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=
,
q (3)
Where Q solar, net is the net thermal power gained by the
water from the collectors field, I is the solar radiation in the
collector absorber plane and Aabsorber is the total absorbing
area of the collectors field, respectively. Neglecting the chiller
pump power as the used chiller has no solution pump, the
chiller coefficient of performance, COP, is defined as the ratio
of the evaporator cold capacity to the heat input to generator
as follows:
G
E
Q
Q
COP = (4)
III. SOLAR DRIVEN STEAM JET EJECTOR CHILLER
Using water as a refrigerant has the advantage that it is the
most environmentally friendly option and shows the highest
efficiency in refrigeration as cited by Pollerberg et al. [5 and 6].
The literature on solar driven ejector chiller studies with water
as working is limited as cited by Pollerberg et al. [5 and 6].
This due to that the disadvantage of water as a refrigerant in the
vapour phase is has high specific volume which requires a
relatively large-sized ejector. In addition, the water evaporation
temperature cannot be lower than 0 with the necessary of
higher temperature and pressure level of the water outlet from
the solar collector field to the steam drum/generator. However,
when water is used as heat transfer fluid between the solar
energy subsystem and the SJEC subsystem, the unique
advantage is that an open system can be designed without
hydraulic separation between solar collector subsystem, steam
driven ejector and chilled water subsystem. However, this
section presents a study of solar cold production by steam-jet
ejector technology which is driven by a parabolic-trough
collector field. Moreover, is to experimentally investigate the
performance of steam jet ejector chiller under load condition as
well as the effects of other operational parameters through
outdoor experimental measurements.
A. Apparatus and Procedures
A schematic diagram of a solar driven jet ejector chillier is
shown in Figure 2, while screenshot from the process diagram
of present solar driven steam jet ejector chillier in operation is
shown in Figure 3. during outdoor measurements with an SJEC
connected to parabolic trough collector (PTC) modules. From
figures (2 and 3), the experimental apparatus consists mainly of
the following: parabolic trough collector (PTC) field which
covers an area of 10.5 m, steam drum/generator which delivers
the motive steam for the refrigeration process, steam jet
compressor located above the evaporator with a nozzle
diameter of either 1.5 or 1.7 mm, a plate heat exchanger which
is used as condenser and convective cooler which simulates the
cold load with appropriate measuring instrumentations. The
SJEC has a cooling capacity of 1 kW and it is installed in a
movable frame in order to facilitate further investigations in
different locations.
1) Solar Collector System
The outdoor experimental measurements on a steam jet ejector
chillier driven by parabolic trough collector modules are
performed with parabolic trough collector (PTC) modules. The
tracking system turns the PTC around its horizontal axis. The
PCT was orientated in southerly direction, so that its rotary axis
is aligned from east to west. The receiver/absorber is a steel
tube coated with a selective blackened nickel surface and
surrounded by tough Pyrex glass..
Fig. 2. Screenshot from the process diagram of an experiment
run of steam jet ejector chiller
The radiative properties of the collector are reported by the
manufacturer as follows: selective blackened nickel surface,
absorptance ranged from 0.96 to 0.98, emittance (at 80
o
C)
ranging from 0.15 to 0.25, envelope material borosilicate glass
with transmittance ranging from 0.95 to 0.965. Water is the
heat transfer fluid and it is circulated in the solar collector
subsystem and the steam drum/generator. The collector cycle is
designed as a pressurized water cycle, which means that the
water will not boil in the absorber pipes of the collector. The
steam drum has a volume of 75 l and serves as steam generator
as well as heat energy buffer to ensure constant steam supply
conditions for the SJEC. The maximum pressure of the solar
cycle is 900 kPa (abs).
2) The steam jet ejector
The steam jet ejector compressor is the main device of the
SJEC, with a motive high pressure steam; it sucks the vapor
refrigerant from the evaporator and pumps it into the
condenser, thus reducing the pressure in the evaporator
corresponding to the evaporator temperature. This pressure
reduction causes water evaporation in the evaporator followed
by its temperature drop. This leads to the production of cold
water that circulates to the convective cooler The steam jet
ejector compressor is designed for an absolute motive steam
pressure P1 of 300 kPa, absolute suction steam pressure Po of
10 kPa and absolute condensation pressure Pc of 50 kPa. The
evaporator tank has a volume of 150 l and is equipped with a
sight glass. After being mixed in the steam ejector compressor
the motive and suction steams are condensed in the condenser
and feed back into the steam drum as well as into the
evaporator respectively. In these experiments, the tap water is
used as cooling medium in the condenser. A water-ring pump
is used to remove the leaked-in air from the system at the
beginning of experiments.
B. Measurements, Data Acquisition and Processing System
A flow-controlling valve controls the cooling load. The volume
flow rate was measured by rotameters and electromagnetic
flow meters having different measuring ranges. The
temperatures were measured with PT-100 with a measuring
range of 0-175 C with a resolution of 0.1 C. The incident total
solar radiation was measured at the collector level by a
pyranometer having a measuring range of 0-1100 W/m2 with
an error of 0.1% due to its temperature variation. The
uncertainties were calculated through the data reduction of the
experimental measurements and are estimated by determining
the COP as ranging from 13.5% to 15.6%, respectively.
C. Presentation of Parameters
From the measured data, experimental results are presented
based on using a simple data reduction; they are described in
the following. For the solar collector efficiency () which is
known as the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss an equation is presented in
[7] as follows:
I
T T
k
I
T T
k
amb m amb m
2
0
) (
2
) (
1
=q q
(5)
Equation (5) describes the efficiency as a function of the
solar radiation in the collector plane and the temperature
difference between the collector mean temperature Tm and
ambient air temperature T
amb
.
W
Steam drum/
Generator
Evaporator
Condenser
Pump
Throttle
valve
Solar Collector
Qevap= Cold load
Q
c Ejector
QSolar
W
Neglecting the work input to the pumps, the thermal COP
of the ejector refrigeration system is defined as the ratio of cold
capacity
0
Q
to motive heat
1
Q
according to Eq. (6).
( )
( )
0 1 1
0 0
1
0
h h m
h h m
Q
Q
COP
o
' ' '
' ' '
~ =
(6)
In this equation
0
m is the suction steam mass flow rate,
1
m
the motive steam mass flow rate and h is the enthalpy of the
state point ( h' ' saturated vapor state and h' saturated liquid
state)
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. COMBINED FREE COOLING AND SOLAR
POWERED SINGLE EFFECT LITHIUM BROMIDE-
WATER ABSORPTION COOLING PLANT
There have been enormous amounts of recorded measured
data from the plant since its installation in August 2002.
However, samples from these measurements are used to extract
the results in this contribution, which are in some cases series
of results or represent the average values of five years duration
for the plant operation.
1) Free Cooling Potential
The obtained 5 years cold energy percentage by free cooling to
the total produced cold energy are shown in Figure 5. In
monthly bases, the obtained free cold energy in mainly
depending on ambient air wet-bulb temperature and required
chilled water temperature for the load. The free cooling
percentage in some cooling months can be up to 70 %. It varies
from one month to the other and from year to year. It can be
seen from the figure that in both years the free cooling value is
very low for July. The data presented in Figure 3 is for the
duration from August 2002 to November 2007. During this
period it is found that the total produced cold energy from the
chiller is 31365 kWh while that obtained by free cooling is
10299 kWh. The assessment of the free cooling potential
clearly shows that it offers about 25% of the total cooling
demand during the 5 years period of the plant operation. These
results show an extensive potential for cooling demand by free
cooling means in certain locations based on the local climate
condition. In order to increase this potential, cold water by free
cooling can be produced at nighttime. Moreover, increasing the
cold storage capacity and use of the complete chilled water net
to store the nighttime free cooling cold water has to be taken
into account. It can be concluded that true environmentally
efficient systems must delve into total system design.
1) Solar Energy Heat Fraction and Collector Field
Performance
The fraction of the total driving heat load, which is covered by
solar energy, is referred as solar heat fraction. The total solar
energy supplied to the chillier and as well as the total external
energy and their percentage for the duration from August 2002
to November 2007 are shown in Figure 4. For the duration
from August 2002 to November 2007 the total solar energy
supplied to the chiller is 53914 kWh and the total external
energy (gas energy) supplied to the chiller is 35249 kWh and
their percentage are about 60% and 40%, respectively. The
Fig.3. Obtained cold energy percentage by free cooling to the total
cold load energy during from August 2002 to November 2007.
Fig. 4. Total solar energy supplied to the chiller and as well as
the total external energy and their percentage for the duration from
August 2002 to November 2007
results show that the monthly average value of solar heat
fraction varies from 31.1 % up to 100 %, with a five-year
average value of 60 %. The main factors affecting the solar
heat fraction are the meteorological conditions and the time of
day when the plant is operated as both influence the level of
incident solar insolation. In addition, the monthly average
value of the collectors field efficiency varies from 34.1 % up
to 41.8 %, with a five-year average value of 28.3 % (not
presented). These monthly and yearly average values of the
collector efficiency can be enhanced by adjusting the tilting
angle of the collectors absorber. In addition, cleaning the
collectors tubes outer surface from the stick fouling once a
year could be a further method to enhance the solar system
efficiency.
2) Experiences and Lessons Learned
- The results show that the collector filed has an
instantaneous mean efficiency value of about 0.63. This
result is attributed to the fact that the absorber in the
vacuum tube collectors field has tilt angle of 30o with
roof/horizontal while the system installed in the city at
51o28\ N latitude, therefore this tilt angle is not the optimal
orientation one. Moreover, from the visual inspection of the
collectors glass tube, a thin stick fouling material
combination of residual combustion gasses and other
materials over the tube surfaces is found. These fouling
materials are not removable with heavy rains, is also act on
the decreases of collector field performance. Thus,
periodical cleaning is required to keep the collectors field
working efficiently.
- The time span to reach a first capacity output from the
chiller can be about 15 min. This time became longer,
especially if the chiller has not been in operation for a
longer time, e.g. within the transition time in spring and
autumn or after wintertime. In these cases the driving hot
water temperature (water entering the chillers generator)
Solar energy supplied to
the chiller is 53914 kWh
Gas energy supplied to the
chiller is 35249 kWh
60%
40%
should be close to 100 C to overcome the crystallization
occurred during shutdown period.
- Also, the temperature of water entering the chillers
generator should be continuously observed in order to
ensure delivery of sufficient thermal energy to drive the
internal thermosyphon pump effect within the generator and
to avoid crystallization.
- In case the hot water supplied from the hot water storage
tank drops below 78C the backup heater is activated. In
case of water entering temperature dropping below 75C,
the chiller is shutdown.
B. SOLAR DRIVEN STEAM JET EJECTOR CHILLER
1) Solar Energy Subsystem Performance
As any solar-driven refrigeration system, the system
performance is mainly a function of solar energy collector
subsystem efficiency, , and the refrigeration system
coefficient of performance COP. For the solar energy
subsystem, which consist of the solar collector, the steam
drum, and pump, the solar radiation energy is absorbed and
converted into heat that is transferred to the water which flows
into the steam drum which is serving as heat energy buffer plus
motive steam generator. Outdoor measurements on the solar
collector subsystem only are carried out to investigate its
performance before it is being used to drive SJEC. The
measured data for this subsystem operation at a water mass
flow rate of 0.25 kg/s through the system and the
experimentally determined collector efficiency from different
measurements are shown in Fig 5. The collector was working
in a closed loop with a water pressure of 8 bar. The results
show that the temperature difference between water inlet and
outlet at any time is small and both temperatures rise as the
time of day advances, which leads to higher collector mean
temperature, and consequently to a lower collector efficiency
as can be seen in Fig. 5. However, the constants in Eq. (5) from
the measurements shown in Fig. 5 are as follows:
o
=0.6,
k1=0.1 and K2=0.0075.
2) Operational Characteristics of a Solar Driven SJEC
The results of experiments to clarify the operational
characteristics of a solar driven steam jet ejector chillier system
are shown in Figs. (6 and 7). Figure (6) shows the results for an
almost clear sky free from clouds while the results for a cloudy
summer day are shown in Fig. (7). The two experiments were
conducted with the water mass flow rate in the collector being
0.1111 kg/s in both cases, and motive steam mass flow rates
being 3.8 kg/hr, and suction steam mass flow rates
being1.5kg/hr, respectively. The figures show the measured
meteorological data of the horizontal solar insolation and
ambient air dry bulb temperatures in Figs. (6-a, 7-a), while
Figs. (6-b, 7-b) show the measured inlet and outlet water
temperature from the collector and the motive steam pressure
variation from the cooling process start-up up to the end of the
experiment. Figures (6-b, 7-b) show the variation of the suction
steam pressure and evaporator temperature from the cooling
process start-up up to the end of the experiment. The cooling
process was started up by opening the valve before the ejector
when the temperatures in the steam drum reaches or exceeds
140 C. In both cases the start-up time was around 13:00 hr.
After that time the drop in the temperature values of the inlet
and outlet water from the collector is due to the water
temperature in the steam drum/generator is energy level of the
three collected water from the evaporator, contender and outlet
from the collector which is the inlet to the collector. As can be
seen from the figure, as the refrigeration process start runs, it is
followed by decreases in the evaporator temperature following
the decrease in the pressure as shown in Figs. (6-c, 7-c). As the
figures for the cases presented show, the minimum water
temperature reached in the evaporator is 7 C. However, after
the suction steam reaches the lowest value, the motive pressure
is decreasing as it is the average pressure of the whole system
in addition to the drop in motive steam temperature as its
function of outlet temperature from the solar collector
subsystem. As can be seen from the figures, the water was
delivered to the steam drum/generator at almost the same
temperature as the outlet from the solar subsystem until the
time of motive steam flows to the ejector. Figures (6) and (7)
show that the increase of the motive steam pressure at the valve
opening is the time required for system self-adjustment to reach
the lower condenser pressure. Also, in both experiments the
metrological conditions at the beginning of the refrigeration
process the solar radiation values reached their peaks with little
increase in the ambient air temperature, the minimum
evaporator temperature is reached 2 hours after the ejector
Fig. 5. PCT solar collector field efficiency
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Time, hr.
5
10
15
20
25
30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
o
C
.
10
20
30
40
50
P
r
e
s
s
u
e
r
,
m
b
a
r
(c)
T
evap
P
suction steam
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
o
C
.
1.2
1.6
2
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
4
P
r
e
s
s
u
e
r
,
b
a
r
(b)
T
col,in
T
col,out
P
motive steam
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
S
o
l
a
r
I
n
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,
W
/
m
2
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
C
o
. (a)
17 Aug., 2005
I
hor.
T
amb.
Fig.6. Operation characteristic of solar driven steam jet ejector
chiller on clear sky day.
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Time, hr.
5
10
15
20
25
30
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
o
C
.
10
20
30
40
50
60
P
r
e
s
s
u
e
r
,
m
b
a
r
(c)
T
evap
P
suction steam
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
o
C
.
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2
P
r
e
s
s
u
e
r
,
b
a
r
(b)
T
col,in
T
col,out
P
motive steam
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
S
o
l
a
r
I
n
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,
W
/
m
2
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,
C
o
. (a) 3 Aug., 2005
I
hor.
T
amb.
Fig.7. Operation characteristic of solar driven steam jet ejector
chiller on cloudy sky day
started operation. It can be seen from both figures that the
cooling rate shown in Fig. (7) is lower than the one in Fig. (6);
this is contrary to what would be expected of the effect of solar
radiation on a cloudy day on the system performance.
Therefore, it can be concluded from this results, that this solar
driven steam jet ejector chiller is working being simple in
design and reliable in operation and it is ecologically friendly
because it uses water as the only working fluid in the whole
system.
C. Effect of Operating Parameters on the SJEC
Performance
Effect of the evaporator and condenser temperatures
The performance is presented in the form of the experimentally
determined COP. In practice, the condenser temperature is
fixed by the environmental conditions, whether is it air cooled
or water cooled. In order to clarify the effect of both the
evaporator and condenser temperatures on the system
performance a set of measured data when the condenser
temperature varied from 24 to 36
o
C simultaneously with three
values of evaporator temperatures, which are 7, 13 and 17
o
C ,
and their effect of on the coefficient of performance are shown
in Fig. (8). The temperature values of 13
o
C and 17
o
C of the
evaporator were chosen with regard to the fact that this cooling
technique can be integrated into a chilled ceiling for air
conditionings in buildings. It can be seen from the figure that
for decreases in the condenser temperature by 12
o
C, in case of
an evaporator temperature of T
evap
= 7
o
C the coefficient of
performance, COP, was increased by 57%, while for Tevap
=13
o
C the COP was increased by 41 % and for Tevap =17
o
C
the COP was increased by 34.4 %, respectively. As can be
seen, the COP varied considerably with both evaporator and
condenser temperatures. These results can be explained as
follows: inside the ejector, in the mixing chamber, the motive
steam and the sucked vapor from the evaporator are mixed.
After mixing, the combined stream will become a transient
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
T
cond
, C
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
o
f
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
evaporator temperature 7C
evaporator temperature 13C
evaporator temperature 17C
Fig. 8 Effect of the evaporator and condenser temperatures on
coefficient
supersonic and its velocity must be high enough to increase the
pressure after deceleration in the jet diffuser to be little higher
than the condenser pressure. These results in general indicate
that the COP increases with a decreasing condenser
temperature, which is determined by the source temperature of
the cooling medium. The effect of the evaporator temperature
on the system performance can be seen in Fig. (8). It is shown
that at certain value of the condenser temperature, an increase
in the evaporator temperature leads to increases in the COP.
Estimations for the increases in the COP for the presented
condenser temperature range are shown in Fig. (8) and are as
follows: a change in the evaporator temperature from 7 to 13
o
C, for the presented range of condenser temperatures, leads to
increases in COP values ranging from 14% to 56.7%, while
changes in the evaporator temperature from 7 to 17
o
C, lead to
increases in COP values ranging from 53% to 132%,
respectively. It is also clear from the figure that at a higher
condenser temperature with a moderately high evaporator
temperature, the system COP is about 0.8, which gives reason
to assume that the system will have a reasonable efficiency in
hot arid areas. Furthermore, the COP is higher in case of cold
supply demand at relatively high cold water temperatures than
in case of chilled ceiling cooling applications. On the other
hand, an increase of the evaporating temperature increases the
COP.
A. Economic aspects of a solar SJEC
The solar steam jet ejector chiller was modeled and quasi-
dynamic simulations with an hourly time step were made over
one year for the following locations: Essen in Germany,
Toulouse in France, Geneva in Italy, Safi in Morocco and St.
Katrina in Egypt, respectively. From the metrological data its
clear that that for St. Katrina the solar radiation ratio of direct
to global is nearly 0.7. Under this condition, the Parabolic
Through Collator (PTC) type PT has achieved the highest
annual mean efficiency. The SJEC was simulated in analogy to
the method used in the solar collectors under the same
operational condition described above. The operational
conditions were simulated hourly and the COP value and the
cold capacity were calculated for each time step. In calculation
the cold capacity, it was classified into three load conditions
(50%, 75% and 100% of cold capacity). The concept of
integrated part load values according to ARI Standard
550/560/590-98 is used. A defined cooling start temperature
served as switch-on condition for the SJEC. The mean COP is
evaluated for each load condition and afterwards the annual
mean COP is determined. The results clearly indicated that, the
COP at part load is higher than the COP at full load under
nominal operational condition. This leads to a higher annual
mean COP than under full load condition. Furthermore, the
SJEC reaches good annual mean COP values at locations with
a minimal wet-bulb temperature, especially in St. Katrina in
Egypt. Finally the economic aspects of a solar SJEC for cold
water generation for air-conditioning are calculated based on
the simulation results. At first the heat price is calculated by
using a PTC of the type PT. The heat price is calculated for a
collector area of 100, 500 and 5000 m2 for all five locations.
The calculation shows that PTCs are more economic for large
area collector fields. Furthermore, the location of an
installation, especially the ratio I
dir
=I
global
, has the major
influence on the solar yield and its economy. The costs of the
cold generation by SJEC are calculated for the above five
locations. The cold capacity is assumed to be 200 kW, while
both the COP and the operating time are based on the same
simulation as before. The results clearly indicate that the
specific cold costs range from 0.619 /kWh in Essen,
Germany, to 0.147 /kWh in St. Katrina, Egypt (the specific
cold costs of electrical driven refrigerators with the assumption
above: 0.11 /kWh in Germany and 0.07 /kWh in Egypt).
B. Experiences and Lessons Learned
- A solar driven steam jet ejector chiller equipped with
PTC requires higher pressure for the purpose of
obtaining hot water at moderate temperature level in
order to produce the motive steam. This in turn leads to
decreases in the solar subsystems efficiency with the
advancing time of day. This will have impacts on the
whole system overall efficiency.
- The cooling medium of the condenser is one of the
limiting factors controlling the operation of the solar
steam ejector refrigeration system, and so it is
important to optimize the condenser design in order to
maximize the performance of the system.
- The ambient air temperature affects both the condenser
temperature and the collector efficiency, followed by
motive steam energy. An increase in the ambient
temperature increases the condensing temperature and
decreases the COP.
- The investment costs have the main relevance on the
cold costs. A future standardization of the system,
especially of the SJEC, would lead to a further
reduction of the investment costs and the related cold
costs.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The market potential for solar cooling systems with small-scale
capacity is very large. Therefore recently, there are different
companies developing solar cooling systems/kits for the
product business. In the last 2 year (2008 and 2009), few
companies in the solar business have positioned on the market
as system providers for solar cooling. The small-scale cooling
capacity can reach up to 30kW. It is known that, the basic solar
cooling systems contain solar thermal collectors with
attachment, hot water storage, pump-sets, a chiller, re-cooler
(cooling tower), cold water storage and a control unit. Until
now, almost all of these cooling kits in the market are
developed based on the chillers re-cooling is done by water and
the heat rejected to the atmosphere achieved through a cooling
tower.
- However, in hot arid areas, the water normally is rare,
thus the re-cooling system should be designed based on
dry re-cooling techniques.
- In addition, the major problems facing solar sorption
cooling systems are higher initial capital cost.
- The average value of the specific collector surface for
all unite installed until the year 2006 in Europe is
about 3 m/kW. A value from 3.5 to 4.5 m/kW can be
considered as a reference value for thermally driven
absorption and adsorption chillers. However, these
values are only rough reference values and can never
replace the detailed design and simulation of a system.
- The specific cost of the whole installed solar cooling
system in Europe is so far between 5000 and 8000
EUR/kW. In the year 2008, system prices goes down
to 4500 EUR/kW for the systems installed at maker
countries while it was 7000 EUR/kW for the systems
built in other countries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge the Alexander von
Humboldt Foundation, Germany, for the fellowship grant
during this work at Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental,
Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Oberhausen,
Germany.
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