Introduction to Design of RCC Structures

RCC structures RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) is a construction technology which evolved with the evolution of different structural materials in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution brought in new technology which helped in the manufacture of various materials. The Architect Le Corbusier used RCC for various constructions. He believed that any shape and form was possible; if RCC is to be used. For example, Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France This is an example of Le Corbusier Project where he used RCC like plastic.

Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France | RCC Structures What is RCC? RCC means Reinforced Cement Concrete, i.e., cement concrete reinforced with steel bars, steel plates, steel mesh etc to increase the tension withstanding capacity of the structure. Cement Concrete can take up immense compression but weak in tension whereas steel is good in withstanding both tension and compression. Here are some of the advantages of RCC construction:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Materials used in RCC construction are easily available. It is durable and long lasting. It is fire resisting and not attacked by termites. It is economical in ultimate cost. The reinforced concrete member can be cast to any shape because of the fluidity of concrete. Its monolithic character gives much rigidity to the structure. Cost of maintenance is nil.

Here are some of its disadvantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. Scrap value of reinforced members is almost nil. Constant checking is required. Skilled labour is engaged in the work. The advantages of RCC outweigh its disadvantages.

This is one construction technique that made construction very easy and brought a boom to the field of construction. Components of RCC structures We have already discussed and studied the design procedures for the Components of RCC structures. Design of RCC beams Design of RCC columns Design of RCC staircase Design of Foundations Design of Simply Supported Slabs Every component is designed according to the load it carries and its position in the structure. The study of the design of RCC components will help in understanding the basics of RCC design and the method of its implementation. We will study more about different construction techniques in our successive articles Related posts: 1. Design of Staircase | RCC Structures RCC Structures RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced 2. 3. 4.
concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc.... Structures and Classification of Structures | Design of Steel Structures What are Structures? When any body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes place and the resistance is set up against the... Science of Structural Engineering | Design of Steel Structures Scope and Importance of Structural Engineering Structural Engineering deals with the mechanism of the structural system that is it deals with structural analysis and structural... Guide to Doubly Reinforced RCC Beam Design RCC Beams RCC beams are cast in cement concrete reinforced with steel bars. Beams take up compressive and add rigidity to the structure. Beams generally...

5. Methods of Structural Design | Design of Steel Structures Structural design is the science of studying
the Mechanics of a structure. Designing the skeleton of a building determines the real strength of the structure....

Structures and Classification of Structures | Design of Steel Structures

What are Structures? When any body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes place and the resistance is set up against the deformation, then, the body is known as structure. The structure are means of transferring forces and moments. The structures may be classified as statistically determinate structures and statistically indeterminate structures. When the equations of statistics are enough to determine all the forces acting on the structures, in the structures, then, the structures are known as statistically determinate structures.

Design of Steel Structures When the equations of statistical equilibrium are not sufficient to determine all forces acting on the structure and in the structures, then the structures are known as Statistically Indeterminate Structures. The equations of consistent deformations are added to the equations of equilibrium inorder to analyse the Statistically Indeterminate Structures.

Classification of Structures The structures are categorised by their supporting systems. There are one dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional supporting systems. 1. When a supporting system is subjected to only one type of stresses, then, it is known as basic system. 2. When a system is subjected to simultaneously several types of stresses, then it is known as mixed system. One dimensional supporting system can also be termed as Line supporting structures. The Line supporting structure is large in one dimension and small in other two dimensions. The material remains concentrated along a straight, curved or angular line. A flexible cable is an example for such a Line Supporting Structure. Two Dimensional supporting systems can also be called as surface structures. The surface structures is large in two dimensions and small in the third dimension. The material remains distributed along the surface. The surface maybe plain or curve. The curved surface may possess single or double curvature. A surface structure may also consist of line elements that form a continuous structure. The framed structures are examples of surface structures made of line elements. The framed structures are built by assemblies of elongated members. The shell structures are rigid curved surface structures . They are built of sheets or plates. The shell roof coverings for large building, planes, airplanes, railroads, cars, ship bulls, tanks etc are the examples of shell structures. Three dimensional structures are large in all three dimensions and these structures may have any shape. The three dimensional structures are also called Space Structures. The three dimensional framed structures are also Space Structures. The structures may be further classified depending on the material used as Plastic Structures, aluminium structures, timber Structures, RCC Structures and Steel Structures. The structural steel is used for the steel structures. The high strength and ductility are the properties of the particular importance for the structural use of the steel. The ductility is the unique property by virtue of which it is able to deform substantially either in tension or compression before failure. The structure can also be divided into following three categories: 1. Skeletal Structures 2. Stressed Skin Structures 3. Solid Structures Studying the classification of structures will help us understand the flow and concept designing various steel structures of varied designs.

Science of Structural Engineering | Design of Steel Structures

Scope and Importance of Structural Engineering Structural Engineering deals with the mechanism of the structural system that is it deals with structural analysis and structural design. The structural engineering plays an important and necessary part in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, naval engineering, aeronautical engineering and in all the specialized phases of engineering. Structural Engineers are like puzzle masters.

Millennium Dome It not just deals with the various different fields of engineering but is also interrelated with Architectural Design. Understanding the Interrelationship of Structural Engineering and Architectural Design is very essential for an engineer and an Architect We have already discussed Art of Structural Engineering in our previous articles. People are usually curious to know what Structural Engineering is like. What is the work of a Structural Engineer??? What are Steel Structures? Structural Designing is basically split into two main steps: 1. Structural Analysis 2. Structural Design Structural Analysis Lets first discuss about Structural Analysis. Here we will discuss what is to be done when analysing the structure before or after its construction Basically, we will discuss how a Structure is to be analysed in terms of its structural components.

The structural analysis deals with the development of suitable arrangement of structural elements for the structures to support the external loads or the various critical combinations of the loads which are likely to act on the structure.

The analysis also deals with the determination of internal forces in the various members. State of stress and critical combination of the stresses at various points which include the nature, magnitude and the direction of these stresses and the external reactions due to the worst possible combinations of the load. The external reactions are transmitted to the foundations. The methods of structural analysis and the principles involved in them remain independent of the materials used for all types of structures, whether the structures are built of plastic, aluminium, timber, reinforced concrete or steel.

Structural Design

After we are done with the structural analysis, our next step would be selection of appropriate materials to be used for construction. The structural design deals with the selection of proper material, proper sizes, proportions and shape of each member and its connecting details. The materials selected should be economical and safe. They satisfy all the stress requirements and imposed by the most severe combination of the loads to which the structure is required to transmit or resist including its self-weight. After the selection of materials, we head towards making our final Structural Drawings. They are called finished drawings. The finished design drawings with all pertinent or controlling dimensions for all the members, parts and connections are made. The finished design drawings are necessary for fabrication and construction. The structural design in a limited sense also deals with the design of the various parts or members of a structure. The structural design is governed with the standard specifications. The handbooks are used as working tools in structural design. When the structural steel is used as the material for the structure, the structural design is known as Design of Steel Structures.

The Art and Science of Structural Design Engineering

The practice of Civil Engineering is extremely diverse, involving technical, legal, business & practical skills. It consists of various specializations like Structural Engineering, Project Management, Geotechnical Engineering and Surveying. The ability to combine skills in all these areas will contribute significantly to the success of a civil engineer.

Akashi Kaikyo Bridge, Japan - World's Longest Suspension Bridge To provide an overview of factors which are relevant to the successful practice of structural engineering, we have to look at the role of a structural engineer, understanding the needs and objectives of a client, the difficulties and conditions faced on site and the constraints put down by the Architect. A structural designer is capable of calculating different loads and stresses acting on a structure and designing the structure to resist there forces. For tall buildings, towers, tunnels, roads, marine structures, bridges and even space stations, structural designers are called upon to provide their expertise to ensure the stability of the structures. Structural engineering is a field of engineering dealing with the analysis and design of structures that support or resist loads. A structural designer has to constantly keep abreast of the latest technological developments in the field of material sciences. Many new earthquake-resistant techniques are developed every year. A good engineer would incorporate all the best practices in the industry. Continuously learning and innovation are very integral part of this profession.

Japanese Roads

The biggest objective of any client, be it a real estate developer or a contractor, is to minimize costs. It is the duty of a structural designer to design the structure in the most optimal way, so as to keep the costs of construction to a minimum. Sometimes, to save money, complexity has to be reduced and the design has to be made more simple in order to enable the work to go on at a faster pace. It is necessary to standardize sizes of beams and columns, so that the contractor can speed up construction. In the field of structural design, an engineer has to make a lot of compromises. There are additional constraints introduced by the architect. A structural designer might have limited options. He may be asked to work with too few columns. There could be a very large span cantilever beam or slab. Maybe there could be a special request for using hidden beams so as to not impede the view, or to design a flat slab.

Burj Dubai A good structural designer would maintain a balance between what his clients want, and what can be considered safe. It is a very important job. You design a building to last for 80 years. During this long duration, concrete gets old and cracks. It can no longer have sufficient strength due to aging. The steel rods start weathering away due to oxidation. There might be occasional earthquake and

other natural phenomenon which put tremendous load on the structure. So, while designing the structure, all these points must be considered. You have to identify and manage project risk. These days, the structures have become extremely complex. And as this complexity continues to grow, manual structural design has become very difficult. So, most of the work is done on computers, using software like SAP2000, Etabs and Staad Pro. It allows for a complete 3dimensional analysis of the structure for different forces which might act on the structure. Structural designing is a very interesting and innovative field. It is extremely rewarding and fascinating to design structures that can stand the test of time, and attracts the best in the field of Civil Engineering.

Relationship between Structural and Architectural Design

Structural Engineering and Architecture are two different sciences that are inter-related. Structural Designing deals with the study of design of steel in a structure i.e., the internal skeleton of the structure that helps to keep the structure durable, sound and stiff. Whereas Architectural Design deals with design of spaces meant for a particular function. It helps to create ambient environment that is pleasing to eye. The Architect designs the building keeping all the functional aspects in mind that are to be incorporated into the design and then they are executed by a Civil or Structural Engineer.

Inter-relationship of Architectural Design and Structural Design

The structures and structural members are designed to meet the functional and structural aspects. Both the aspects are inter-related. The functional aspect takes into consideration the purpose for which the building or the structure is designed. The functional aspect includes the determination of the amount and arrangement of space necessary for the structure. A good design is one which is able to perform satisfactorily the services for which it is designed. The functional aspect includes the determination of location and arrangement of operating utilities, special equipment, machinery or other features, incident to the proper functioning of the structures.

Co-relation of Architectural Design and Structural Design

At first, the preliminary layout of the structure is made which is a part of Architectural Design. Then the layout of the structure is then handed over to the structural engineer. This layout is useful in determining the type of the structure to be used, the general size, shape and arrangement of the various parts of the structure. The approximate dimensions of the structures are established. These dimensions are used for the structural design. In the structural aspect, it is ensured that the building or the structure is structurally safe, strong, durable and economical. Many structures are built to shelter humans and to protect them from the forces of nature. Occupants of the buildings should feel safe with regard to their lives and properties. The safety of many individuals at one time depends on the structural safety of the structure. The structures are designed between two limits namely the structural safety and economy. The structures and structural members are designed to satisfy three basic principles of design. The structures should be strong, stable and stiff. All sections of the structures should have strength at least equal to the structural effects of design loads and forces that occur during the construction and use. All the loads should be taken into consideration which a building or a structure would be required to bear. A structure may be required to withstand any loads out of the various loads or combination of various loads. These loads include overhead and other cranes, equipment, etc., in industrial buildings, occupancy etc. in buildings; vehicles on bridges; water in hydraulic structure; loose materials for bins and bunkers and so on. For the purpose of determining the maximum stresses in any structure or member of a structure, the various loads have to be taken into account such as: Dead load of the structure Live Load of the structure Wind Load Snow Load

Seismic Load Temperature effects

Once the required calculations for the structure are done, certain checks are performed to make sure that the structure remains durable, sound and stiff. Architectural Design and Structural Design are meaningless without each other. It is a combination of creativity and technicality. Technology is advancing and so are the techniques of Architectural and Structural Design. More variety of construction is possible without much hassle. RCC Structures RCC Structures are nothing but reinforced concrete structures. RCC structure is composed of building components such as Footings, Columns, Beams, Slabs, Staircase etc. These components are reinforced with steel that give stability to the structure. Staircase is one such important component in a RCC structure.

Dog Legged Stair In this article, we will discuss different types of staircases and study the RCC design of a dog-legged staircase Stairs

Stairs consist of steps arranged in a series for purpose of giving access to different floors of a building. Since a stair is often the only means of communication between the various floors of a building, the location of the stair requires good and careful consideration. In a residential house, the staircase may be provided near the main entrance. In a public building, the stairs must be from the main entrance itself and located centrally, to provide quick accessibility to the principal apartments. All staircases should be adequately lighted and properly ventilated. Various types of Staircases

Straight stairs Dog-legged stairs Open newel stair Geometrical stair

RCC design of a Dog-legged staircase In this type of staircase, the succeeding flights rise in opposite directions. The two flights in plan are not separated by a well. A landing is provided corresponding to the level at which the direction of the flight changes. Design of Dog-legged Stairs Based on the direction along which a stair slab span, the stairs maybe classified into the following two types. 1. Stairs spanning horizontally 2. Stairs spanning vertically Stairs spanning horizontally These stairs are supported at each side by walls. Stringer beams or at one side by wall or at the other side by a beam. Loads

Dead load of a step = x T x R x 25 Dead load of waist slab = b x t x 25 Live load = LL (KN/m2) Floor finish = assume 0.5 KN/m

Stairs spanning Longitudinally In this, stairs spanning longitudinally, the beam is supported ay top and at the bottom of flights.

Loads

Self weight of a step = 1 x R/2 x 25 Self weight of waist slab = 1 x t x 25 Self weight of plan = 1 x t x 25[(R2 + T2)/T] Live load = LL (KN/m2) Floor finish = assume 0.5 KN/m

For the efficient design of an RCC stair, we have to first analyse the various loads that are going to be imposed on the stair. The load calculations will help us determine, how much strength is required to carry the load. The strength bearing capacity of a staircase is determined on the amount of steel and concrete used. The ratio of steel to concrete has to be as per standards. Steel in the staircase will take the tension imposed on it and the concrete takes up the compression. These are the essential steps that are to be followed for the RCC Stair Design. Reinforced Cement Concrete Slab

A Reinforced Concrete Slab is the one of the most important component in a building. It is a structural element of modern buildings. Slabs are supported on Columns and Beams. RCC Slabs whose thickness ranges from 10 to 50 centimetres are most often used for the construction of floors and ceilings. Thin concrete slabs are also used for exterior paving purpose.

RCC Slab Construction

In many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on the sub soil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building.

In high rises buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level. While making structural drawings of the reinforced concrete slab, the slabs are abbreviated to r.c.slab or simply r.c..

Design of various types of slabs and their reinforcement For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio. In all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated:

Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves strength and prevents the slab bending under its own weight. The corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side. A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction. A waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions.

Reinforcement design

A one way slab has structural strength in shortest direction. A two way slab has structural strength in two directions.

These slabs could be cantilevered or Simply Supported Slabs. Construction

A concrete slab can be cast in two ways: It could either be prefabricated or cast in situ. Prefabricated concrete slabs are cast in a factory and then transported to the site ready to be lowered into place between steel or concrete beams. They may be pre-stressed (in the factory), post-stressed (on site), or unstressed. Care should be taken to see that the supporting structure is built to the correct dimensions to avoid trouble with the fitting of slabs over the supporting structure. In situ concrete slabs are built on the building site using formwork. Formwork is a box-like setup in which concrete is poured for the construction of slabs. For reinforced concrete slabs, reinforcing steel bars are placed within the formwork and then the concrete is poured. Plastic tipped metal, or plastic bar chairs are used to hold the reinforcing steel bars away from the bottom and sides of the form-work, so that when the concrete sets it completely envelops the reinforcement.

Formwork differs with the kind of slab. For a ground slab, the form-work may consist only of sidewalls pushed into the ground whereas for a suspended slab, the form-work is shaped like a tray, often supported by a temporary scaffold until the concrete sets.

Materials used for the formwork

The formwork is commonly built from wooden planks and boards, plastic, or steel. On commercial building sites today, plastic and steel are more common as they save labour. On low-budget sites, for instance when laying a concrete garden path, wooden planks are very common. After the concrete has set the wood may be removed, or left there permanently. In some cases formwork is not necessary for instance, a ground slab surrounded by brick or block foundation walls, where the walls act as the sides of the tray and hardcore acts as the base.

Span Effective Depth ratios

Excessive deflections of slabs will cause damage to the ceiling, floor finishes and other architectural details. To avoid this, limits are set on the span-depth ratios. These limits are exactly the same as those for beams. As a slab is usually a slender member the restriction on the span-depth ratio becomes more important and this can often control the depth of slab required in terms of the span effective depth ratio is given by,

Minimum effective depth = span/ (basic ratio x modification factor) The modification factor is based on the area of tension steel in the shorter span when a slab is singly reinforced at mid-span, the modification factors for the areas of tensions and compression steel are as given in the figure 2 and 4 of the code. Solid Slab spanning in two directions

When a slab is supported on all four of its sides, it effectively spans in both directions, and it is sometimes more economical to design the slab on this basis. The moment of bending in each direction will depend on the ratio of the two spans and the conditions of restraint at each support. If the slab is square and the restraint is similar along the four sides, then the load will span equally in both directions. If the slab is rectangular, then more than one-half of the load will be carried in the shorter direction and lesser load will be imposed on the longer direction. If one span is much longer than the other, a large portion of the load will be carried in the shorter direction and the slab may as well be designed as spanning in only one direction. Moments in each direction of span are generally calculated using co-efficient which are tabulated in the code.

The slab is reinforced with the bars in both directions parallel to the spans with the steel for the shorter span placed farthest from the natural acis to five the greater effective depth. The span-effective depths are based on the shorter span and the percentage of the reinforcement in that direction.

RCC Column A column forms a very important component of a structure. Columns support beams which in turn support walls and slabs. It should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance. Supporting the slabs is the main function of the columns Such slabs are called Simply Supported Slabs. Simply supported slabs could be either one way slab or a two-way slab. It depends on the dimensions of the slab.

Reinforced Cement Concrete Column Plan and Section A column is defined as a compression member, the effective length of which exceeds three times the least lateral dimension. Compression members, whose lengths do not exceed three times the least lateral dimension, may be made of plain concrete. In this article, we are going to discuss in detail the basis of classification of columns and different types of reinforcement required for a certain type of column. A column may be classified based on different criteria such as:

1. Based on shape

Rectangle Square Circular Polygon

2. Based on slenderness ratio

Short column, <12 Long column, > 12

3. Based on type of loading

Axially loaded column A column subjected to axial load and uni-axial bending A column subjected to axial load and biaxial bending

4. Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement

Tied columns Spiral columns

Minimum eccentricity Emin = l/500 + D/30 or 20mm Where, l = unsupported length of column in mm D = lateral dimensions of column Types of Reinforcements for columns and their requirements Longitudinal Reinforcement

Minimum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must be at least 0.8% of gross section area of the column. Maximum area of cross-section of longitudinal bars must not exceed 6% of the gross crosssection area of the column. The bars should not be less than 12mm in diameter. Minimum number of longitudinal bars must be four in rectangular column and 6 in circular column. Spacing of longitudinal bars measures along the periphery of a column should not exceed 300mm.

Transverse reinforcement

It maybe in the form of lateral ties or spirals. The diameter of the lateral ties should not be less than 1/4 th of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar and in no case less than 6mm.

The pitch of lateral ties should not exceed

Least lateral dimension 16 x diameter of longitudinal bars (small) 300mm

Helical Reinforcement The diameter of helical bars should not be less than 1/4 th the diameter of largest longitudinal and not less than 6mm. The pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is allowed);

75mm 1/6th of the core diameter of the column

Pitch should not be less than,

25mm 3 x diameter of helical bar

Pitch should not exceed (if helical reinforcement is not allowed) Least lateral dimension

16 x diameter of longitudinal bar (smaller) 300mm

Design of Shear Reinforcement in a beam The beam is failed by the diagonal tension in which the cracks start from support and extend upto a distance equal to effective depth and making an angle more or less than 45 degrees.

Shear reinforcement diagram (beam longitudinal section) Here are the steps for the design of Shear Reinforcement in a beam: Step one Nominal shear stress Tv = Vu/bd Where, Vu = shear force due to design load b = width of the beam d = depth of the beam Step two Percentage of steel Percent steel = Ast/bd x 100 Step three

Find the shear stress in concrete (Tc) for the above percentage of steel as per IS:456:2000

Step four If, Tv < Tc No shear reinforcement is required. However, nominal stirrups are provided and their spacing is determined by, Asv/b.Sv= 0.4/(0.87fy) Where, Sv = spacing of stirrups Asv = Area of stirrups In any case, the spacing should not be more than 0.75d Step five If, Tv > Tc Sv = 0.87fy. Asv. d/(Vus) Where, Vus = strength of shear reinforcement

Example of the Design of Shear reinforcement in a beam

Design of Shear reinforcement in a beam A reinforced cement concrete beam 300mm wide and 500mm effective depth is subjected to a shear force of 40KN at the ends. The beam is provided with 6 bars of 20mm diameter of which 3 bars are cranked at 45 degrees. Design the shear reinforcement for M20 grade concrete. Here are the steps for the design of Shear Reinforcement in a beam: Width of the beam = b = 300mm Shear force = Vu = 40KN Effective depth = d = 500mm Area of steel, Ast = 3 x 3.14/4 x 20 x 20 = 942.47 mm2 Step one Nominal shear stress Tv = Vu/bd

Tv = 40 x 1000/(300 x 500) = 0.26N/mm2 Step two Percentage of steel Percent steel = Ast/bd x 100 Percent steel = (942.47 x 100)/ (300500) = 0.63% Step three As per IS: 456: 2000 Tc = 0.48 + (0.56-0.48)/(0.75-0.5) (0.63 0.5) Tc= 0.52 N/mm2 Therefore, Tv < Tc No shear reinforcement required. Step four Provide minimum shear reinforcement; As per IS : 456 : 2000 Asv/bsv = 0.4/(0.87 fy) Assuming 6mm diameter, 2 legged stirrups Asv = (2 x 3.14 x 6 x 6)/4 = 56.54 mm2 Sv = (0.87fy.Asv)/0.4b Sv = (0.87 x 250 x 56.54)/(0.4300) = 102.47mm say 100mm As per IS:456:2000, Maximum spacing = 0.75d = 0.75 x 500 = 375mm Provide 6mm diameter, 2-legged stirrups@100mm c/c.

Maximum spacing = 0.75d = 0.75 x 230 = 172mm Provide 6mm diameter 2-legged stirrups @ 100mmc/c

Shear reinforcement in a Beam

Guide to Doubly Reinforced RCC Beam Design

RCC Beams RCC beams are cast in cement concrete reinforced with steel bars. Beams take up compressive and add rigidity to the structure. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In Light frame construction the joists rest on the beam.

Doubly Reinforced Beam In this article, we are going to discuss types of beam construction and RCC design of Doubly reinforced beam RCC beam construction is of two types:

Singly reinforced beam Doubly reinforced beam

Singly reinforced beam A singly reinforced beam is a beam provided with longitudinal reinforcement in the tension zone only. Doubly reinforced beam

Beams reinforced with steel in compression and tension zones are called doubly reinforced beams. This type of beam will be found necessary when due to head room consideration or architectural consideration the depth of the beam is restricted. The beam with its limited depth, if reinforced on the tension side only, may not have enough moment of resistance, to resist the bending moment. By increasing the quantity of steel in the tension zone, the moment of resistance cannot be increased indefinitely. Usually, the moment of resistance can be increased by not more than 25% over the balanced moment of resistance, by making the beam over-reinforced on the tension side. Hence, in order to further increase the moment of resistance of a beam section of unlimited dimensions, a doubly reinforced beam is provided.

Besides, this doubly reinforced beam is also used in the following circumstances:

The external live loads may alternate i.e. may occur on either face of the member.

For example:

A pile may be lifted in such a manner that the tension and compression zones may alternate. The loading may be eccentric and the eccentricity of the load may change from one side of the axis to another side. The member may be subjected to a shock or impact or accidental lateral thrust.

Design procedure for doubly reinforced beam Step 1 Determine the limiting moment of resistance for the given c/s(Mulim) using the equation for singly reinforced beam Mulim = 0.87.fy.Ast1.d [1 0.42Xumax] Or Balanced section Ast1 = (0.36.fck.b.Xumax)/(0.87fy) Step 2 If factored moment Mu > Mulim, then doubly reinforced beam is required to be designed for additional moment. Mu Mulim = fsc.Asc (d d) Step 3 Additional area of tension steel Ast2 Ast2 =Asc.fsc/0.87fy Step 4 Total tension steel Ast, Ast = Ast1 + Ast2 [fsc value from page no. 70]

Guide to Design of Built-up Beams

Design Procedure of the Built-up Beams design In my earlier articles, we discussed in detail about the Theory of Built-up Beams. In this article, we will move a step ahead and understand the concept of the design of Built-up beams. Here are the simple steps that are to be followed for the design of Built-up Beams. Step one The effective span and load required to be carried by the built-up beam are known. Maximum bending moment and shear force in built-up beams are calculated. Step two Value of yield stress (fy) for structural steel is to be assumed. The permissible bending stress (sigma bc) is calculated. Step three The required section modulus (Z) for the given beam section is calculated. Step four From the steel table, a trial section for a beam is adopted having the modulus of section (Z) about 25% to 50% in excess of that requirement. The geometrical proportion of beam sections are noted. Step five When the depth of the beam is noted, then the usually the practice is to select from ISI handbook No.1 (Steel tables). The strongest Rolled steel beam that will allow for necessary thickness of power plates at top and bottom. Step six The area of power plate required is found out by trial and error method are by; I = Ibeam + 2(Ap)(h/2)(h/2) For finding the area, divide the whole equation by h/2. Step seven Width of cover plate and thickness are decided with the restriction of outstands.

Step Eight Check for bending stress/Actual bending compressive stress (sigma bc)calculated = (maximum bending moment/Gross MI) x Distance of extreme fibre in compression from Neutral Axis = (M/Ixx)x y1 Actual bending tension stress sigma bt, cal = (sigma bc)cal x (gross area of tension flange/Net area of tension flange) = Value should not exceed the permissible bending stress (sigma bc) or (sigma bt) = 0/66fy Step nine Check for shear and Deflection

Types of Foundations | Design of RCC Structures

Foundations Foundation of a structure is like the roots of a tree without which the tree cannot stand. The construction of any structure, be it a residence or a skyscraper; starts with the laying of foundations. Before designing the foundation, the type of soil is determined. Depending on whether the soil is hard soil or soft soil, a specific type of foundation is adopted.

Shallow Foundations versus Deep Foundations

Foundations are made in various materials They could be reinforced cement concrete foundations or brick foundations or stone rubble masonry foundations etc. The choice of material to be used in the construction of foundations also depends on the weight of the structure on the ground. The bearing capacity of soil plays a major role in deciding the type of foundation. The safe bearing capacity of soil should be 180N/mm2 to 200N/mm2. Foundations are broadly classified into shallow foundations and deep foundations. The depth of the foundation means the difference of level between the ground surface and the base of the foundation. If the depth of the foundation is greater than its width the foundation is classified as a deep foundation. Shallow foundations are commonly used in smaller structures such as residences and small buildings whose floor height is limited to 10m whereas Deep Foundations are used in Skyscrapers. Piles are the most commonly used Deep Foundations used in skyscrapers

Types of Shallow foundations Footings Footings are structural members used to support columns and walls and to transmit their load to the underlying soils. Mats or rafts Combined footings, strap and strip footings Column Footing

In this type of foundation the base of the column is sufficiently enlarged to act as the individual support. The widened base not only provides stability but is useful in distributing the load on sufficient area of the soil. Column footings are usually used in the foundations of residences and buildings where the soil is hard enough has has sufficient bearing capacity.

Pressure distribution under a Foundation

The law of distribution of pressure under a foundation depends on the homogeneity of the soil and flexibility of the base. If really the soil is homogeneous and the base of the foundation is flexible, the pressure distribution under the foundation will be uniform. On the contrary if the foundation base is absolutely rigid, the pressure distribution will not be uniform but may follow such pattern. In our designs it is usual to assume a flexible base and hence to regard the pressure distribution to be uniform. This can be achieved by gradually decreasing the thickness of the base towards the edges so that the base is only as much thick as it is regarded to resist the induced moments and shears.

General rules of Foundation Design While designing a foundation the following points must be borne in mind.

When a soil is yielding soil, a certain amount of settlement must be reduced as much as possible by bringing down the pressure intensities. It is necessary that a foundation shall be designed so that if at all a settlement should occur, it will be uniform. In other words, the settlement of all the footings must be more or less the same. This is a very important point in reinforced concrete structures due to the rigid connection between the different components of the structure.

In our next article, we will discuss the procedure of designing an isolated foundation and also justify the foundation design rules mentioned above.

Guide to Foundation Design | Column Footings

Foundation Design Foundation is the base of any structure. Without a firm foundation, the structure cannot stand. That is the reason why we have to be very cautious with the design of foundations because our entire structure rests on the foundation.

Laying of Column Footing Reinforcement The strength of the foundation determines the life of the structure. As we discussed in the earlier article, design of foundation depends on the type of soil, type of structure and its load. On that basis, the foundations are basically divided into Shallow Foundations and Deep Foundations. In this article, we are going discuss the step by step guide to Column Footing Design. Reinforced Concrete Footings

Footing comprises of the lower end of a column, pillar or wall which i enlarged with projecting courses so as to distribute load. Footings shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces and the induced reactions and to ensure that any settlement which may occur shall be as uniform as possible and the safe bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded. In sloped or stepped footings, the effective cross-section in compression shall be limited by the area above the neutral plane, and the angle of slope or depth and location of steps should be such that the design requirements are satisfied at every section. Design Procedure of Column Footings Here is a step-by-step guide to Column Footing Design:

Column Footing Plan and Section Step 1 Area required for footing Square = B = (w+w1)/P0

Where, Po = safe bearing capacity of soil w1 = self weight of footing w = self weight of footing For Rectangle = b/d = B/D A=bxd

Net upward pressure on the footing q/p = W/A Step 2 Bending Moment Critical section for maximum bending moment is taken at the face of the column For a square footing, Mxx = q x B/8 (L a)2 Mxx = q x L/8 (B b)2 Myy = q x B/8 (L a)2 Step 3 To fix the depth of the footing shall be greater of the following: Depth from bending moment consideration d =?(M/Qb) where, Q = moment of required factor Depth from shear consideration Check for one way shear Check for two way shear or punching shear Critical shear for one way shear is considered at a distance d from face of the column.

Shear force, V = qB [ (B b) d] Nominal shear stress, Tv = k . Tc

Tc

= 0.16?fck

Step 4 Check for two way shear Critical section for two way shear is considered at a distance at a distance d/2 from all the faces of the column. SF, V = q [ B2 (b + d)2] SF, V = q [L x B (a + d)(b + d)] Nominal shear stress, Tv = V/2((a+d)(b+d)d) - {for a rectangle
Tv

= V/4((b+d)d) = k . Tc

- {for a square

Tv

k = 0.5 + ? > 1
Tc

; [? = ratio of sides of the column

= 0.16?fck

Area of steel, Ast = M/(?stjd)