Engineering Geology - Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

STABILITY CONCEPT OF BRITTLE FRACTURE PROPAGATION IN ROCK z. T. BIENIAWSKI

Rock Mechanics Division, National Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria (South Africa)

(Received September 4, 1967)

SUMMARY The results of brittle fracture propagation studies in rock are presented. Stable and unstable fracture propagation is discussed and it is shown that the transition between these two processes in rock is determined by the critical energy release during fracturing, a concept originally introduced for brittle fracture in metals. The concept of critical energy release is now applied to rock and experimental determination of the critical energy release rate, Go, for quartzite and norite is reported. The significance of Gc in rock fracture processes is dealt with and its practical applications in mining are outlined.

INTRODUCTION While much work has been done on fracture initiation in rock (BRACE,1964; HOEK, 1965) the actual mechanism of fracture propagation has, until recently, remained relatively inexplored (BIENIAWSKI, 1966a). An understanding of the fracture propagation process is, however, essential before a reliable strength criterion, particularly for rock under compressive stress, can be derived. Recently, theoretical considerations and experimental studies have led to a hypothesis on the mechanism of rock fracture in compression (BIENIAWSKI, 1966a) covering all significant processes taking place in rock from initial load application to complete failure, as diagrammatically shown in Fig. 1. As will be noted from this block diagram, the process of fracture propagation in rock is characterised by two phases, i.e., stable and unstable fracture propagation, the transition being determined by the critical energy release during fracturing--a concept first introduced for brittle metals by IRWIN (1960).
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

150
STRESS APPLICATION

z . T . BIENIAWSKI

u u. 0

C R A C K " CLOSURE

taLl-

GR[FFITH

CRITERIA

FRACTURE
= o

INITIATION

5
0" ~ v/2,~ E/TEc IRWIN CONCEPT CRITICAL ENERGY RELEASE G=Gc

STRENGTH

FAILURE

FAILURE (7=0" M A X

OF

MATERIAL

--

ua

RUPTURE

FAILURE OF STRUCTURE E = E" MAX

Fig.l

Scheme of brittle fracture processes in rock.

This paper deals with studies of stable and unstable fracture propagation in rock and presents results of tests to determine the critical energy release for some rock material.

FRACTURE PROPAGATION

Fracture propagation may be defined as the failure process by which cracks in a material extend. In stable fracture propagation the crack extension is a function of loading and can be controlled accordingly. In unstable fracture propagation the crack extension is also governed by factors other than loading and thus becomes uncontrollable.
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

STABILITYOF BRITTLEFRACTUREPROPAGATIONIN ROCK

Stable fracture propagation

151

The onset of stable fracture propagation may be determined by means of the well-known Griffith energy balance (GRIFFITH,1921) at fracture initiation. Griitith postulated that all materials, lending themselves to brittle fracture, have preexisting cracks and that any such crack extends if the following balance holds:
d We
-

dW8 dco

dco

(1)

where We is the elastic strain energy, Ws the surface energy in the free faces of a pre-existing (Griffith) crack; and co the half length of the pre-existing (Griffith) crack. For a thin plate subjected to uniaxial tension under plane stress conditions, the elastic strain energy stored per unit thickness of the plate was calculated by Griffith as:
We = Z~Coea2/E

(2)

and the crack surface energy per unit thickness of the plate:
Ws = 47Co

(3)

where tr is the applied uniaxial tensile stress, E the modulus of elasticity, and ~, the specific surface energy, i.e., the surface energy per unit length of crack. The specific surface energy is a constant for a given material. It will be noted that, apart from ~r and We, all quantities in eq.2 and 3 are constant, while We varies as a function of the variable a. Differentiating eq.2 and 3 with respect to Co and substituting the results in eq.1 yields:
= =

(4)

where txln is that value of the uniaxial tensile stress applied to the thin plate when crack propagation initiates. The above condition implies that for:
tx > [a~n = ~X/2~,E/z~Co]

(5)

fracture propagation will take place. Griffith has only considerd fracture initiation, but not the actual subsequent fracture propagation, and thus did not deal with stable or unstable fracture propagation. It is now postulated that fracture propagation is stable as long as there is a definite relationship between the half-length e of the propagating crack and the applied stress (r, and the condition ~r > (r~n is maintained. It should be noted that tr and e are variables depending upon each other while g~n and eo are constants. A relationship between g and e for stable crack propagation for brittle
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

152

z.T. BIENIAWSK[

fracture of metals was proposed by IRWIN (1960) but has not, as yet, been adopted in rock mechanics. Irwin's relationship reads as follows:
(~ = "V/G E / ~ c

(6)

where G is the energy released per unit crack surface area. This formula is based upon the concept that fracture propagation is due to the fact that a certain amount of energy, represented by G, is released from the stored elastic energy We and is used to form additional crack surface area. Thus, the energy release from We takes place at the same rate as the energy absorption by crack extension. G is not a constant but a function of g and e. It will be noted that, in essence, Irwin's formula is similar to eq.4, 2y being replaced by G, but while eq.4 is a formula specifying a criterion, eq.6 constitutes a functional relationship between c and (r, thus describing the law followed by stable fracture propagation. It permits calculation of the increase Ac in crack half-length resulting from an increase Aa in the applied stress. It is valid for stress increases only since it cannot be expected that a crack heals due to deloading only.
Unstable f r a c t u r e propagation

It is now postulated that fracture propagation is unstable when the unique relationship between c and a according to eq.6 ceases to exist, i.e., when other quantities, e.g., the crack growth velocity, also play a role and fracture propagation can no longer be controlled by the applied load. While in stable propagation the crack growth can be stopped by stopping load increases, this does not hold for unstable fracture propagation; the fracture then propagates uncontrollably although the stress may be kept constant. The question now arises whether a criterion exists which determines transition from stable to unstable fracture propagation. IRWIN (1960) has based such a criterion on eq.6. He propounded that fracture becomes unstable when the energy released per unit crack surface, G, attains a critical value, Ge, which is a characteristic property of the material. Thus fracture propagation becomes unstable if:
a = au = ~v/GcE/~cu

(7)

where au is that value of the uniaxial stress applied to the thin plate when fracture propagation becomes unstable; Cu the corresponding crack half-length. The value of Gc for a particular material may be determined by measuring the applied stress au and the crack half-length Cu at the onset of unstable fracture propagation and making use of eq.7 as follows:
7~ffu 2 Cu

Gc - -

for plain stress conditions

(8)
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

STABILITYOF BRITTLEFRACTURE PROPAGATIONIN ROCK The corresponding equation for plain strain conditions is: (1 - - v2)zr~u2cu
Ge =

153

(9)

where ~ is Poisson's ratio. Values of Ge have been determined for various steels, aluminium, glass and concrete and are listed in Table I. The Irwin concept has been verified experimentally by many workers in the field of fracture mechanics and is now used extensively in the design 1 of such structures as pressure vessels, steam turbine-generator rotors, ships, aircraft, etc. TABLE I
CRITICAL ENERGY RELEASE RATE,

Ge, FOR

VARIOUS MATERIALS

Material

Gc lb - inch/sq, inch

kp - cm/cm 2

Glass Concrete Ship steel Aluminium Rotor steel

0.08 0.11 80.00 125.00 135.00

0.0143 0.0197 14.3200 22.3750 24.1650

To date no Gc values for rock have been determined and as yet the Irwin concept is unknown in the field of rock mechanics. It should be noted, however, that the concept has already been found applicable to concrete (KAPLAN, 1961). It seems, therefore, that it is worthwhile to apply this concept to rock, and experimental determination of the critical energy release for norite and quartzite will now be dealt with.

DETERMINATIONOF CRITICALENERGY RELEASERATE FOR ROCK The methods used for the determination of Gc for metals involve testing of plates in tension which is unsuitable for rock because of the difficulties associated with reliable tensile loading of rock specimens. Alternative methods, therefore, had to be devised. In this study, rock beams were tested in bending. Tests were conducted in which a gradually increasing 1 In order to standardise methods of determining Gc in metals, the American Society for Testing Materials recommended the shape and dimensions of specimens for this purpose (see Am. Soc. Test. Mat. Bull., No. 243, January 1960, pp.29--42).
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

154

z. T. BIENIAWSKI

load was applied to the specimen until a stress level was reached which resulted in unstable fracture propagation. The applied load and crack length at this instant were simultaneously recorded. Ge was then calculated.
Calculation o f Go f o r a rectangular beam subjected to four-point bending

For a rectangular beam subjected to four-point bending shown in Fig.2, a crack which will develop as a result of the applied load will act as a deep notch. A mathematical solution for such notches is derived by NEUBER (1937) and his
NOMINAL THE BENDING STRESS AT THE 6M TIP OF

CRACK

6n=

M = Pl h=d~c

0( l . s i n fly = v/2-~- c o s T

0 sin ~30 7 )

XJ

l ~ 0

6"x

/_._CRACK ACt,NO ,S "l D E E P NOTCH

I"

4.5t

~ /~/~////

~/////////////g," 6 S e ~ _ . , , , >// . ~ - . . . . . . .

Fig.2. A rectangular beam subjected to four point bending. Fig.3. Stresses near a crack tip and co-ordinates of the point to which stress formula refers.

equation for the stress, a u, normal to the plane of the notch at a distance r from the crack tip when the radius of the root of the notch approaches zero, thus simulating a crack, is (see WINNE and WUNDT, 1958):

~"[2 --1] u=6[~_ 6M

h2b

0.406 an I~] t

(10)

1] [2hr] ~ ' -

where an --

is the nominal bending stress at the root of the crack (deep notch)

and M, h and b are as shown in Fig.2. IRWIN (1960) has shown that the stress in the vicinity of such a crack (see Fig.3), given in term of G, is: o'u = 2~r (11)
Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

STABILITY OF BRITTLE FRACTURE PROPAGATION IN ROCK

155

Thus, from eq.10 and 11: G = 0.521 and: G = 0.521

(1 -- v2)O'nZh

~n2h
E

(for plane stress)

(12)

(for plane strain)

(13)

Experimental investigations
Eq.13 can only be used for obtaining Gc if suitable experimental methods exist for determining accurately both the applied load and the crack length at the onset of unstable fracture propagation. Although the pure bending test was used earlier by WINNE and WUNDT (1958) for determination of Gc for steel, and by KAPLAN(1961) for concrete, it yielded questionable results because no crack length measurements were conducted as their studies were based on the assumption that no slow crack extension occurs before fracture, the depth of the crack being simulated by the depth of a notch introduced in the beam. A further disadvantage of the method was the fact that the values of Gc were influenced by the notch type and its dimensions. Irwin has suggested that, in order to determine the critical length of the crack, a staining technique could be applied by placing a small quantity of Indian ink in the root of the notch just prior to loading. As the crack extends, the fluid will penetrate into the crack and follow the crack during the stable fracture propagation. When the crack depth increases rapidly, the stain will not follow and the stained fracture surface may thus indicate the extent of slow crack growth. KAPLAN (1961) tried this technique and although he did observe the stable crack growth, he did not correct his results or apply the technique throughout his investigation, probably because of its inherent inaccuracy. The experimental set-up used in the present study is illustrated in Fig.4. It will be seen that use is made of cine photography to determine the load and crack length at any instant. The specimen is stressed in a loading frame, seen in Fig.4, the actual load being determined on a dial gauge of the test ring. During loading, the specimen is photographed by means of a 16 mm reflex type movie camera, at speeds up to 64 frames/sec. The camera is driven by an electric motor on the shaft of which a special commutator is fitted which is designed to send an electrical pulse when the camera shutter opens. This pulse is picked up by a strobotac which then provides a light flash for each picture frame. Using this arrangement, perfect synchronisation is achieved between camera shutter and strobotac flash. The load indications on the dial gauge, illuminated independently, are projected into the camera by means of a system of mirrors attached to the

Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

156

z. T. BIENIAWSKI

camera lens. Consequently, on each frame, the crack length and related load are recorded simultaneously. A greatly enlarged reproduction from the 16 mm film is shown in Fig.5. It may be seen from this photograph that the dial gauge is clearly readable and that the length of the crack can be accurately measured. In order to determine Gc, it is necessary to know exactly at what instant the transition between stable and unstable fracture propagation takes place. The above mentioned experimental system has made establishment of this moment of transition possible by providing information on the velocity behaviour of the crack during the process of fracture propagation. It was found that the crack velocity increased slowly during stable fracture propagation until a stage was reached from whence a very rapid increase in the crack velocity occurred and the crack propagated uncontrollably. The speed with which this uncontrollable fracture propagation occurred was far above the recording capabilities of the present system. In order to cross-check the results and also to obtain the complete velocity characteristics for a propagating crack in rock, special techniques had to be developed to study this high-speed phenomena. Consequently, use was made of two cameras, a Hycam high-speed camera, maximum 10,000 frames/sec, and a Barr and Stroud ultra-high speed camera, maximum 1.6 million frames/sec. The filming arrangement for the Hycam camera was similar to that shown in Fig.4. In Fig.6 a photograph of the experimental set-up for the ultra-high speed camera is shown, while details of the techniques and apparatus are fully described elsewhere (BIENIAWSK|, 1966c). Using the above experimental methods it was, for the first time, possible

Fig.4. Experimental set-up for determining critical energy release rate for rock.

Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

STABILITY OF BRITTLE FRACTURE PROPAGATION IN ROCK

] 57

Fig.5. Frame enlargement from 16 m m cine film demonstrating the quality of the photographs.

Fig.6. An ultra-high speed camera system used for fracture velocity studies in rock.

Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

158

Z. T. BIENIAWSKI

to obtain the complete velocity curve for a propagating crack in rock. The curve is reproduced in Fig.7. It will be noted from this diagram that the point at which the curve changes its sign, is a characteristic phenomenon. The velocity increases slowly until this point is reached. From there on, however, the velocity increases very rapidly to a limit where it attains a constant value, known as the terminal velocity. In this connection it is interesting to recall the work of SCHARDIN (1959) on glass, who was the first to obtain the velocity curve for a brittle material. Schardin has obtained a curve similar in shape to that shown in Fig.7. He has shown that up to the turning point of the curve, the elastic energy released by crack propagation is not sufficient to maintain fracture and suggested that the fracture process would become self-maintaining once this point has been reached. Schardin's investigation and the results presented in Fig.7 clearly indicate that the turning point of the curve, that is where c/co = cu/co, d2v/d2c = 0, marks the transition from stable to unstable fracture propagation, i.e., where G = Go. It may also be seen from examination of Fig.7 that the crack velocity during stable crack propagation is much slower than that during the unstable fracture propagation. Consequently, for practical purposes, the effects of crack velocity during stable fracture propagation, may be neglected, but they will be the governing factor in the process of unstable fracture propagation. In a mathematical analysis by CRAGGS (1960), who based his considerations on dynamic stresses created by a propagating crack without reference to the Griffith and Irwin concepts, it was shown that as crack velocity increases, the force required to maintain crack propagation decreases until it becomes zero at

2000

TERMIN,4L VELOCll4( VT = 1875 r~,,~ec !

c,} {.U
E >_-

1500

, :

_~$~

d l.lJ

_~wN ~ZUl
UWn"

-.ii
I I
I

o, lOOO
Ld ~C
L STABLE F R A C T U R E

PROPAGATION _ !

O.STA E RA .jEI OR ,NG ANO RACd

O 500

I I
I
I
0
5 10

I
I
I
35 40
45

15

RATIO

20 25 C R A C K HALF-LENGTH

30 C C O

O R I G I N A LC R A C KH A L F L E N G T H

Fig.7. Crack velocity versus crack length ratio determined experimentally for norite. Eng. Geol., 2(3)(1967) 149-162

STABILITY OF BRITTLE FRACTURE PROPAGATION IN ROCK

159

the onset o f u n s t a b l e fracture p r o p a g a t i o n where the fracture process becomes selfmaintaining. The critical length o f the c r a c k was o b t a i n e d b y d r a w i n g the velocity curve for the p r o p a g a t i n g crack. Since the cine technique used in this study simultaneously records the length o f the c r a c k a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g stress, the values o f the critical stress could therefore be obtained. T h e values o f Ge were then calculated f r o m eq. 13.

TABLE II
CRITICAL ENERGY RELEASE RATES, Ge, FOR ROCK

Size of beam inches ~ (mm) ~ 1x 2 x 6 (25.4 x 50.8 x 152.4) 2 x 2 x 6 (50.8 x 50.8 x 152.4) 1x 2 x 8 (25.4 x 50.8 / 203.2) x 2 x 8 (12.7 x 50.8 x 203.2)

Width of beam (inches) 1

(ram)

Gc (lb. - inch/sq, inch) quartzite

norite 4.19 4.17 4.22 4.23 4.19 4.21 4.25 4.23 4.26 4.21 4.19 4.18 4.20 4.17

25.4 3.49 3.56 3.51 50.8 - -

25.4 3.53 3.49 3.52 12.7 - -

0.5

Average Gc

3.51 lb. - inch/sq.inch 4.20 lb. - inch/sq, inch 0.628 kp - cm/cm 2 0.752 kp - cm/cm ~

I n T a b l e II, the values o f Gc for quartzite a n d norite are given. Strength a n d d e f o r m a t i o n characteristics o f these r o c k types, a c c o m p a n i e d b y their petrog r a p h i c descriptions have been given elsewhere (BIENIAWSKI, 1966a). These r o c k types which are characterised b y negligible variations in their strength a n d def o r m a t i o n characteristics (average s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n 1.48 ~o a n d 3.35 ~o for norite a n d quartzite respectively), were selected with extreme care a n d have been p u r posely used for this study in o r d e r to eliminate the influence o f n o n - h o m o g e n e i t y and anisotropy. Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

160

z . T . BIENIAWSK1

THE SIGNIFICANCEOI- Gc IN BRITTLEFRACTUREOF ROCK Recent experimental studies have shown (BIENIAWSKI, t967) that the onset of unstable fracture propagation in compression and in tension can be determined by means of volumetric strain technique. A typical stress-volumetric strain curve in compression is given for norite in Fig.8. The onset of unstable fracture propagation is determined by the "nose" of the curve at point B. It can be seen from Fig.8 that up to point B the volumetric strain decreases with increasing compressive stress. Beyond point B the volumetric strain increases with increasing compressive stress. In Fig.9, stress-strain curves are given for quartzite. Examination of Fig.9 reveals that at point B the stressaxial strain curve departs from iinearity while the stress-lateral strain curve suddenly increases its concavity.
50

40

- Strength~ failu re Gc : 39.II~0 tbJsq.inch

.0---

3c

~0

%
.~ 20

Critical energy release G = G c ~B =28.5010 lb./sq.inc[~ = 7:~% ~-c

I
Fracture initiation 5"A=13.70C tb./sq.inch :35% ~c
,

2/ /
lOOO 2000

Fracture initiation

-500

-1000 -1500 -2000 Volumetricstrainffinch/inch

3000 Strainffinch/inch

4000

5000

Fig.8. Relationship between axial stress and volumetric strain for norite in uniaxial compression. Fig.9. Relationship between axial stress and axial, lateral and volumetric strain for quartzite in uniaxial compression. The stress level at point B in Fig.8 has great practical significance since it was also found (BIENIAWSKI, 1967) that this stress level represents the long term strength of rock. It can now be summarized, based on recent studies by the author (BIENIAWSKI, 1966b) that the following phenomena occur at the critical energy release, i.e., when G = Go: (1) The transition takes place from stable to ~nstable fracture propagation. (2) The curvature of the crack velocity curve changes its sign. Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

STABILITYOF BRITTLEFRACTUREPROPAGATIONIN ROCK

16 |

(3) Below Gc the crack velocity is slow, above Gc the crack velocity is high. (4) The stress level at Gc represents the long term strength of rock. (5) The specimen volume is at its minimum (below Gc the volumetric strain decreases with increasing load while above it, it increases). (6) The pore pressure is at its maximum.
. . . . .

%;
. . . . . . .
'

- - o

. . . . . . . . .

CRACKVELOCITY V

7--[I

S T R A I N

uJ~~
~

V O L U M E T R I CS T R A I N

Fig.]O. Diagrammatical representation of the significance o Gc concept in rock fracture processes. The above processes are diagrammatically represented in Fig.10. It will be

clear that the Irwin concept of Ge is highly significant in rock fracture processes. It is believed that this concept may add to the understanding of the mechanics of South African rockbursts which, by a sudden and violent fracture of rock, represent one of the most serious problems encountered in deep level gold mining. It has been pointed out in a recent publication (COOK et al., 1966) that the existence or otherwise of the rockburst hazard depends on whether the rate at which energy must be released is greater or smaller than the rate at which energy can be dissipated non-violently. It was further stated that the rockbursts can therefore be reduced either by increasing the rate at which energy can be dissipated in a nonviolent manner or by reducing the rate at which energy is released. It was emphasised, however, that while both these principles will perhaps be used in the future, it is only possible at this stage to recommend the latter approach since mechanism of energy dissipation during fracturing is not adequately understood.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to thank Dr H. G. Denkhaus, Director of the National Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, for his valuable criticism and encouragement, and Messrs M. N. Marais and F. Schinabeck of the Rock Mechanics Division of the Institute for assisting in carrying out the tests. Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162

162 REFERENCES

Z. T. BIENIAWSKI

BIENIAWSKI, Z. T., 1966a. Mechanism of rock fracture in compression. S. African Council Sci. Ind. Res., Mech. Eng. Inst., Res. Rept., 459:75 pp. BIENIAWSKI, Z. T., 1966b. Stable and unstable fracture propagation in rock. S. African Council Sci. Ind. Res., Mech. Eng. Inst., Res. Rept., 493:24 pp. BIENIAWSKL Z. T., 1966c. Fracture velocity of rock. S. African Council Sci. Ind. Res., Mech. Eng. Inst., Res. Rept., 517:29 pp. BIENIAWSKI, Z. T., 1967. Mechanism of Brittle Fracture of Rock. Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 226 pp. BRACE, W. L., 1964. Brittle fracture of rocks. In: W. JUDD (Editor), State of Stress in the Earth's Crust. Elsevier, New York, N.Y., pp.ll 1-180. COOK, N. G. W., HOEK, E., PRETORIUS,J. P. G., ORTLEPP, W. D. and SALAMON,M. D. G., 1966. Rock mechanics applied to the study of rockbursts. J. S. African Inst. Mining. Met., 66(10): 436-528. CRAGGS, J. W., 1960. On the propagation of a crack in an elastic-brittle material. J. Mech. Phys. Solids, 8: 66-75. GRIFFITI-I, A. A., 1921, The phenomenon of rupture and flow in solids. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A, 221: 163-198. HOEK, E., 1965. Rock fracture under static stress conditions. S. African Council Sci. Ind. Res., Mech. Eng. Inst., Res. Rept., 383:159 pp. IRWIN, G. R., 1960. Fracture mechanics. In: N. N. GOODIERand N. N. HOFF (Editors), Structural Mechanics. Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y., pp.557-592. KAPLAN, M. F., 1961. Crack propagation and fracture of concrete. J. Am. Concrete Inst., 58(5): 591-610. NEUBER, H., 1937. Kerbspannungslehre; Grundlagen fiir gename Spannungsrechnung. Springer, Berlin-G6ttingen-Heidelberg, 113 pp. SCHARDIN, H., 1959. Velocity effects in fracture. In: B. L. AVERBACH(Editors) Fracture. Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp. 297-329. WINNE, D. H. and WUNDT, B. M., 1958. Application of the Griffith--Irwin theory of crack propagation to the bursting behaviour of discs. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 80: 16431651.

Eng. Geol., 2(3) (1967) 149-162