UNIT- V DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS Servo systems Hydro Mechanical servo systems, Electro hydraulic servo systems and

d proportional valves. Fluidics Introduction to fluidic devices, simple circuits, Introduction to Electro Hydraulic Pneumatic logic circuits, ladder diagrams, PLC applications in fluid power control. Fluid power circuits; failure and troubleshooting. UNIT- V DESIGN OF PNEUMATIC CIRCUITS
5.1.INTRODUCTION

Spectacular growth in engineering technology, requires very fine control in every .system. So far, what we discussed is the mechanical systems which does not provide high accuracy. For high accuracy, the recent trend is to integrate various control technology. But for finer and accurate positioning with improved control on speed, force, there is a need arising for electronic systems. In this chapter, we will discuss about the various control technologies used in hydraulic and pneumatic system (or achieving high accuracy. 5.2 Servo Systems Generally, hydraulic direction control valves are working with many actuating devices, especially solenoids. Solenoids can be operated under two states: shifted and not shifted. So, solenoid valve can be shifted open to allow flow or closed to block flow. But servo systems are able to precisely position the valve spool between the open and closed positions. This allows the flow to be throttled (metered) through the valve and provides precise flow control as well as direction control. Simply, servo systems are integration of DCV with FCV. 5.3 Types of Servo Systems There are two types of servo systems 1. Mechanical hydraulic servo systems 2. Electrohydraulic servo systems. In addition, proportional valves are also used. 5.3.1. Hydro Mechanical servo systems

Figure 5.1: Hydro mechanical servo valve

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Figure 5.1 illustrates the Mechanical- type servo valve. A mechanical servo valve is a direction control valve which applies a small input force applied to the valve spool into a large force actuating the cylinder with precise control. In this system, small input force is applied to the valve spool to shift it to right. So, the oil from the pump flows through the rod end of the cylinder through port P1. This retracts the hydraulic cylinder to the right. Now, the action of the feedback link shifts the sliding sleeve to the right until it blocks off the flow to the hydraulic cylinder. Thus, a given input motion produces a specific and controlled amount of output motion and this output is feedback to modify the input. This system is usually called as closed loop system. Most common application of Mechanical hydraulic servo valve is the hydraulic power steering system of automobiles as shown in figure 5.2,

Figure 5.2: Hydro mechanical servo system In this, the input device is the steering wheel which gives input signal to the valve sleeve to move and opens the port to allow the oil from pump to the actuator. The piston rod moves the wheel via the steering linkage. The valve spool is also attached to the linkage and thus moves it far enough to cut off the oil flow to the cylinder and hence stops the motion of the actuator. Thus the movement of the wheel closes the servo valve to stop motion at the desired point as determined by the piston of the steering wheel 5.3.2 Electro Hydraulic Servo Systems Hydro Mechanical systems suffer various inherent and their travelling mechanism is inconsistent. Very often prone to stick slip motion leads to sluggish operation and not suitable for remote control system. Hence, Electro hydraulic servo systems are important.

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Electro hydraulic servo valve shown in figure 5.3 consists of an electrical torque motor, a double nozzle pilot stage, and a sliding spool second stage. It finds application in earth moving vehicles, articulated arm drives, cargo-handling cranes, farm machinery, fire Turks etc.

Figure 5.3: Electro hydraulic servo valve

Torque motor consists of coils, pole pieces, magnets and an armature, the armature is supported for limited movement by a flexure tube. The flexure tube also provides a fluid seal between the hydraulic and electromagnetic portions of the value. The flapper attaches to the center of the armature. It extends down inside the flapper tube. Nozzle is provided at each side of the flapper so that flapper motion varies the nozzle openings. Pressurized hydraulic fluid is first filtered and then supplied to each nozzle through of the two inlet orifices located at the end of the filter. Differential pressure between the spool ends is varied by flapper motion between the nozzles. The four way valve spool directs the flow from the supply pressure port to either of the two outlets -to-load ports in an amount proportional to spool displacement. The spool contains flow metering slots in the control lands that are uncovered by spool motion. Spool movement deflects a feedback wire that applies a torque to the armature/flapper. Electric current in the torque motor coils produces either clockwise or counter clockwise torque on the armature, and thus the flapper gets displaced. The differential nozzle flow moves the spool to either right or left. The spool movement continues until the feedback torque counteracts the electromagnetic torque. At this point, the
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armature/flapper is returned to centre, so the spool stops and remains displaced until electrical input changes to a new level.

Figure 5.4: Electro hydraulic servo system Figure 5.4 shows the system using electro hydraulic servo valve. As already discussed, the spool position is proportional to an electrical signal applied to the torque motor coils. On changing the position of actuator, a feedback signal is transmitted by a rotary feedback device. This signal is compared electronically with the electrical input signal. If the output is not desired, an error signal is generated by the electronic summer .This error signal is amplified and fed to the torque motor to correct the actuator position. Feedback devices used here are transducers. 5.3.3 Proportional Valves Proportional valves are similar to servo valves but are used primarily as open-loop systems where as servo valves are closed loop systems providing feedback signal Figure 5.5 Shows the proportional control valve for controlling the force.

Figure 5.5. Proportional control valve

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It consists of variable force solenoid at one side and a spring to oppose its motion. It operates on the principle that the magnetic force generated within the solenoid coil depends on the current through the coil. At higher current input levels, the solenoid acts with more force. The greater the solenoid force, the farther the spring will deflect. Therefore, for each particular current input, there is a particular spool position. So the flow rate is proportional to the input current. The amount of spool overlap is an important aspect in a proportional valve. Spool overlap is the amount that the spool land overlaps the pressure port when in the closed neutral position. It is important because when the input is increased from zero and spool begins to shift; there will be no flow until the spool land begins to uncover the pressure port. 5.4 Fluidics -. Fluidics is the technology deals with the use of fluids in motions in components and circuit to perform sensing, logic, memory and timing control functions. They involve the effects of one fluid stream meeting another to change its direction of flow and the effect of a fluid stream sticking to a wall. They are rarely used in practical industrial applications. 5.4.1 Advantages of Fluidic Devices 1. Long life at less expensive as the absence of moving parts eliminates wear and tear. 2. They have unique sensing capability and environmental immunity. 3. Highly insensitive to temperature variations, vibration, spark hazards, nuclear Radiation, magnetic flux, mechanical shock and electrical noise. 4. Overloads can be easily tolerated after which, original operation can be restored. 5. High degree of reliability and no internal heat generation. 6. Fabrication can done with numerous materials at compact size. 5.4.2 Disadvantages of Fluidic Devices 1. Too slow response for sophisticated computer systems. 2. Numerous present fluidic devices require quiescent (standby) losses that is, continuous supply whether system is "on" or "off". 3. More theoretical and analytic knowledge is needed. 4. Air contamination may clog in the critical flow passage. 5.5 Introduction to Fluidic Devices Fluidic devices are non-moving fluid logic devices that switch a fluid, usually from one outlet of the device to another outlet. The output of fluidic devices is either ON or OFF as it is rapidly switched from one state to the other by the application of a control signal (fluid-air). Basically, fluidic devices was one of the earliest fluidic elements developed, which works on the basic principle of wall attachment phenomena termed as Coanda effect'. This wall attachment phenomena was first discovered by Hungarian scientist Henri Coanda in 1932 which was later used on U.S Army"s Diamond laboratories by R. E. Bowles, R. W. Warren and B.M Horton to design a logic system. 5.5.1 Coanda Effect A free jet of air from the supply port is admitted into a confined region or orifice at a velocity high enough to produce turbulent flow. This turbulent jet continues to flow in a given
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direction and draws air from its surrounding. As a result, a flow is established along the walls of the confined region as shown in figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: Coanda Effect

If the volume of air drawn on one side is more than that of other volume, a low pressure area is created at the nozzle exit. Any flow will takes place towards low resistance path and thus the low pressure area attracts the free jet. This is because; the atmospheric pressure (higher than low pressure area) forces the free jet to low pressure area to cling to that surface. This clinging action continues until a small supply of air is given to the low pressure area. This small amount of air supplied will relieve the wall attraction from the jet and resumes its normal uninterrupted flow path. Thus, when a signal is given to fluidic devices, its output can be rapidly switched from one state to the other. This wall attraction phenomena is termed as Coanda effect. Some of the devices employing Coanda effect are explained below. 5.5.2 Bistable FlipFlop A bistable flip flop logic control device is obtained if a splitter is added to basic wall attachment device (device employing Coanda effect). This device decides as to which of the two output ports will deliver the power stream. 'Bi-stable' means two distinct separate outputs, such as off-and-on or high-and-low. Flip flop is a basic memory device whose state can be changed with an control pulse. Thus, Bistable flip flop is an digital fluidic memory device whose state can be changed from say high to low with an control pulse.

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Figure 5.7: Basic Bistable Flip Flop Figure 5.7 shows the internal flow configuration of bistable flip flop. When compressed air is applied at supply port, the moving turbulent stream will cling itself to appropriate wall and provide a flow at the corresponding output port say here 02 The supply pressure should be between 20 to 70 kpa. Now, when a positive pressure is applied to control port C1, the flow changes its direction to the opposite wall and provide a flow at the output port 01, Control signals are often provided by sensors such as back pressure switch and need not be stable (continuous). Because, once the main flow has attached itself to a wall, it remains clinked until another control signal is applied. For positive switching, the control pressure signal must be between 10 to 30 percent of the supply pressure. This operation is illustrated in the truth table in which '0' represents the absence of signal and ' 1' represents the presence of signal. With the control signal at C1 port 'ON' and C2 'OFF', the output 0 at output port '01' is ' 1' and hence no output at'02 '. After which, if' C1' is turned' OFF' , the device remains in stable position at '01 ' as the control signal need not be continuous. Conversely if the control signal 'C2 ' is 'ON' and 'C1' is OFF, the output at O2 is 'ON' and hence no output at 01 when the signal at 'C2 ' is removed, the device remains in stable position. Thus, the device has two stable positions and hence the name 'Bistable'. The output is in determined, when the supply pressure port is 'ON' without applying control signal at any port. On
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the other hand, if both the control signal is applied simultaneously, the supply pressure splits and there is no useful output at any of two output ports. 5.5.3.Monostable Devices One main drawback of the bistable devices is that they do not provide all the required control features in a complete system. This drawback can be overcome by using monostable device. Monostable devices are slight asymmetrical whereas bistable devices are symmetrical. Further, monostable devices require continuous control signals to maintain their stability. There are two monostable devices. They are 1. OR /NOR GATE 2. AND/NAND GATE 5.5.3.1. OR /NOR GATE It is a mono stable fluidic devices that serves two functions namely OR and NOR type. In OR type, the output port is pressurized, if anyone or more combination of the control ports are pressurized. In NOR type, the output port is pressurized, if none of the control ports are pressurized. Figure 5.8 shows the flow arrangement of Mono stable 'OR/NOR' type device. The design shows that the output O1 is pressurized, if any one of three control signals are pressurize or any combination of these control signals are pressurized. The design has output O2 as pressurized, if none of signals are pressurized. It may be noticed that the .above statement holds good, when the supply port Ps is pressurized. The output O1represents the OR output and that O2 represents the NOR output.

Figure 5.8: OR/NOR fluidic devices

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5.5.3.2 AND/NAND Gate Devices It is a mono stable fluidic devices that folds two kinds of functions namely AND and NAND type. In AND type, the output port is pressurized, if all the control ports are pressurized. In NAND type, the output port is pressurized, if all the control ports are not pressurized.

Figure 5.9: AND / NAND fluidic devices

Figure 5.9 shows the internal flow arrangement of AND/NAND mono stable gate device. The design has two outputs in which O1 represents AND type and that O2 as NAND type. Output portO1 is pressurized if all the control ports are pressurized. Output port O2' is pressurized if all the control ports are not pressurized. It must be kept in mind that, the supply port (Ps) must always be pressurized for all the above conditions.

5.5.4 Diaphragm Amplifier Generally, the output fluid from the fluidic elements has very low pressure and insufficient to actuate the valve. Hence, some special devices are used to increase the output pressure. Such a device is called diaphragm amplifier.

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Figure 5.10: Diaphragm amplifier

Figure 5.10 shows the simple arrangement of diaphragm. It consists of a large diaphragm which moves up and down to pressurize the output port. A pilot port is provided to give control signal to the diaphragm through the orifice provided in the valve body. Pressure is directly connected to the output port. Normally, the fluid enters through the pressure port and leaves at output port. A control signal is given to the diaphragm through the pilot port. This signal causes the diaphragm to move up and closes the vent. So, the pressure of the pneumatic line passes through output port and continues further downstream .If no control signal is applied, the diaphragm remains on its seat and the supply pressure is exhausted to vent and thus no output is obtained. 5.6 Simple Fluidic Circuit Fluidic devices can be used to control the continuous reciprocation of a pneumatic cylinder. Figure 5.11 shows such a circuit using a bi stable flip flop. Here, start and alarm button are used as back pressure sensors to allow the O.5bar nozzle restricted air supply to reach the control ports of the flip flop with adequate strength to switch it. When the start button is momentarily pressed, the flip flop give pilot signal to valve V1 using 0.5 bars air from the compressor. This extends the cylinder and touches the normally closed limit switch. When the limit switch is actuated, a pilot signal is given to flip flop through the shuttle valve using 0.5 bar air to switch it. This actuates the valve V2 by a pilot signal from flip flop and the cylinder is retracted. Panic button or alarm button is provided to override the air limit switch. By pressing the alarm button, cylinder can be retracted instantly.

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Figure 5.11: Fluidic circuit

5.7 Introduction to Electro Hydraulic/ Pneumatic Logic Circuits Electrically control devices play a big role in the application of fluid power equipment. By using electrical signals, machines can be automatically controlled from computers. Use of electrical devices provides ease control and improves overall control flexibility of fluid power systems. There are various electrical devices used in fluid power systems. There are switches, solenoids, relays and timers. Switches are simple actuation devices used to make or break the circuit. These can be either normally open (NO) design or normally closed (NC) design. In a normal open' switch, no electric current can flow through the switching element until the switch is actuated. In a normally closed switch, electric current can flow through the switching element until the switch is actuated. Switches are generally four types: push button switches, limit switches, pressure switches and temperature switches. 5.7.1.1 Push Button Switches Use of push button in complex machines can start to perform complex operation. They are mainly for starting and stopping the machine operations and for manual override in case of emergency. Figure 5.12 shows the push button switch in their various designs.

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Figure 5.12 Push button switches 5.7.1.1 Limit Switches Limit switches indicates the reach of Actuators between two extremes by opening and closing the circuits. They perform similar to push-button switches but mechanically actuated and not by manual. Figure 5.13 shows the various types of limit switches.

Figure 5.13: Limit switches The limit switch is actuated by cam, plunger, levers or rollers when the cylinder is in fully extended / retracted position. 5.7.1.3 Pressure Switches Variation in system pressure opens or closes the contacts of pressure switch. They have a high-pressure setting and low-pressure setting. For example, high pressure setting stops the pump and low-pressure setting starts the pump. Figure 5.14 shows the symbol of pressure switch.

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5.7.1.4 Temperature Switches

Variation in temperature from its predetermined one automatically closes or opens an electric signal. Temperature switches can be used to protect a fluid power system from serious damage and prevents excessive buildup in oil temperature. The symbols for temperature switches are shown in figure 5.15.

(a) Temperature SwitchNormally open

(b) Temperature Switchnormally closed

Figure 5.15: Temperature switches 5.7.2 Solenoids

Solenoids are electromechanical electromagnets that convert the electrical power into a mechanical force to operate fluid power valves remotely. It consists of a coil wrapped around a movable iron core (Armature). When the solenoid is energized, the magnetic force created causes the armature to shift the valve spool. The symbol for solenoid is shown in figure 5.16.

Figure 5.16. The symbol for solenoid

5.7.3 Relays
A relay is an electrically actuated switch which open or close when its corresponding coil is energized. These relays are commonly used for energizing and de-energizing the solenoids as they require high current to operate. This low voltage circuit can be used to energize relay coils that control high-voltage contacts used to

open and close circuits containing the solenoids. When relay coils are energized, the contacts that are normally closed will open and vice versa. They are usually spring loaded to assume their normal position when the coil is de-energized. Figure 5.17 shows the symbol of electrical relay contacts.

Figure 5.17 Electrical Relay Contacts Use of relays permit interlocking capability to avoid accidental actuation of two solenoids at the opposite ends of a valve spool, which prevents the burnout of one or both of the solenoids. 5.7.4 Timer

Figure 5.18: Timer symbols Figure 5.18 shows the symbol for timer used in electrical control circuits. Timer are used to produce time delay (dwell) from the instant of actuation to the closing of contacts during the working cycle. Applied hydraulics& pneumatics /unit-5/R.GANESA MOORTHY.ASSO.PROF/MECH Page 13

5.8 Electro hydraulic/Pneumatic Circuits

While drawing electro hydraulic/pneumatic hydraulic/pneumatic systems can be shown parallel. circuits, both electrical systems and

5.8.1 Continuous Cylinder Reciprocation using Pressure Switch In this circuit, normally open pressure switches are used to control the systems as shown in figure 5.19. When the switch I-SW is closed, the cylinder reciprocates continuously until I-SW is opened. The sequence of operation is as follows: Assume solenoid A last energized and thus the cylinder is in fully extended position. When I-SW is closed, the pressure builds up to actuate the pressure switch 1-PS and energizes the solenoid B to shift the valve.

Figure 5.19: Continuous cylinder reciprocation using pressure switch Now, the pump is turned on and oil flows from the pump to the rod end of the cylinder. When the cylinder is retracted fully, the pressure will build up to actuate 2-PS pressure switch. In the mean times, IPS has been de actuated to de energize SOL B. The closing of contacts of2- PS energizes solenoid A to begin once again the extending stroke of the cylinder and thus the hydraulic cylinder is continuously reciprocating.

5.8.2 Cylinder Control using Limit Switches Figure 5.20 shows the substitute of pressure switches to control the operation of double acting hydraulic cylinder. It is very similar to the previous circuit in which the pressure switch is replacing limit switch (Normally open).

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Figure 5.20: Cylinder control using limit switches

Assume solenoid B is last energized and thus the cylinder is in fully retracted position. At this position, pressure builds up to actuate the limit switch l-LS and thus solenoid A is energized. Hence, the oil flows from the pump to the blank end of the cylinder and thus cylinder extends. When the cylinder is in fully extended position, pressure builds up to actuate the limit switch 2LS and thus solenoid B is energized. Thus the flow goes to the rod end of the cylinder to retract the piston. 5.8.3 Control of a Cylinder using a Single Limit Switch Figure 5.21 shows the control of double acting hydraulic cylinder using single solenoid valve and a single limit switch.

Figure 5.21: Cylinder control using single limit switch When the START button is momentarily pressed, the cylinder extends as coil 1-CR is energized, which closes both sets of contacts of 1-CR.? Thus, the upper l-CR set of contacts serves to keep coil l-CR energized even though the start button is released. The lower set of contacts closes the energize solenoids A to extend the cylinder. When 1-LS is actuated by the

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piston rod, it opens to de energize coil-CR. This reopens the contacts of 1-CR to de energize the solenoid A. The valve returns to the spring-offset mode to retract the cylinder. This closes the contacts of I-LS, but coil l-CR is not energized because the contacts of lCR and the START button have return to their normally open position. It stops the cylinder movement however the cycle repeats when each time the START button is momentarily pressed. The STOP button is actually a panic button which is pressed to retract the cylinder instantly while extending. 5.8.4 Dual Cylinder Sequence Circuits Figure 5.22 shows a electro pneumatic circuit for the sequence operation of two cylinders. When the START button is momentarily pressed, SOL A is momentarily energized to shift valve V1 to extend the cylinder 1. When 1-LS is actuated, so LC is energized which shifts valve V2 into its left flow path mode. This extends cylinder 2 until it actuates 2-LS. As a result, SOL B is energized to shift V1 into its right flow path mode. As cylinder 1begins to retract, it de actuates 1-LS which de energizes SOL C. The valve V2 comes into spring offset mode and cylinder 1and 2 retracts together and thus the cycle is Completed.

Figure 5.22: Dual-Cylinder Sequencing Circuit 5.8.5 Dual Cylinder Sequence Circuit using Relay Contacts Figure 5.23 shows the dual cylinder sequencing circuit using relay contacts.

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Figure 5.23: Dual cylinder sequencing circuit using relays When the start button is pressed momentarily, contact relay 1-CR gets energized which in turn energizes the solenoid A to allow the flow from pump to the blank end of the cylinder through valve V1 Hence the cylinder extends, Actuation of limit switch 1-LS, de energizes the solenoid A and energizes the solenoid B. The limit switch 1-LS used here is a double pole single throw switch. It actuation opens the holding circuit for relay 1-CR and simultaneously closes the holding circuit for relay2-CR. This returns valve V1 to its spring offset mode and switches valve V2 into its solenoid actuated mode and hence cylinder I retracts and cylinder 2 extends. When 2-LS are actuated, solenoid B is de-energized to return valve V2 to its spring offset mode to retract cylinder 2. Stop button pressing retracts both cylinders instantly. 5.8.6 Electrical Control of Regenerative Circuit Figure 5.24 depicts the electrical control of regenerative circuit. A regenerative circuit speeds up the extending operation of a hydraulic cylinder. When switch l-SW is manually placed into the extend position, solenoid A gets energized and extends the cylinder.
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When extending, oil from the cylinder rod pass joins to the incoming oil from the pump through check valve V3 to provide rapid extension of cylinder. On extending, oil pressure builds up to close the pressure switch 1-PS and thus blocks the flow until the desired pressure is reached. This energizes the coil-CR and solenoid C to vent the oil from rod end directly back to the reservoir through valve V2 thus the cylinder extends slowly as it drives the load. Relay coil 1-CR holds the solenoid C as energized during the slow extension of the cylinder to prevent any fluttering of the pressure switch. This would occur because fluid pressure drops at the cylinder blank end at the completion of regenerative cycle and switch the pressure switch 1-PS to energize and de-energize continuously. When the switch l-SW is placed in the retract position solenoid B becomes energized and de energizing 1-CR and solenoid C. Thus cylinder is retracted in the normal fashion. When the switch l-SW is put into the unload position, all the solenoids and the relay coils are de energized and returns the valve V1 in its spring centered position to unload the pump.

Figure 5.24: Electrical Control of Regenerative Circuit 5.9 PLC Applications in Fluid Power Control Fluid power system requires controllers that are capable to generate and follow the specified trajectories and perform logic control functions. The main function of controller is used to execute an efficient control sequence by using logically developed processing sequences. This control in a proper sequence has traditionally been performed by timers, switches, relays, counters, and similar hard wired devices based on mechanical, electromechanical, and pneumatic principles. In 1968, PLCs were introduced to replace these hardwired devices. PLC's are made from primary digital modules such as counters, registers and memory and arithmetic units along with a small instruction set suitable for industrial control applications. PLCs are similar to computers but computers are optimized for calculation and display task. PLC's are optimized for control tasks and the industries environment.

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5.9.1 Features of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) PLC's offers the following features 1. Rugged in construction. 2. Faster in response time 3. Easily programmed in a understandable way. 4. PLCs can replace hundreds a relays and occupy significantly less space. 5. The circuit logic can be easily altered without rewiring. 6. It has no moving parts or contacts to wear out. 7. The implementation is flexible and scalable. 8. They can operate in the adverse condition of the factory floor especially with increased temperature and humidity. 5.9.2 Definition of PLC

Figure 5.25: Programmable logic controller Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specially designed digital operating microprocessorbased controller that uses a programmable memory for internal storage of instructing and for implementing functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. Figure 5.25 shows the basic Structure of a PLC.

5.10 Basic Components of a PLC PLC consists of three basic components as shown in figure 5.26. These are 1) Central Processing Unit (CPU) 2) Programming device 3) Input / Output modules (I /O M)

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Figure 5.26: Elements of PLC 5.10.1 Central Processing Unit Like computer, the CPU is said to be the heart of the PLC. The CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It processes the signals received from input module and generates controlling signals for the system. The information carried within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals. It consists of the following units 5.10.1.1 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) This unit performs data manipulation and arithmetic and logical operations on input variable data and determines the proper state of the output variables. The arithmetic operation includes addition, subtraction etc., and logical operations include AND, OR, NOT and Exclusive - OR. 5.10.1.2 Memory Unit The memory unit contains the program stored in it. These progran1s were written with the control actions to be executed by the microprocessor for the given input. During entering and editing including debugging, the program is stored in the temporary storages called Random Access Memory (RAM). Once the program completely finished (free from errors), it may be burned into a ROM. When the ROM is plugged into the PLC, the device is ready to place into a service in the industrial environment. Memory may be either volatile type or non-volatile type. 1. Volatile Memory Volatile memory or temporary memory or Application memory is the user memory, where the user can enter and edit the program. Shortly, it stores the data files and programs that can be altered by the user. Volatile memory will lose all its programmed contents if operating
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power is removed or lost. It is therefore, necessary to provide a battery backup power to all times. One type of volatile memory is RAM, Random Access Memory, which moves Read / Write memory. Information stored in RAM can be retrieved or "read". "Write" indicates that the program can be developed or written into the memory by the user. "Random Access" refers to the ability of any locations in the memory to be accessed or used. 2. Non-Volatile Memory Non-volatile memory or permanent memory or system memory is (used as)a system memory that stores the monitor or booting programs. This is usually programmed and supplied by its manufacturer. This controls the operation of PLC. It does not loses its content during power failure. Hence, it does not require any battery. The ROM memory offers the CPU to use only fixed amount of data. The different types of ROMs are 1. PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory (cannot be altered). 2. EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (Altered by erasing with UV light source). 3. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (Erases by electrical signals). 5.10.2 Programming Device The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the CPU. The program is first developed in the programming device and transferred them into the memory unit. Shortly, the programming unit allows the programmer to enter and edit the program to be executed. Programming device may be either in a simple form or advanced system In its simplest form, it can be a hand-held device with a keyboard for a program entry and a display device (LED) for viewing the program steps. Advanced system uses a common I/O unit as a personal computer to write, view and edit the program .A major advantage of using a computer is that the program can be stored on the hard disk or a floppy disk and copies easily made. The disadvantage is that the programming often tends to be not so user friendly. Hand-held programming consoles will normally contain enough memory to allow the unit to retain programs while being carried from one place to another. 5.10.3 Input/output Modules The input modules receive information from external devices and send to processor and communicate the processed information to the external devices through output modules. The input devices are mechanical switches, photo sensors, temperature sensors, flow sensors, other type of sensors, keypads etc, The output device may include solenoid valves, relays, contactors, lights, horns, heating elements, fans, motor starter, signal amplifiers, conveyor belt, lift, automatic door etc., I/O devices are also called peripheral devices. The input signal should be low level dc logic voltage.
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In case, the input voltage is A.C, a bridge rectifier, converts the A.C to D.C and resistors drops the voltage to the required level. If D.C, only resistors are used to drop the voltage. 5.11 PLC Operation When the power is supplied to a PLC, the operation is not simultaneous for the entire ladder diagram and is not continuous as there is a time delay to scan every input. The PLC operation consists of two modes. 1) Update inputs and outputs termed as I/O scan mode. 2) Solve the ladder called as program scan mode or Execution mode. 5.11.1 I/O Scan Mode During this mode, the processor updates all the Inputs and outputs. The time required for this depends on the processor speed. I/O updating means that all input states are recorded from the input unit and all output states are transferred to the output unit. This accomplished by using I/O image registers placed aside in the PLC memory by specific address. 5.11.2 Program Scan Mode During this mode, the PLC starts executing the commands in the user program. The processor evaluates each rung of the ladder diagram program that is being executed sequentially, starting from first rung and proceeding to the last rung. As a rung is evaluated, the last known state of each switch and relay contact in the rung is considered, and if any TRUE to the output device is detected, then the output is indicated to be energized - i.e., set to ON. At the end of the ladder diagram, the I/O mode is entered again, and all output devices are provided with the ON/OFF state determined from execution of the ladder diagram program. All inputs are sampled, and the execution mode starts again. 5.12 PLC Programming (Ladder diagram) The programming commonly used with PLCs is ladder programming. This involves each program task being specified as through a rung of a ladder. Thus such a rung could specify that the state of switches A and B, the inputs, be examined and if A and B both are closed then a solenoid, the output is energized and vice versa. The sequence followed by a PLC when carrying out a program can be as follows: Scan the inputs associated with one rung of the ladder program. Solve the logic operation involving those inputs. Set/Reset the outputs for that rung. Move on the next rung and repeat the operations 1,2,3. Move on the next rung and repeat the operations 1,2,3. Thus, A PLC is continuously running through its program and updating it as a result of Input signals. Each such loop is termed as cycle. This continues until the program is complete. The cycle is shown in figure 5.27. PLC came into existence, where the programmed logic is used
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to program a system using internal relays, counters, timers etc., Electrical diagrams may also use a ladder format with the power connected to the left side and the ground connected to the right. It is a special standard schematic representation of the physical components arrangement and its way of connections made between them. It is so called because the circuit devices are connected in parallel across the AC line form something looks like a ladder as shown in figure 5.28. It consists of two vertical lines called power rails or uprights. Circuits are connected along with their devices and components as horizontal lines between the two vertical lines known as rungs.

Figure 5.27: Program sequence 5.13 Fluid Power Circuit

Figure 5.28. Ladder diagram

Figure 5.29 shows the fluid power circuit for two cylinder sequencing operation in pneumatics. This system is meant to control a pneumatic system with double-solenoid controlled valves and two cylinders A and B. Limit switches are used to detect the limits of piston rod movement in the cylinders. The sequence is the extension of the piston rod in A, followed by the extension of piston rod in B, then retraction of piston rod in B and finally the retraction of piston rod in A to complete the cycle. Figure 5.29 shows the ladder diagram for cylinder sequencing application. An internal relay can be used to switch between groups of outputs to give the form of control for pneumatic cylinders. This method of control is known as cascaded control. When the start switch is close, the internal relay is energized; as a result, the solenoid is energized to extend the piston rod of cylinder A. As soon as the piston reaches the limit switch a+, the cylinder B tends to extend its piston rod. This when touches the limit switch b+, the relay is energized. As a result, the solenoid B- is energized and the piston B retracts. As the movement

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of this' B' piston is detected by limit switch, solenoid A-is energized and the piston in cylinder A retracts.

Figure 5.29 Fluid Power Circuit for two cylinder sequence operation

Figure 5.30: Ladder diagram

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5.14 Failure and Trouble Shooting of Fluid Power Systems Trouble shooting means an organized and systematic study of the problem and a logical approach to the difficulty faced in a system. To trouble shoot a system, one should know the system completely, the exact function and effect of each component associated with the system. Troubleshooting by trial and error method leads to more time consumption and expensive also. Hence, troubleshooting should be done properly and permanent remedies should be suggested. The following is a list of fluid power system operating problems and their probable causes. 1. Low or Erratic pressure a) Air in the system b) Clogged inlet strainer or suction line c) Loose or damaged inlet connections to pump d) Relief valve not properly seated. e) Lack across DCV ports. f) Misalignment of pump and drive unit. g) Defective or warned actuator h) Defective or loose seals. i) Defective or warned pump j) Defective pressure gauge. k) Pressure relief valve set too low. l)Piston sticking in the main body. 2. No pressure in the system a) Pump not turning in the right direction b) Low oil level in the reservoir. c) Ruptured hydraulic line (No resistance) d) Defective pressure relief valve e) Broken pump shaft f) Inlet to pump clogged. g) Input power not coupled properly. h) Pump housing bolts not properly torque. 3. Actuator fails to develop full speed a) Pump operates too slowly b) Not shifting DCV or defective. c) Too low system pressure d) Air in system e) Wrong viscosity fluid f) Defective actuator g) Excessive internal leakage. h) Valve not seating properly. 4. Slow or Erratic motion of an actuator a) Air in system b) High viscosity fluid
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c) Defective pump d) Too small capacity pump e) Excessive leakage through valves and actuators. f) A defective FCV and check valve. g) Air breather in reservoir blocked. h) Low oil level in the reservoir. 5. Actuator fails to move a) DCV fails to shift. b) Pump control defective c) Mechanical obstruction d) Check valve in backwards. e) Sequence valve not externally drained. t) Improper spring in control valve. g) Insufficient power. h) Control sticks open or closed. 6. Excessive noise in operation a) Air in pwnp inlet line. b) Misalignment of pwnp and drive unit. c) Excessive pump speed. d) Chattering relief valve e) Defective pump/actuator t) High viscosity oil g) Turbulent flow characteristics. h) Vibration of system components. 7. Overheating of hydraulic fluid a) Cooling system defective or inadequate b) Undersized components or connectors and conductors c) Incorrect/Dirty fluid d) Low oil level in the reservoir e) Pump operating too fast f) System overloaded g) Air breather too small or blocked h) Continuous operation of pressure relief valve 8. Air in system a) Defective seals/ leaks at joints. b) Loose inlet to pump c) Low oil level in the reservoir d) Loose pump casing e) Too long suction line. t) Replenishing pump defective.
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Two Mark Questions and Answers 1. What is the function of servo system? Generally, hydraulic direction control valves are working with many actuating devices, especially solenoids. Solenoids can be operated under two states: shifted and not shifted. So, solenoid valve can be shifted open to allow flow or closed to block flow. But servo systems are able to precisely position the valve spool between the open and closed positions. This allows the flow to be throttled (metered) through the valve and provides precise flow control as well as direction control. Simply, servo systems are integration of DC V with FCV. 2. Why servo systems are called closed loop systems? For every output, the system provides feedback signal and accordingly the input signal is changed to get the desired motion. Hence servo valves are called as closed loop systems. 3. Define Spool overlap. Spool overlap is defined as an amount that the spool land overlaps the pressure port when the valve is in closed neutral position. 4. Define fluidics. Fluidics is the technology deals with the use of fluids in motions in components and circuit to perform sensing, logic, memory and timing control functions. They involve the effects of one fluid stream meeting another to change its direction of flow and the effect of a fluid stream sticking to a wall. They are rarely used in practical industrial applications. 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fluidic devices? Advantages of Fluidic Devices 1. Long life at less expensive as the absence of moving parts eliminates wear and tear. 2. They have unique sensing capability and environmental immunity. 3. Highly insensitive to temperature variations, vibration, spark hazards, nuclear radiation, magnetic flux, mechanical shock and electrical noise. 4. Overloads can be easily tolerated after which, original operation can be restored. 5. High degree of reliability and no internal heat generation. 6. Fabrication can do with numerous materials at compact size. Disadvantages of Fluidic Devices 1. Too slow response for sophisticated computer systems. 2. Numerous present fluidic devices require quiescent (standby) losses that is, continuous supply whether system is "on" or "off". 3. More theoretical and analytic knowledge is needed. 4. Air contamination may clog in the critical flow passage.

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6. Define fluidic devices, how it is used in fluid power systems. Fluidic devices are non-moving fluid logic devices that switches a fluid usually from one outlet of the device to another outlet. The output of the fluidic devices is either ON (or) OFF as it is rapidly switched from one state to the other by the application of a control signal. (fluid-air). 7. Explain wall attraction phenomena. When a signal is given to fluidic devices, its output can be rapidly switched from one state to the other. This wall attraction phenomena is termed as Coanda effect. 8. Define Bi-stable flip-flop. 'Bi-stable' means two distinct separate outputs, such as off-and-on or high-and-low.Flip flop is a basic memory device whose state can be changed with a control pulse. Bistable flip flop is a digital fluidic memory device whose state can be changed from say high to low with a control pulse. 9. What is diaphragm amplifier? The output fluid from the fluidic elements has very low pressure and insufficient to actuate the valve. Hence, some special devices are used to increase the output pressure. Such a device is called diaphragm amplifier. 10. Explain the principle of solenoid. Solenoids are electromechanical electromagnets that convert the electrical power into a mechanical force to operate fluid power valves remotely. It consists of a coil wrapped around a movable iron core (Armature). When the solenoid is energized, the magnetic force created causes the armature to shift the valve spool. The symbol for solenoid is shown in figure.

11. Define PLC. A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specially designed digital operating microprocessor-based controller that uses a programmable memory for internal storage of instructing and for implementing functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. 12. Draw the block diagram of PLC.

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13. Define relay. (Au-Dce 2004, APR 2006) A relay is an electrically actuated switch which open or close when its corresponding coil is energized. These relays are commonly used for energizing and de-energizing the solenoids as they require high current to operate. 14. What is ladder diagram? It is a special standard schematic representation of the physical components arrangement and its way of connections made between them. It is so called because the circuit devices are connected in parallel across the AC line form something looks like a ladder. Review Questions 1. Explain the various types of servo system. 2. Explain the working of proportional valve with neat sketch. 3. Explain wall attraction phenomena in detail. 4. Describe the various types of fluidic devices with neat diagram. 5. Explain in detail the operation of Bistable flip flop with simple sketches. 6. Illustrate the various electrical devices used in fluid power. 7. Brief the operation of diaphragm amplifier used in fluid power systems. 8. Explain any two electro hydraulic/pneumatic circuits in detail. 9. Explain the elements of PLC using block diagram. 10. Explain the various maintenance and troubleshooting parameters with the remedies in Detail.

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