0

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logically,'valcle sz a i c l'.w h a t i s r n yp r o b l e m ? To[ind Curhy. W h a t c l o I k n o w a b o u tC a r h y ? Nothing.' 'That c l o e s n 's t o u n cs ' arvirr l o g o o c l ,M saicl. ' B r " ritt i s o n l y h a l l o f t h e p r o b l e r nG . r a n t e ctlh a t I k n o w n o t l r i n g about Cathy,what ckt I know about Finding'/' ' W h a t ? 'M a r v i n askecl. 'lt happens t l r a t I k n o we v e r y t h i n g a b o u tF i n c l i n g , ' alclez V s a i ctl r i u r r ' F o r p h a n t l yg , e s t u r i nw g i t h h i sg r a c e f utle r r a c o t t h aancls. i t h a p p e nts h a tI a t n a n e x p e r ti n t h e T h e o r yo f S e a r c h e s ! '
Robcrt Shccklcy lVlirtd.swrrlt

'corrsicle r it

Although the readeris not expected to know anythingaboutnonstandard modelsof arrithmetic, we wil/ assurne a little krrowledge of mocleltheory zrnd a ri th me ti c (o r ra th e r,recur sion theor y.)The pur pose of thischapteris t o r evi e wth i s b a ckg ro u n cl m ater ial.But fir st, a few gener alr em ar ks. I n t h e t e x t , ' s . t . ' i sa n a b b r e v i a t i ofn o r ' s u c ht h a t ' . ' i f f i s a n a t r b r e v i a t i o n f o r ' if a n d o n l y i f', a n d I denotes the encl( or absence) of a pr oof. The e x e r ci sezrre s p a rt o f th e te xt,so shouldbe r ead,ancl pr efer ably attempted ! Alt "' agzrinst an exercise indicates that the resr-rlt will be r.rsecl later in the t e x t , a * i n d i ca te s th a t the exer ciseis slightly har der than usual. To p r e ve n tp o ssi b l e cri ti ci sm o n gr ounds of unfair ness, of thesetwo categor ies e x e rci se s u su a l l yh a ve h i n ts, either in the wor ding of the questionor in brackets afterwards. Some exercisesrequire some extra background knowledge(from algebraor set theory, for example).Theseare intended only for readerswith this background. Our metatheory can be taken to be ZFC throughout, and our sett h e ore ti cn o ta ti o ni s sta n dar d. iir e The only set- theor etic r esults neecled e l e me n ta try re su l tso f ca rdinerar l ithm etic,such as r ct:r c for an infinite c a r di n a r. l C a rd i n a ln u mb er s ar e thoughtof as initialor clinals in the usua l wzry. W e u s e t h e a l e p hn o t a t i o nN , , , N , , . . , N . , , . . . f o r c a r r d i n a lo sr, ( 0t,. . . , ( 0,1, ( v e ry o cca si o n a l l y) th e a l ter native notationo) u, . .. when we w a n t to e mp h a si ze th e o rd i nalcor r esponding Thus c,- r ,, to a givencar dinal. c a n b e th o u g h to f a s th e l e astor ( ler - type oi car clinalit y of a well- or cler ing
No.

evetlclocs O n e fi n a l (n o n -ma th e n ratical) r er nar k:in lvlintlswop,VL\l( lez t u a ll v fi rrdC a th v!

Buckgrottnd 0 . 1 B A C K G R O U N DM O D E L T H E O R Y

We w i l l a ssu me th e re aderhassom ebasicknowleclge of nr oclel theor y .In althougho ther fa ct,Ja n e B ri cl g e 's b ook ( Br idge I9l7) is cluitesir fficient, in nr clclel theor y ( for te xts a re a l so su i ta b le,such as books specializing 2 iincl parts of Chzrpters Chapter I zrrtcl example,Changancll(eisler 1913, ( for logicin gener al fr om booksaboutmathem zitical 3 ), o rce rta i nch a p te rs A1 and A2) . The pur pose of thissc c ti or r Chapter s e xa mp l e B , a rw i se 1 9 77, r esults that we s hal l i s to fi x so men o ta ti onand statethe model- tl' r eor etic re q u i rel a te r. language, anclso consist of a notr for a fir st- or der Mo d e l sa re stru ctu r es empty set (called the clomain)togetherwith various relatiorts, functions, by the ( callecl constcutt.s) We . shalldenotem oclels e l e me nts a n d p ri vi l e g e d n f M w i l l a l s ob e M , N " K , L , . . . . I f M i s a m o d e lt h e nt h e c l o t n a i o letters of the the denotes cardinality M, card(M), cardinality of denotedM. The domain of.M. of elementsof a model (popularly called tuples) are Finite sequences i s a s e q u e n co sf t h e ef e l e m e n to denoted a , 6 , . . . . T h u s' a e M ' m e a n s ' a domainof NI of finite length' i.,,. r: i! mo d el theor y is the study of the idlbipfiy betwee nthe T ra d i ti o n a l l y, All firststructureof a model and its first-orderlanguage. mathematical logicttl symbols: following in this book containthe order languages ' a n d ' , ' o r ' ,a l l d ' n o t ' ) :A , y , - T ; Boolean o p e r a t i o n(s e q u a l i ty:: ; q u a n ti fi e rs: 3, V;
v a r i a b l e s " iV 1 V 1 1V r . . . V i . . . i

( ); b ra cke ts: together with a nonlogical symbol for each function, relation, and consta n t. (N o te th a t e q uality is alwayspr esent.)In pr acticewe sha l l us e ds ( w h i c h s h o u l db e c o n s i d e r e a ( e t c . )a s v a r i a b l e s x,l,z,Lt1u,w,. differentstylebracketssuchas { } and [ ] in v,s) and occasionally suitable formulasand sentences. placeof ( ) when writing first-orcler > and the ' ther e existsa uni que' and < - +, symbols, T h e i mp l i ca ti o n in the usualway as the followingshor thands : symb o l ,3 !, a re i n tro duced E--- ?p for E e l P for A l n p (x) for -lEV rp; ( qnr !) A( r P- - - E) ; AVy( tp( y) - y :t) ) . lx( t1t( x)

-l that is m or e binc l i ng a re o fte n o mitteclwith the conventions B ra cke ts than --+ ancl<+. Notice totl than A or V, which in turn are more bincling for al l fr ee by substitutingy th e u seo f V (i l to me an' thefor m ulaobtainecl
. rt alterllativc synrboo l l ' t h e l a n g u a g eA w c a f e t h i n k i n go f c a c h v a r i a b l ea s a s e p a r a t e "'FIere ' ', s" " ' ( i ' s ) . , a n d a n d t h i n k o l v , a s t h c s t r i n go l s y t t t b o lv i s t o h a v ct w o s y m b o l s v approach

Baclcground mocleltheory

o c c urre n ce o s f x i n t1 t(x)' .W e also em ploy the notationsuAj' = ,g,and f f i = 1 r l , f o r ( r p , A ( r p r A... / \ ( q , , ) . . . ) ) a n c l( r p , V @ 4 V . . . V @ ' , , ) .. . ) ) - T( r :.r ) . r e s pccti ve l y, a n clcl fte nw ri te /*s in placeof l l & 1i s a stru ctu re l o r th e fir st- or der langLnge Jl, E( x) is an J- .' - lor nr ul a w i t hf r e e - v a r i a b a le so n g m i : ( * u , x t , . . , x u ) ,a n dd : ( n u , c t t , . . ., o , , ) e M , t h e n w e w ri te tvl E cp (ci ) mean ' r p is tr ue in M when eachvar iablex, is to i n t erp re te d b y c,' u si n gT a rslci' s lvell- lcnown clefinition of tr uth ( NB, : is u l w u y.r i n te rp re te cl b y e cl u ality in &/.) Similar lyif O( t) is a setof for mulas rn i, M FO(,t) means cp(a) ME for eachEG) e O(t). If r is a closedterm in St ( ' c l ose d ':'h e l s n o fre e -va r iables'r)&l , denotes ( alsocalled its inter pr etation its realization)in M. Similarly, if s is a function, relation, or constant s y m b o lo f 9 , th e n ,r'ld e n o tes however ,we its ir r ter pr etation in fu|.Usually, w i l l d ro p th e su p e rscri pM t and denote la or s' t by just r or .r , unless c o n fu si o n ma y a ri sefro m so doing. lf :J, Y' are first-orderlanguzlges, syrnbolof I is anclevery non-logical also a symbolof !/', then an l,-structure M nay be convertecl into an 9'forgetting' g (calleclthe reductof M to -9) by structrrreM I about the e x t r ar e l a t i o nf,u n c t i o n o , r c o n s t a ns tymbolsin 9 ' . I n t h e o t h e rd i r e c t i o n , an 9-structure N may be convertedto an i4'-structureby adding new r e l ati o n s, fu n cti o n s, a n d constants cor r esponding to the extr a symbolsin S' . F o r e xa mp l e ,i f re l a ti onsR1 R,,, functions fl,, and con/1 would s t a n ts c1 ,. . , cl w e re a d d e dto N, the notationof the new str uctur e b e ( N , R ' , . . , R , , ,. . . , f , c , ) a n d w o l r l db e s a i d t o b e i t n fr,c, expun,sion of N. Of specialirnportar-rce is the stmcture (N, a),.r otrtained b y a d d i n ga co n sta n fo t r e ver ya e N. of 9. A theory in a first-orderlangrvage I is simply a set of sentences (Thesesentences of the theory.) We are thought of as being the axiortzs assume that the readerhzrs encountered some notion of a formctlprrtof in the predicate calculus, and if Z is an 9-theory and o is etn9-sentencewe writeTloto mean'there is n T'. Similarlyi ,f i s a p r o o fo f o f r o m s e n t e n c e S i s a s e to f s e n t e n c e os f 9 w e w r i t e7 F S t o n ' l e a n T F o f . o re a c ho e S . T i s said to l'teconsistent iff for no -7-sentence o do we have both Zl-o and T l *l o . T h e tw o tu rn sti l es ymbols,F and F, ar e r elatedby the following t h e ore mo f Go cl e l 's. T t t Eo n E vt0 .1 (T h e co mpleteness theor em) . Let 7 be a theor y in the first-orderlzrnguage I ancllet o be an 9-sentence.Then Tto iff for all D m o c i e lM s f . o r9 : M F T > M F o .

theoretn. theoryis the compactness The mostbasic resultin moclel l Trreotrev 0 . 2( C o m p a c t n e sIs f )f. i s a n i 4 t h c o r y ,t h e nI h a s a m o c l eiff
e v e r y f i n i t e s u b s e tS c Z h z i sa m o c l e l .

9, then M ts zt lf. M, N are rnoclels for the silme first-orcler lztnguzlge of M is a o f .N ) , M c N , i f f t h e c l o m a i r r ;ubmodclof N (or a substructure

Buc'liground

t t l ' N i t n c lc l o s e c lu t l c l c r s u b s c to f t h e c l o m a i no f N c o n t a i n i t t qt h c c o t r s t a t i t s i s i n t e r p r e t e c li n l v l t h e f u n c t i o n s o f N , a n c le a c h n o n - l o g i c a ls y n r b o l i t ' r! / , 1 o l ' i t s i l t t c r l ' l ' c t l r t i o titr t M . ( t J r r l c s ss t i t t c c l to thc restrictiorr accorcling 'thc clotltltitt ' M i s i r s t - t i r t n t l c lo cfl N ' r l t t l t c rt l l i t l l l teiu.l o t l r e r r v i s,cf u lc : N r , v i ln in thc clotnitinol'N'.) M is irn dcflrlll4l.yillb1ryJlglol N' of &1 is irtclr-rclccl u te M M < N , i f l ' t v l c N . u n c lf t t r e t t c l tf o r t t r t t l ar p ( l ) t r n c le a c l ^ . cp(a)(+N F clt(d) IVIF the l satisfy tlre sittnc selrtettccs; l r r p a r t i c u l l r , i t M < N t h e r r I V I z r n cN l ot llc trtte, Itolvcver. c o n v c r s eo f t h i s s t i t t e t n e n tr r e e c n W e c a n n o w s t n t e t l i e t w o L o w e n h e i r n - S l c o l e t ttrh e o r e r n s .

theor er tr )If . the fi r s tLor ,venheinr - Skolenr 0 .3 (T h e d ownwar cl T ttE o trE u 9i htrsat most tr = N,, sym bolsanclN is ar r 9- str uctu r cof orclerlanguage &/ < N w i th uctive -y x ) 7 , t h e n t h e r e is an elenr er ,tar substr cardinality LI ca rd (M\: 1 . T r r o n e u 0 . 4 ( T h e u p w a r c lL o w e n h e i t n - s k o l e rtl h e o l e n r ) .l f J l h z r s and K a carclinalwith at most /. ) R ,, symbols, M is an -/-.'-structr-rre N> r M of M y rc>ca rrl (l V l )>Ath , e n ther e is a pr operelem entttr extensior n w i t l ic a r c l ( N ) : ". uscdto pr oveTheor etls0.3 anc l0.4 a b o u t the r nachiner y A fe w w o rcl s to l havc sor nesttr t of cr itcr ionfor clcc i c l i ng a re i n o rcl e rfi e re . It i s uscl' r .r of anotherm oclelN. T he subr noclel M l i s tr nelem entar y w l re na n -ro cl e to be useiul. tu rn s i .rt-tt fo l l o w i n g extensions )Let . T rtp o n e v 0 .5 (T h e Tar ski- Vaughttest for elem entar y 5'. Then the lollowing tll'e c-N be lnoclelsfor the sill.neltrngr-rage IVI equivalent: (a)M<N; NI, q(t, y) anclfor ettclt11e (b) for eirch-il,.rfortnttla bt e NFayq@,y))thereexis s M s . t .N F q ' ( l t . d ) . n

cirrcl(,&1):,t intoM to satisfy tr t u u g h 0 . 3 l o l l o w sb y p u t t i n g . j u se Theorcm nb ) o f T l l c o r c m0 . 5 ' a n cc l o n c l i t i o( 'l 'h e Iestsoll tltc i c l c a tltetlr ettt Li) wenhcir ti- Skoler tt p ro o l 'o f th e L l pwar cl tr Ltc M , that is, thc settlf itll setr tetr c es d i u g t'urof n a nr oclel o f th e c,o mp l cta cliagr ir nof l 'Vl ' tltc ctltlr plcte If N satisflcs i n th e stru ctu rel i l : (\il, ( t) ,,,r t. eacltueN I by senclittg giver r er lbeclcling tl rcptl i e re i s a cl rrq p ical .f:NI- - - - N togr r . If l/ i s thc cor tt r espol.lclilr g cttnstittto tftc e l e rl cp t g i N Lcalizir rthe h,e n i t i s e a s yt o s c c t h a t / ' s c n d s' i V 1 r e c l u c9 t f N t o t h e o r i g i n a l a n g L r a gte

B ttt:ltgro t tn cl rcc t trsio t t thco r)) 5 -l'hc i t t t t o u t t c l e t t r c n t i t t -s yu b s t r L r c t u ro c[ ' / / . 0.4 now gocs ltroof'o1'Tlrcorcrl ltat tltcrc is trttN satisfyirrg b y s l r t t r . v i r ttg of' M antl cliagritnr thc contplcrtc having thc it1-rpr<tpria ct ae r c l i r r a l i t yr,. r s i n g hcorcnr.To t h c c o r n p u c t r r c sts yx t c n s i o n ,r v c j L r s t cnsLu'c t h a t N t s ? p r ( ) p e t ' c l c r n c n t a rc r n u k cN s u t i s l yt h c s c t o l ' s e r t t c n c e{s c * u l u e f u l l i o r a n o t h c rn c w c o n s t a r rst y r l t r o lr ' . W c c < l r c l t t t l e t l - r i ss e c t i o n w i t h t h c l e r n n t u o n c I c r n a n t r r r y c ' h r t i t t .o s 'l ' nroclc ls.

L e v r vrn 0 .6 . If M1 1 M,-- [vl, re t h c n t h e u n i o n o f t h i s c h a i r r ,M . , , : U ; M , , i s u n - - . / - s t r u c t r arn clis an

e l c m c n t a r yc x t e n s i o n o f e a c hM , .

o 1 L en r m a 0 . 6 t h o i n c l c x i n g i w i l l r a r r g co v c r In most applications variat'rlc in i to rangc thc norr-rregativ et c g e r s , N. Occasionally t h o u g h ,w c w i l l n e c c l over orclinals l e s st h a n s o m e g i v e n o r c l i n u ln : i n t h i s c u s eM . , : l ) 1 , , M ; L r n L l r r . ro r c l i n u l sl e s s t l u r t ra . t h e p r o o f o f t h e l e m m a i s l r y t r a n s f i n i t ei n c l u c t i o r o

0 . 2 B A C I ( C i R O t J NR DE C ] U R S I OT NF I E O R Y
t h r o u g h o u tt h i s b o o k w c s h a l l l r c c o n c c r n c c w On occusions l hcthcr a sct ( < t r , a s w c s l i a l l L r s u a l l ys a y . r ( ( ' u t ' . t i u c ) .W c i t t ' c , z lg N A i s r : o n t p u t r t b l c l onrputcr risoroLrsly t h i n l < i n g h e r e o f a n i c l c a l i z e cc c a r r y i r r go u t a f i x c c l (finite) set of irtstructi<lns it T.I r e c o m p u t e r i s f i n i t c u n c l i s o n l y a b l c t o L r s e in f i n i t e a n r < l u no t f r n c n r o r ya t i l q i v c n t i r n c , [ r u t t h c s i t u a t i o r r is iclcirlizcc l t h a t , f i r s t l y ,w e s u p p o s ct l r a t i t a l w a y sh a s c n o u g h n r c r n o r yt o the serrses c o r n p l e t ct h e c a l c r - r l i r t i o ir nr h a r r c a l n c l ,s e c o n c l l yw , c a r c a l w a y su b l c t o w u i t lo r t h e c o m p u t u t i o n t o f i r r i s h .T h c s e t A i s t l t c r r i l s l o n g a s i s n e c c l e cf c o m p t L t o b l ei s t h e r e i s s u c h z r c o m p u t e r w h i c h , o n a l " l y i n p u t n N " , r e t u r n si u r a n s w e r ' , ' y e s ' o r ' n o ' , a c c o r c l i r rtg clwhcthcr rl eA ctt' evelrtually nttt. T h e r e u r e r . n a n yw a y s t o f o r m a l i z e t h i s n o t i o r r , e a c h w i t h i t s ( ) w l t ancl clisaclvantaqes (S . c e C u t l a n c l ( 1 9 [ ' i 0 ) .C h a p t e r 3 , f o r t t aclvantages cliscussion of seve r a l o f t h e r n a c h i n e n r o c l c l sa v a i l a t r l c . )F o r t c c l t n i c a l r e a s o n st h e f o l l o r , v i r rc gl c f i n i t i o n s will be convenie rrt. o l ' p u r t i u l r e c : L t r . s ifu ?. , i s t h e l c a s t c l l t s sc t f D r . r . r N r l r o N .T h e c l i r s s l te ttc'ticttts frrrrctiorr fs ' : A - t N f o r s o n r cA c N / ' a n c l s o r l c k > l . s u c h t l t i r t : (a) % contains the zero anclsucc'r,.i.rol' functiorts,

: 0 f o r a l l xe N , 0(x) S(x):;r -l-I for all'r e N '

t h e p r o i c c : f l o rftl t t r c t i t l l r i l n c l ,l o r e a c h l < i < r r e N , ? c o t r t u i t r s

Ul'(r ',r1,

.f,, ) : ,Y;;

(t

,tuc:kgrou rtrl 8 , , ( y )i t r c a l l i t r ' ( ' t h c r rs o i s t h c

x 1 ) a n c lg ' ( I ) (b) if ./'(x,,x, rl of ./ ancl8r, . . , ,(r,, cotnpo,sitio

h ( y ) : J G ' ( - r ' )g ' , ( Y) '

' .gr(/ ))

oc r l i,f ,gJt) is r-rnclefine that if any of g,(y), with the convention tl h' c r rs o i s / r ( v ) ; , g , ( t ) )i s u n d e f i n e c 'i .i J ,Q), "G irt i.e. i1/' ( x) ancl r ec' ur ,ior t, pr intitiue r-rn cler s( i,"y, z) zr r c ? i s cl o se cl (i then so is /r(x,Y) define cl bY h(i.0) : f(i)

h(i .y+r):

y)is,.r,,delirrecr; {ii";J;lli !,'),r,

'

i. ,e., if g(f .y) is in ? thcn so is ( c I ) ( / i s c l o s e c lu n c l e r m i n i n u t l i z c t t i r t r t bY h$1: (,r,y)(S(i,y):0) clefined

that t such h ( t 1 : t h e l e a sY g ( x ,t ) ) ,( i , l ) S ( r ' Y )a r ca l l andg( x, Y) :0 clefr r r ecl y' if there is no sr-rch li(i) is lrnclefitrecl

is thc lcast ?/;!/1. The classof primititte racursiue.f'tutc:tiorts, Der-rNrrrc>N. c o l t a i n i n g0 , S a n d U i ' f o r e a c h l < 1 < t l ' a n c lc l o s e c l of functions class n n d pr imitiver ecur sion' u n cl e co r rn p o si ti o a lotrll only ccltrtaitls tliat ',!(l/1. front these clefirritions It is imrnecliate on all ar gurnents ' clefinecl not [- r e r n' ( 4 neecl fu nctions w h e re a s fu n cti o n s. a n clth a t ? j ? A s%. ir npor tanc e will be of par tictr lar T h e fo l l o w i p gth re e easypr opositions on. later
and hencc irr'6): 0 . 7 . T h e f o l l o w i t t g f u n c t i o n s i t r e i n , ' ? ; , /(? Pr{ol'ostt-toN

( a )x + y ; ( b )x ' v ; (c)x- I ifx=0 f0 1 *- r otlterwise; t" i lY > x f0 ( d )r - y : \ . . -

[.r, Y otltcr wise; , ): ( e ) r n a x ( xy

ltgro t tr ttl rc c' [] uc' ttr,;i o t t th eorv ( l ' ) n r i n ( x ,y ) ; (g) : "q(t,y) ( l { if.l:-y

rl (h) lt(.v u,): ' i, , L"

l 0 itx*y,;
ifx <;r ifx>.y.

0 .8 . Both !/l/l ancl (6 are closecluncler clefinitionby cases, P r r o p o strro r.r (resp. (/) then so is i . e . ,i f g , f uf, t , . . . ,fi are in 9'l/1, / , ) ( x i)f g ( x ) : 0 |(i) ifg(-r): I

,,r,:{

f ^ - , ( i ) i l ' g ( , r ) :/ r- I ft,(i) it gG)> k nccl. unclelinccl, il'g(x) is unclefi

nininnlizution, 0.9. T'JI. and '6 trre closecluncler bounclecl Pnoposrrror.r '6) (resp. then so is i.e., if g(i, y) e 0.61t
s z)(g(.f , :) : (,rry ,),):0) /'(.f

clcfrnccl try y < z suchthatg( i, 0) , g( i, I ) , tl rel e ast g(;r,y) : 0, ancl g(i, y) are all clefinecl y exists; i f su ch z . i f g ( i , t ) ) ,g ( ; . 1 ) ,. . . . g ( i , z ) zr nd notr - zer o; a rea l l definecl other wisc. n d e fi necl, ru

f(x, z1:

N (ftlr are thc trttttlfrtttctiotls rcctrt'.siuc /':NA---' ftrnctioris l' Lr ttctitit t iff its cIitr acter istic someft > 0) i rr %'.A sct A q- N/'is r cc' ttr ,viuc
D g n N I t - r o N . Thc

(l

ific-A

r'(t)=1, it.yeA
' ill y1e a sct zl is printitioc rectrt'.s'ittc l s f c c L r r s t v eSirrrilirrly . w i t h a l t t h c o t h c rc l c f i r t i t i t l t l s cs xitctlv ctlinciclc I t i s a f a c t t h a tt h c c l a s s ' 6 ' r r . r t tc t lt t h c i r l t L r i t i o r t fc Lrrrctiott'(bitsc o f t h e n o t i r t ) l " p a r t i i r lc o r n l . t r t i r b l '.'/'./l

.3

1luc:lcgrountL

ct l alt t h c b c g i n n i n go f t h i s s e c t i o n )t h a t h a v e b e e n s L r g g c s t ea clescribec t l s t t l t h c f o l l o w i n gt h c s i s . Tliis lcacls v a r i o u st i r n e s . tC l't . p a r t i a l f t t t r c t i o lr'r: , 4 - N o - - - - ' N i s i n i [ [ t h c r e Crrut<c:rr-'f'utrtN ct t r s t s A s. t h a t c o n r p L r t c/ ltltrtpttter i s i r n a l g o r i t l - r nfro r s o t l e i c l e a l i z c cc " l ' h cC h L r r c h - ' l ' u r i n g that it : szrys t h c s i sc a r r n o tb e p r o v c c lr n a t l t e n r i t t i c a l l y . e will tlften ltse o u r i r r [ o r n r ar l r o t i o no i ' c o t t r p t r t a b l e 'W cx sur:tly ? crrlrtLrre ' t, lry informally t l r i s t h e s i : ; t c l s l t o r . vt h z t t c e r t t t i l l f t r n c t i t l n s ,f ' , i l r e i n irn algoritlinr for.f. In this wzly we gain in both brevity arrcl rlcscribirrg in'6, r o u l c l h a v e b e e n g i v e n b y i t s f o r n r a lc l e f i n i t i o n c l a r i t y :t h e f r . r n c t i o/ r 'c l e l o n g z r n dt h e v a r i o u s t r t r o p e r t i e o b u t t h e c l e h n i t i o nw o L r l cb sf .f obsctrre. (or r.e. for short) ifizl yn u m e r u b l e s c t A - N " i s r e c u r . s i u e le D r . r ' r N r - r ' r c rA N. n 1 s t l m e p a r t i a l r e c u r s i v c1 r - r n c t i o/n i s t h e c l c t r n u io ; thltt is for all i e Nk (/(;)is clefined()i e A). he l'unctitln w i t h t h e z e r o f u r t c t i o n ,w e n t t t y z l s s L l n lte C l e a r l y ,b y c o r n p o s i n g l'(f ) abovehus vitlue0 whcncvcr it is clcfinecl. N 6 t i c e t h a t e v e r y r e c t t r s i v es e t A i s t r i v i a l l y r . e . , s i t r c ei f X , , i s r e c u r s i v e t h e n / ( x ) : ( p y ) ( L - X , , ( * ) : 0 ) i s i n % . T h i s o b s e r v a t i o np r o v e s o n e d i r e c t i o n o f t h c f c l l l o w i n gt h c o r e n r . (1 l 9 8 0 ) ,p . i f , [ . T I r r O R r , v0 r . 1 0 . ( S e e ,e . g . , C r . r t l a n c b o t l r A a n d i t s c o m p l e m e n tA ' : \ / t - A a r e r . e . iff AcNA is recitrsive n 'recursively

T h e f g l l o w i n g r . r s e f ufla c t e x p l a i n s t h e o r i g i r r so f t h e t e r n l enurneritble'. -l'tteotrr.vt (1 l 980),p. 125). AsN 0.ll (SeeCLrtlarrc A:trf(O)./(l)' s . t . urnctionl':N-'N i r c c r r r s i vfe

is r.e. ifi there is a n

-fheorern 0.I I, of A in N o t i c e t o o t h a t ( i f A i s i n f i r r i t e )t h e e n u n r e r a t i o n for if /is cornpLr{ 1 1 g ) , i ( l ) , . . } , c a n b e t a k e n t o [ ' r ew i t h o u t r e p e t i t i o n s , c l e f i n e cb iy table thcn/'' rccttrsively

: /'(0) r'(0)
l'(x + l): i r l t l r es e c l L l e n c e the firstvalr.re

to any /( 0) , /( D,l' Q) , . . . Ir otccltr al ot'/'(()),/''(l) /''(.r).

g y, thc Chtr r ch- Ttr r ir rthcsis. le i s a l soco tttp t-tti tb b r . c . s c t sA c N t h a t a r c t l o t a r c herc that thcrc W c s h o u l c tl n c n t i < l n t c t sw i l l b c g i v e nl a t c r i n t h e t e x t ' ) (. Exartrple os f s L t c ls recursivc

n thectr y B uckgr o ttncl rc cursi ct

c:omputubility. with a [ew wor cls aboutr elutiue W e fi n i sho ff th i s se cti o rr or not B is w h e t her l f t e nw a n tt o c o n s i d c r sf N w e r , v i lo l f A , B a r es u b s e to r ,ve r oughly,' if r ( cLtr .sioe in.z{ )r neaniltg, re /o / (u sL rally sLr y: r e c : ursi u e l o ti u e bly t h e f o l l o w i r r g Bl b e ' . ' l ' h i si s a c h i e v c c zl wcrc recursivt ch e n s o r , v o u l c clefinition. of par tial / . cN /' fu r somelc> 1, then ( i' t is the leastclass IfN D e r .ri vr-rrc.l r anclpr ojectiorfunctions, g ,,,the zer o.sLr ccessor f u n c ti o n s o n N co n ta i rri nX rr. p,r i m i t i v e r e c u r s i o na , n c lm i r r i r n a l i z a t i o A a n d c l o s eu n c l e c r ornposition in A iff Xn'64. set B q N/ is recttrsiue Similarly we can define 9!AA and hence the notion of a set B being in A.In all thesenotions.4 is referredto as an oracle, printitiuerecursiue r unning computer fr om the ideaof an idealized th a t o ri g i n a te s t e r mi n o l o g y the Delphic like a program that stopsevery so often to consultsomething Z is in ,4 or oracle to determinewhetheror not a certaintuple of integers not.

t
model The standard
W e n e v c r k n o w h o w I r i g hw e a r e T i l l w c i r r e c u l l c t lt o r i s c ' A n c l t h e r ri f w e a r c t r u e t o p l a n Or-rr s t a t u l c st o u c h t h e s k i e s E,nrily Dicliiuson

lurtguuge of arithmetic thefir.st-ctrder Throughoutthis book 916wlll clenote the constant of the following: sym bo l s ,l Q consist w h o se n o n l o g i casymbols l ny m b o l s , l h et w o b i n a r y f u n c t i os symbol,l<a ; n ct ye l a t i o n a n d l ; t h e h r i n a rr . . p articular i s a b o u t a I + 1 a n di F r o m o n e p o i n t o f v i e w t h i s b o o k N abo r .r t by whichtheor em s axiomsystem N 9 o -stru ctu re , , a n d a pzr r ticular can be cledr.rced. whose model) is the #/,r-structure The structureN (called the ,stundurd l h e r et h e ie n t e g e r s{,0 , I , 2 , 3 , . . . } , a n c w i s t h e s e to f n o n - n e g a t i v donrain The axior nsys tem i n 9 6 a re g i ven their obviousinter pr etation. symb o l s (PA) whichconsists of a is the formal systemof.Peunourithmetic involved of mnthem uwith the axiomschem e together axioms sma l ln u mb e ro f b a si c This chapter is tical induction.Much more will be said about PA later. that will c om e to som eof the icleas the r eacler co n ce rn ew d i th i n tro d ucing of tltisbook. u p a g a i na n d a g a i ni n the cour se of P.4 r,ve ancllirnitations N anclthe strengths more abor-rt To discover ver y muc h thztt look o u r a ttentionon those9,r - str uctur es w i l l co n ce n tra te to are not isomorphic logic, br.rt like N from the point o{ view of first-orcler N. (Suchstructuresare saiclto be npJ$llndPLCJ.) of all tr ue f i r s tmoclels d that r r clnstanclar It w a sS ko l e mw h o {ir stshowecl the b ook 1934) ( . Her e itnclthr oughout es xist( Skolenr , o rd e r./o -se n te n ce 'true' always Skol er n's in N' .) Nowac' lays m ezlns' tr ue o rcl th e u n cl u a l i fi ew cl as follor ,vs. theor etn re su l ti s p ro ve du si n gthe com pactness ttr ocleli,.e. 9i- theor y of the stanclar cl the complete L e t l ft(\) cl e n o te For eachr r e N we let r l be of all tr ue /o- sentences. T h (N ) i s th e co l l e cti o n . . . + ; i s j u s tt h e l ) ( , l s ) o f . , 7 o0 ( (((l+ l)+ 1)+ l)+ t h ec l o s e r ce l rrn to it a new lIoby aclcling our language o l0 . We now expar r cl co n sta nsymb t the 9,, ancl consicl er languttge the ner ,v syrn b o lc, o btaitr ir r g co n sta n t w ith axioms 9 ,.-th e o ry fo l l o w i n g o ( f o re a c h o eTh(N))

10

l'he,ytuncLu I rd rno cLc

I I

ancl
t'> rt ( f o r e a c hr r e N ) .

f, o r c a c hf i n i t cf r a g r n e no t f i t i s c o n t i t i n c ti ln T l r i sI l r c o r yi s c o n s i s t c n t 7 'r: Tli( N) u tr ' > r tln< k\ N,0, 1, ( N , / c )w i t h c l o m a i n f l o rs o n i ek e N , u n c lc l e a r l yt h e l l , - s t r u c t u r e +, ancl tincl t hasa is cttnsistetr theor eUr ur ,r Z1 b y th e co mper ctness s a t i sfre7 s1 .T h r.rs M, t is that h e fi rst th i n g to noticeabor - r m o c le M,..T l
M,.Fc>. rt ' i n f i n i t e ' i n t e g e r . I n p a r t i c r - r l atrh i s for r,rlz lz e N , a n d h e n c e i t c o n t a i n sa l t m e a n s t h a t t h e r e c l u c t , M , o f M , t o o u r o r i g i n z r ll a n g u a 1 e9 , + i s t r o t wor-rlcl /z:N--+lV1 r ln o d e lN , f o r a n y i s o m o r p h i s r n to the stanclarc isornorphic l erm ri in h a v e t o s e n c le a c h n e N t o r t t u(tt h e e l e m e n t r e a l i z i n gt h e c l o s e c t

tul) and : .lu M E V x ,Y ( x > Y - - - + - 1 ), c:ir t M,. th i sse n te n ce i s tru e i n N. It followsthat the elementr ealizing s i r r ce By the c a n n o t b e i n th e i ma g e of h, and so M is nonstanclar cl. we czllttake M,.(anclhenceM) to be of any theorems Lowenheirn-Skoleln that ther ear e lotsof notr - isclr nor ph i c w e l i l <e this ; shows ca rcl i n a l i ty i n f i r ri te m o d el so f T h (N ) a ro u n cl . of r LeN to nr ' r s in fact an emtledcling T h e ma p h :N --+M se n cling 9o-structr-rres. To checkthat /zis 1- I , noticethat if n, k e N with n* lc tl'ten ' N F-l(l: !!)'

-1 (n *& ) i s in Th( N) ancl hence tr tte in M . Sir nilar ly/r s o t h e se n te n ce f o r a n y n , m , / c eN p r e s e r v e< s , - l - , A n c 'l , s i l l c e
tt{ nt n*m:lc a ncl n.nt:l<

iff NFn{nz i f f N E n + n t . :k iff NFru'nt: k

iff iff iff

lvl F rt 1. tn, MFnltn: MIFn'tn:

I

t.

thtts of /r in M, tttr cl icle ntify N with the ir nage w e w i l l a l w ays F o r th i sre a so n is ntlne ever y m oclel&1FTh( N) .Then lV1 c o r r si d eN r a s a su b stru ctur of integet' stanclar cl j u st i n ca sei t h a s elenr ents r r not eclualto ettr y s t a nc'l a rcl of M.) elemcnr.s ct arecalledn.onstan/arcl rr e N. (Strchelernents llow r egar c l we our cor r ventitln, czIl.l T h e e n -rb e cl cl /r i n:N g -> M ( which,[' r y inr ptlr talltpr oper ty r elatingto the N g M) h as tttr tlther a s i ln i n cl r.rsi ctrt

t2

modeI The :;tttnclurcl

I Fig.

of arithmetic model A nonstattdard

t and o r d e ro n M w i t h a l e a s te l e m e n 0 o r d e r < . N o t i c et h a t < i s a l i n e a r by a llr st- or der n o g re a te ste l e me n t. (These pr opeltiesar e expr essed eachk e N w e for Now th a t i s tru e in N, andhencetr ue in M.) 9 o -se n te n ce h a ve M F V x ( x <k " > ( x: O y x : 1 V x 2 ' ' ' V x : k - t ) ) i s tr ue in N. It follows fr om this that N is an itti ti al si n ceth i s se n te n ce N (in symbols:N c"tVI); i.e., xgruenl-ofM, and M is an end3.f,lt_ns-iQ.n*of N c M h asthe pr oper tythat th e i n cl u si o n for all ize N and for all a e M, MFu<n)4N, ar e addedbelow any givenr le N. W e can dr aw a so th a t n o n e w e l e me nts pictureofthissituation(seeFig.l).(InFig'1theorc1er< elem ent' )Thtr s ,i n neitherN nor tVIhasa gr eatest R e me mb e r: u p w a rd s. ds t i n c a s et h a t M E a l n f o r e a c hn e N ' p a r t i c u l aa r e M i s n o n s t a n c l a jru t h u s :n > N . ) O n e o f t h e m a i n g o a l so f t h i s (We writethis in shorthand

are Forexample: greater cletail. in much picture this isto investigate book
N anclM ? between I cinitialsegments a n yo th e ri n l e re sting tl re re "fu|lying ' yes' ') (T h e a n sl ve tu r rn s o ttt to be an emphatic whosem ai n to anyone be of inter est models cl H o w ca nsu chn o n stanciar in a of infinite'elements i s N i tse l f?T he key is in the existence co n ce rn M ancl the first-orclerproperties they rnay possess'For nonstanclarcl

The stantlurcl rtctclcl

13

x ancl 0(x) is an /o-tormulztwith only one free-variable exzrnrple, suppose fu l E 0 (u )fo r so meue M wher e &1FTh( N)and r r is nonstandar cl . s u p po se T l r e n MF a x)@) a n cl so NF3x0( x) ( for if NFVx- lO( x) then so woulcl . ut even rlrulc is truc: it rreN, then f u l F Y x - 1 0 ( xs ) i t t c ei v l l - ' t ' h ( N ) ) B co l, M F a l n s i n c ea i s n o n - s t a n d a r s Ax > n); t u lF a x @ ( x ) N F 3 x(9 (x)A r> ri . It followsthat ther c ar e inlinitelyntur ty/ceN h e r r ce supposetlr er e ar e infinitelym any /<eN N F g (& ). C o n ve r sely, s a t i sfyi rrg Then since s a t i s fyi n gN F 0 (& ), a n d su pposeM FTh( N) is nonstandar d. y> xA0(y)), we hzive N FVx3y( tutFVxSy(y>x 0(y)) b e M, there is Thus for any b e M, and in particularfor any nonstanclctrd MF ? ( a) ..W q Io,L. p_r ov,ecl.that a > b i n M sa ti sfyi n g ii4y,nons[ir ndprc l

k eN tfrerg areinfuritglv rlg"?MF-0(;Iiff FTh(N)!a1a{gtt1ot1g nany, *,v1

ot r nar ) yelegant' nor .rr s the basr s N F 0 (& ). T h i s o bser vation , i a t i Sfyi n g about N. ]tot'iouia; proofs-oftheorems A secondexamplethat will concernus throughthis book is the idea of a nonstandardnumber ae N gglfu a (possiblyinfinite) subset S of N. a n dl e t ' 5b e a n y l) rimes S u p p o sp e o : 2 , p t : 3 , P z : 5 , . . a r et h e ( s t a n d a r cp model NI as beforeby expancling a nonstandard subsetof N. We construct the theory 7 with axioms 9o to 9,., but this time consiclering T h ( N ) U{ c > n l n e N } U { V x _(l t r * ' * : c ) l k + S } u { 3 x ( p r' x : c ) l k e S } . in one of the theoriesT1 Notice that everyfinitefragmentof T is containecl g i v enb y a xi o ms T h ( N )u { c > n l n < l } } U { V r t ( U - x : c ) l k + S c L t ct< < /} U{ 3 x ( p r ' x : c ) l k e S & / c pr ir nein N with c1) I,ancl let r be thc integer f o r s o me/e N . L e L cl b ezrny

r:4'llP^'
k .:.1 ke'S

t4

Thc stttnchrrLmrtclel

by the integer N, r ) with c:inter pr etecl e to se eth a tth e J i- str uctLr r( I t i s e a sy ancl so Tis consister l t. of Thas a moclel r sa ti sfi efs . T h u se a chfinitesLr bset - f n,trnc l r >tM , to the or iginallangtr age Le t M,.F f, a n cll e t l vl b e the r ecluct es-theSet,S,i'e.,we TC hx eln s u p p o sn ee f u lr e a l i z e s t h e c o n s t i t t r t c i t t & 1 , . .u crrnrecoveroLrrset .t as follo,,vs: t : { n e N I M F 3 x ( p , ,. x : c t ) ) . d odelsMFTh(N ) Th u s (si n ce .!c N w a sar bitr ar y)ther e ar e nonstandar m o,r of composites t h e s e t ,r w i t h e l e m e n tr si > N c o d i n gt h e s e t o f p r i m e s o with a h i sc h a p t e r o f 2 , . . . a n d s o o n . W e c o n c l u c lte t h e s e to f p o w e r s of moclel s to the numberof countable o f theseicleas s i mp l ea p p l i ca ti o n T h ( N) .
c o u n t a b l e r n o d e l so f . lt. T h e r e 1 r e e x a c t l y 2 u un o n - i s o m o r p h i c T r r r - o r < el v Th(N)

o f m o d e l st h a t c o u l d e x i s t . W e number Proo.f. Clearly2 R ,i,s t h e m a x i m u m is attainecl. m u stsh o wth a t th i s n -raximutn then the set codeclby a is a e lV1, m odelanci t f M F r h ( N ) i s a n ycountable th e se t . S:, , { n e N I M F a x ( p , , 'x : u ) } . of N nlanysubsets at m ostcountably q N a n d (si n ce M is countable) So S ,, a r ec o d e db y s o m eu e M . W e h a v es h o w n ,h o w e v e rt,h a t a n y s e t S g N i s M FTh( N) . If ther ewer e o nl y moclel b y so mea i n so mecountable co d e cl countablemodelsNI, o' fTh( M) ( wher e i r an ges n o n -i so mo rp hic rc<2 R ,, by l ScN cocle c r ) , then the numberof sttbsets o ve r a se t 1 o f ca rcl i n ality so mea i n so meMi i s a t m ost
c a r d ( M , ) : r r ' R t , : m a x ( r c ,N 1 1 ) ,

)
tI

u R w h i c h i s l e s s t h a n 2 " . z l c o t l t r n c l i c t i o 'n s i n c e t h e r e a r e 2 n s u b s e t s ! ScN.

Exercisesfor ChuPter I a t i s f y i nT gh ( N ) . v e r i f y t h a tt h ee m b e c l d i n g re h a tM i s a n 9 , 1 - s t r u c t us 1 .I S u p p o s t e og f N i n t o l V I , r . e ' , y ' tt n a p sN o n t o a n entbeclclin L : , r , - - r t i , , ^ ia : ;u e l e n t e n t a r y of fu|, ntarysttbstrttctttt'e clerrre

mocLel The stunclard

the fortttulas T , 2 B Yc o n s i d e r i n g
ll

l5

3x(r * x * ' ' ' +.r : Y)

ancl

Vxl(-r*-Y*'" +x:Y), all true structuresatisfying i io cu n t a b l e s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e 2 N , , n o n - i s o r n o r p lc sly n r b oils * . only non-logica e hose in sentence s t h e l a n g u a gw m e o d e l so f T h ( N , 0 , l , S ) i n t h e (up to isornorphisrn a) ll ct'runtabl 1.3 Classify , hichis s , l , a n c la u n a r yf u n c t i o ns y n l b o l , . 5 'w c o n s i s t i no gf c o n s t a n t 0 language operaticltt: interpretedin N as the.sttccc.s.ror
S(r-):x* I' c o u n t a b l et n o d e l s there are only N1y I n p a r t i c u l a r ,v e r i f y t h a t , u p t o i s o m o r p h i s m , of this theory.