Waveguide notes 2013

Electromagnetic waves in free space

We start with Maxwells equations for an LIH medum in the case that the
source terms j
)
and

,
)
are both zero.

\

1 =

\

1 = 0

\

1 = 0

\

1 =
J

1
Jt

\

H =
J

1
Jt
Take the curl of Faradays law:

\
_

\

1
_
=
J

\

1
Jt
= j
J

\

H
Jt

\
_

\

1
_
\
2

1 = j
J
Jt
J

1
Jt
Use the rst Maxwell equation (the "H" in LIH assures us that spatial derivatives
of are zero), and we obtain the wave equation with wave speed

= 1,
_
j
\
2

1 = j
J
2

1
Jt
2
J
2

1
Jt
2
=
2

\
2

1
A similar derivation gives the same equation for

1. Now lets look at a plane
wave solution:

1 =

1
0
exp
_
i

/ r i.t
_

1 =

1
0
exp
_
i

/ r i.t + c
_
By including the phase constant c in the expression for

1 we allow for a possible
phase shift bewteen

1 and

1. Inserting these expressions into Maxwells equations,
we have

\

1 = 0 =

/

1
0
= 0

\

1 = 0 =

/

1
0
= 0
Thus both

1 and

1 are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. From
Faradays law

/

1
0
exp
_
i

/ r i.t
_
= .

1
0
exp
_
i

/ r i.t + c
_
Since this relation must be true for all r and t. we have c = 0 (

1 and

1 oscillate
in phase) and

1
0
=

/
.


1
0
=
1

^
/

1
0
Thus

1 is also perpendicular to

1. and its magnitude is 1,c.
If the waves propagate in a vacuum, the derivation goes through in the same
way and the only dierence is that the wave speed is c = 1,
_
j
0

0
. In an LIH
medium,

= c,:. where the refractive index : =

_
j,
0
j
0

_
,
0
.
Electromagnetic elds in a wave guide
A wave guide is a region with a conducting boundary inside which EM waves
are caused to propagate. In this conned region the boundary conditions create
constraints on the wave elds. We shall idealize, and assume that the walls are
perfect conductors. If they are not, currents owing in the walls lead to energy
loss. See Jackson Ch 8 for a discussion of this case.
The boundary conditions at the walls of our perfectly conducting guide are
(see notes 1):
^ :

1 = (0.1)
2
where is the free surface charge density on the wall,
^ :

1 = 0 (0.2)
^ :

1 = 0 (0.3)
and
^ :

H =

1 (0.4)
where

1 is the free surface current density. (Note that we have assumed

H = 0
inside the conducting material. This is true here because all our elds are assumed
to be time-dependent, and then non-zero J

1,Jt implies non-zero

1. by Faradays
law. Non-zero

1 is not allowed inside a perfect conductor, and so

H must be
zero too. )
Now we use cylindrical coordinates with ^ . along the guide in the direction
of wave propagation. The transverse coordinates will be chosen to match the
cross-sectional shape of the guide Cartesian for a rectangular guide and polar
for a circular guide. Next we assume that all elds may be written in the form

1 =

1
0
(r) c
i.t
We are not making any special assumptions about the time variation, because we
can always Fourier transform the elds to get combinations of terms of this form.
Then Maxwells equations in the guide take the form:

\

1 = i.

\

1 = 0

\

1 = 0
and

\

H = i.

1
Taking the curl of Faradays law, and inserting

\

1 from Amperes law, we get:

\
_

\

1
_
=

\
_

\

1
_
\
2

1 = i.

\

1 = i.
_
i
.
c
2
j

1
_
\
2

1 = .
2
j

1 (0.5)
This equation is the same as we obtained for free space.
Next we look for solutions that take the form of waves propagating in the
.direction, that is:

1
0
(r) =

1
o
(r. ) c
iI:
3
The wave equation (0.5) then becomes:
\
2
t

1 + .
2
j

1 /
2

1 = 0 (0.6)
where \
2
t
is the Laplacian operator in the two transverse coordinates (r and . or
j and c. for example.) Thus equation (0.6) is an equation for the function

1
o
of
the two transverse coordinates.
Since we were able to simplify the equations by separating the function

1 into
its dependence on the coordinates along and transverse to the guide, we now try
to do the same thing with the components. At rst glance you might want to
jump to the conclusion that there is no .component of a wave propagating in
the .direction, but in general there is. The waves are propagating between
conducting boundaries, and we have to allow for the possibility that waves travel
at an angle to the guide center-line, and bounce back and forth o the walls as they
travel. Since

1 is perpendicular to the wave vector,

1 in such a bouncing wave
has a .component. The total electromagnetic disturbance in the guide is a sum
of such waves. The sum is a combination of waves that interfere constructively.
Thus

1
o
= 1
:
^ . +

1
t
and similarly

1
o
= 1
:
^ . +

1
t
This decomposition simplies the boundary conditions, since ^ : has no .component.
Then eqn (0.3) becomes
^ :

1
t
= 0 on S (0.7)
However equation (0.2) has two components. The transverse component gives
1
:
= 0 on S (0.8)
while the . component gives
^ :

1
t
= 0 on o (0.9)
Next we put these components into Maxwells equations. The divergence
equations are scalar equations, so lets start with them:

\

1 = 0 =
_
J1
:
J.
+

\
t

1
t
_
4
and evaluating the .derivative, we get
i/1
:
+

\
t

1
t
= 0 (0.10)
Similarly:
i/1
:
+

\
t

1
t
= 0 (0.11)
We separate the curl equations into transverse and .components. Take the dot
product of Faradays law with ^ .:
^ .
_

\

1
_
= i.1
:
= ^ .
_

\
t

1
t
_
(0.12)
and also the cross product:
^ .
_

\

1
_
= ^ . i.

1
Lets investigate the triple cross product on the left. Since ^ . is a constant we
may move it through the \ operator in the BAC-CAB rule:
^ .
_

\

1
_
=

\
_
^ .

1
_

_
^ .

\
_

1 = ^ . i.

1
t
The derivative J1
:
,J. times ^ . appears in both terms in the middle, and so cancels,
leaving:

\
t
1
:

J
J.

1
t
= i.^ .

1
t
and evaluating the .derivative, we get

\
t
1
:
i/

1
t
= i.^ .

1
t
(0.13)
Similarly, from Amperes law, we have the transverse component:

\
t
1
:
i/

1
t
= i.j^ .

1
t
(0.14)
and the .component
i.j1
:
= ^ .
_

\
t

1
t
_
(0.15)
Equations (0.10), (0.11), (0.15) and (0.12) show that the longitudinal compo-
nents 1
:
and 1
:
act as sources of the transverse elds

1
t
and

1
t
.
Now we can simplify by looking at the normal modes of the system.
5
Transverse Electric (TE) (or magnetic) modes.
In these modes there is no longitudinal component of

1:
1
:
= 0 everywhere
Thus boundary condition (0.8) is automatically satised. The remaining boundary
condition is (0.7), and we can nd the version that we need by taking the dot
product of ^ : with equation (0.14):
^ :

\
t
1
:
i/^ :

1
t
= i.j^ :
_
^ .

1
t
_
The second term is zero on o (eqn 0.7), and we rearrange the triple scalar product
on the right, leaving:
J1
:
J:
= i.j^ .
_
^ :

1
t
_
= 0 on o (0.16)
where we used the other boundary condition (0.9) for

1.
Transverse Magnetic (TM) (or electric) modes.
In these modes there is no longitudinal component of

1:
1
:
= 0 everywhere
Thus the boundary condition (0.16) is trivially satised, and we must impose the
remaining condition (0.8)
1
:
= 0 on S.
Since the Maxwell equations are linear, we can form superpositions of these two
sets of modes to obtain elds in the guide with non-zero longitudinal components
of both

1 and

1. These modes are the result of the constructive interference
mentioned above.
Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes
In these modes both 1
:
and 1
:
are zero everywhere. Then from (0.10) and
(0.12),

\

1
t
and

\

1
t
are zero everywhere. This means we can express

1
t
as the
gradient of a scalar function that satises Laplaces equation. The boundary
condition (0.9) becomes
^ :

\ = ^ : ^ :
_
J
J:
_
= 0 on o
6
where : is a coordinate parallel to the surface o. Since ^ : and ^ : are perpendicular,
^ : ^ : is not zero, and so = constant on o and therefore is constant everywhere
inside the volume \. making

1
t
= 0. Thus these modes cannot exist inside a
hollow guide. They may exist, and in fact become the dominant modes, inside a
guide with a separate inner boundary, like a coaxial cable. We will not consider
them further here.
Now lets see how the equations simplify for the TE and TM modes..
TM modes
We start by nding an equation for 1
:
. Since 1
:
= 0.equation (0.14) simplies
to:
i/

1
t
= i.j^ .

1
t

1
t
=
.
/
j^ .

1
t
(0.17)
and we substitute this result back into equation (0.13).
i/

1
t
+

\
t
1
:
= i.^ .
_
.
/
j^ .

1
t
_

\
t
1
:
= i/

1
t
i
.
2
/
j

1
t
= i/
_
1
.
2
/
2
j
_

1
t
(0.18)
and nally we substitute this result for

1
t
back into equation (0.10):
i/1
:
+

\
t

\
t
1
:
i/
_
1
.
2
I
2
j
_ = 0
\
2
t
1
:
+
_
.
2
j /
2
_
1
:
= 0
or
\
2
t
1
:
+
2
1
:
= 0 (0.19)
with

2
= .
2
j /
2
(0.20)
Equation
1
(0.19) is the dening dierential equation for 1
:
. Once we have solved
for 1
:
. we can nd

1
t
from equation (0.18) and then

1
t
from equation (0.17).
1
This equation is the Helmholtz equation.
7
TE modes
The argument proceeds similarly. We start with equation (0.13) with 1
:
= 0,
to get:

1
t
=
.
/
^ .

1
t
(0.21)
Then use equation (0.14)
i/

1
t
+

\
t
1
:
= i.j^ .
_

.
/
^ .

1
t
_

\
t
1
:
= i
_
/
.
2
j
/
_

1
t
(0.22)
and nally from equation (0.11) we have:
i/1
:
+

\
t

\
t
1
:
i
_
/
.
2
.j
I
_ = 0
\
2
t
1
:
+
2
1
:
= 0
which is the same dierential equation that we found for 1
:
in the TM modes.
The solutions are dierent because the boundary conditions are dierent. Thus
the solution for the two modes proceeds as follows:
TM modes TE modes
assumed 1
:
= 0 1
:
= 0
dierential equation \
2
t
1
:
+
2
1
:
= 0 \
2
t
1
:
+
2
1
:
= 0
boundary condition 1
:
= 0 on S
01z
0a
= 0 on S
next nd

1
t
=
iI

2

\
t
1
:

1
t
=
iI

2

\
t
1
:
then nd

1
t
=
.
I
j^ .

1
t

1
t
=
.
I
^ .

1
t
The dierential equation plus boundary condition is an eigenvalue problem
that produces a set of eigenfunctions 1
:,a
(or 1
:
.
a
) and a set of eigenvalues
a
.
The wave number /
a
is then determined from equation (0.20):
/
2
a
= .
2
j
2
a
(0.23)
8
Clearly if
a
is greater than .
_
j = .,. where is the wave phase speed in
unbounded space, /
a
becomes imaginary and the wave does not propagate. There
is a cut-o frequency for each mode, given by
.
a
=
a

If
c
is the lowest eigenvalue for any mode, the corresponding frequency .
c
is the
cuto frequency for the guide, and waves at lower frequencies cannot propagate.
A few things to note: the wave number /
a
is always less than the free-space
value .,. and thus the wavelength is always greater than the free-space wave-
length. The phase speed in the waveguide is

=
.
/
=
1
_
j
1
_
1 .
2
a
,.
2

1
_
j
=
and we can dierentiate eqn (0.23) to get
2.
d.
d/
j = 2/
Then the group speed in the guide is

j
=
d.
d/
=
2/
2.j
=
1
j

=
1
_
j
_
1
.
2
a
.
2
<
1
_
j
=
Thus information travels more slowly than if the wave were to propagate in free
space.
TM modes in a rectangular wave guide
Let the guide have dimensions c in the r-direction by / in the direction.
Let the interior be full of air so ,
0
= j,j
0
= 1. Then the dierential equation
for 1
:
is (0.19)
_
J
2
Jr
2
+
J
2
J
2
+
2
_
1
:
= 0
As usual we look for a separated solution, choosing 1
:
= A (r) 1 () to obtain:
A
00
A
+
1
00
1
+
2
= 0
Each term must separately be constant, so we have:
A
00
A
= c
2
9
1
00
1
= ,
2
and
c
2
,
2
+
2
= 0
The boundary condition is 1
:
= 0 on o. so:
A = 0 at r = 0 and r = c
and
1 = 0 at = 0 and = /
Thus the appropriate solutions are A = sin cr and 1 = sin , with eigenvalues
chosen to t the second boundary condition in each coordinate:
c =
::
c
and , =
::
/
Thus
1
:
= 1
an
sin
::r
c
sin
::
/
c
iI:i.t
(0.24)
and

2
an
=
_
::
c
_
2
+
_
::
/
_
2
(0.25)
Notice that the lowest possible values of : and : are 1 in each case, since taking
: or : = 0 would render 1
:
identically zero. Thus the lowest eigenvalue is

11
= :
_
1
c
2
+
1
/
2
and the cuto frequency for the TM modes is:
.
c,TM
= c
11
= c:
_
1
c
2
+
1
/
2
Jackson solves for the TE modes (pg 361). The eigenvalues are the same, but
in this case it is possible for one (but not both) of : and : to be zero, leading to
a lower cuto frequency:
.
c,TE
=
c:
c
assuming c /. This would be the cuto frequency for the guide.
10
In the TM mode, the remaining elds are (eqns 0.18 and 0.24):

1
t
=
i/

2

\
t
1
an
sin
::r
c
sin
::
/
c
iI:i.t
=
i/

2
1
an
_
::
c
^ r cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
+
::
/
^ sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
c
iI:i.t
and (eqn 0.17)

1
t
=
.
/c
2
^ .
i/

2
1
an
_
::
c
^ r cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
+
::
/
^ sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
c
iI:i.t
= i
.
c
2

2
1
an
_
::
c
^ cos
::r
c
sin
::
/

::
/
^ r sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
c
iI:i.t
As usual the physical elds are given by the real part of each mathematical ex-
pression. You should verify that these elds satisfy the boundary conditions at
r = 0. c and at = 0. /.
Power
The power transmitted by the waves in the guide is:

o (t) =
1
j
0

1

1
where here we must take the real, physical elds. Usually we are interested in the
time-averaged Poynting ux, which is given by
<

o =Re
1
2j
0

1

1

where the elds on the right are the complex functions we have just found.
Proof of this result:
If

1 =

1
0
c
i.t
= ^ c1
0
c
i
c
i.t
and similarly for

1. then:
<

o = <^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
j
0
cos
2
(c .t)
= <^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
j
0
(cos ccos .t + sin csin .t)
2

= <^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
j
0
_
cos
2
ccos
2
.t + 2 cos ccos .t sin csin .t + sin
2
csin
2
.t
_

= ^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
2j
0
_
cos
2
c + sin
2
c
_
= ^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
2j
0
11
and
1
2j
0

1

1

= ^ c
^
/
1
0
1
0
2j
0
so the two results are the same. (Be sure that you understand why

1 and

1 are
in phase.)
Using our solution, the components of

o are:
< o
:
= Re
1
2j
0
_
1
a
1

j
1
j
1

a
_
= Re
1
2j
0
i/

2
1
an
(i)
.
c
2

2
1
0
_
_
::
c
cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
_
2
+
_
::
/
sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
2
_
=
1
2
an
2j
0
/

4
.
c
2
_
_
::
c
cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
_
2
+
_
::
/
sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
2
_
=
1
2
an
2j
0
_
.
2
,c
2

4
.
c
2
_
_
::
c
cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
_
2
+
_
::
/
sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
2
_
=

0
1
2
an
.
2
_
.
2
c
2

_
a
o
_
2

_
n
b
_
2
_
_
a
o
_
2
+
_
n
b
_
2
_
2
_
_
::
c
cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
_
2
+
_
::
/
sin
::r
c
cos
::
/
_
2
_
Check the dimensions! < o
:
is positive for all values of r and . showing that
power is propagating continuously along the guide in the positive .-direction.
The transverse component o
a
is:
< o
a
= Re
1
2j
0
_
1
j
1

:
1
:
1

j
_
= Re
1
2j
0
_
1
:
1

j
_
= Re
1
2j
0
_
1
0
sin
::r
c
sin
::
/
(i)
.
c
2

2
1
0
::
c
cos
::r
c
sin
::
/
_
= 0
Because there is no real part, the time averaged power owing across the guide is
zero. Power sloshes back and forth, but there is no net energy transfer.
Fields in a parallel plate wave guide
By simplifying the shape of the guide even more, we can demonstrate how the
wave modes are formed by reection of waves at the guide walls. Let this guide
exist in the region 0 _ _ c. For the TM mode, the equation to be satised is:
_
\
2
t
+
2
_
1
:
= 0
12
with
1
:
= 0 at = 0 and = c
Because the region is innite in the rdirection, the appropriate solution has no
rdependence:
1
:
= 1
a
sin
::
c
c
iI:i.t
with

a
=
::
c
Thus the cuto frequency for this mode is
.
c,TM
=
1
c =
:c
c
Then the other components of the elds are:

1
t
=
i/

2

\
t
1
:
=
i/

2
::
c
1
a
cos
::
c
c
iI:i.t
^
=
i/c
::
1
a
cos
::
c
c
iI:i.t
^
and

1
t
=
.
/c
2
^ .

1
t
=
.
/c
2
i/c
::
1
a
cos
::
c
c
iI:i.t
^ r
=
.
c
2
ic
::
1
a
cos
::
c
c
iI:i.t
^ r (0.26)
Lets look at the electric eld rst. We write the sine and cosine as combina-
tions of complex exponentials:
1
:
= 1
a
_
c
ij
c
ij
2i
_
c
iI:i.t
= i

1
a
_
c
ij
c
ij
2
_
c
iI:i.t
and
1
j
=
i/

1
a
_
c
ij
+ c
ij
2
_
c
iI:i.t
Thus we can write the electric eld as a superposition

1
a
=
1
2
_

1
a1
+

1
a2
_
13
where the two superposed elds are

1
a1
= i (/^ ^ .)
1
a

exp (i/. + i) c
i.t
and

1
a2
= i (/^ + ^ .)
1
a

exp (i/. i) c
i.t
Similarly:

1
t
= i
.
c
2

1
a
^ r
_
c
ij
+ c
ij
2
_
c
iI:i.t
=
1
2
_

1
a1
+

1
a2
_
with

1
a1,2
= i
.
c
2
1
a
^ r exp [i (/. )] c
i.t
Now dene the four vectors
n
1
= /^ ^ .; n
2
= /^ + ^ .
and

1
= ^ + /^ .;
2
= ^ + /^ .
Then for i = 1. 2
n
i

i
= 0
and

1
n
1
= (/^ . + ^ ) (/^ ^ .) = ^ r
_

2
+ /
2
_
= ^ r
.
2
c
2
=
2
n
2
14
The two electric eld components are then:

1
a1
= in
1
1
a

exp (i
1
r) c
i.t
and

1
a2
= in
2
1
a

exp (i
2
r) c
i.t
while

1
a1
.
=

1
a1
= i
.
c
2
^ r1
a
exp [i (/. + )]
consistent with (0.26)
Each of these sets of elds (

1
a1
and

1
a1
.

1
a2
and

1
a2
) has the form of a free-
space wave propagating in the direction given by the vectors
1
and
2
respectively
and with wave number
[
1
[ = [
2
[ =
_

2
+ /
2
=
.
c
. These waves are moving across the guide at an angle given by
tan o =

j

:
=

/
=

_
.
2
c
2

2
that is, the waves are reecting o the plates at = 0. c. When the angle o
becomes :,2. the wave ceases to propagate along the guide, but just bounces
back and forth. This happens when tan o . or
=
.
c
This gives the cut-o frequency we found before.
15