1.7.)

17. Avoid having parting lines or draft surfaces serve as clamping or locating surfaces. Provide alternative clamping and locating surfaces if possible.

Figure 4.1.7. Design parts so that standard cutting tools can be used.
18. Avoid projections, shoulders, etc., which interfere with the overrun of a cutter. Instead, provide clearance space at the end of the cut. The space can be cast or formed to minimize machining. This also can provide a noncritical space for burrs. 19. Burr formation is an inherent result of machining operations. The designer should expect burrs, provide relief space for them, if possible, and furnish means for easy burr removal. (See Chap. 4.23.)
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James G.Bralla: Design for Manufacturability Handbook, Second Edition. DESIGNING FOR MACHINING: GENERAL GUIDELINES, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 1999, 1986), AccessEngineering

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