MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

P. BAG 9055 Gweru Zimbabwe Telephone: (263) 54 260404/260337/260667 Fax: (263) 54 260233/260311

Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Media and Society Studies

MODULE: NAME Sasha Nhara Eddington Nhika Davison Majaya Desdemona Manyere Sheron Mawoni

MSS102 Media in Zimbabwe REG N# R104655E R103342A R103176Q R103726H R103465 J PROGRAM MSS MSS MSS MSS MSS LEVEL 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 MOE PDP PDP PDP PDP CDP

QUESTION

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MUSIC INDUSTRY AND THE GOVERNMENT IN COLONIAL AND POST INDEPENDENCE ZIMBABWE

The relationship between the music industry and the government has been an ambivalent affair right from the emergence of the music industry in the Colonial era, that is, Rhodesia, well into post independence Zimbabwe. This paper seeks to expose that the origins and or causes of this ambivalent relationship were and are wholly dependent on the messages conveyed by the artist, that is, the musicians .That is to say, the manner of relationship was based upon whether or not the musicians messages were in agreement with the governments ideology. The writers shall endeavour to highlight that in both periods, that is to say, the colonial and post independence eras, the music industry was polarized on ideological lines. In both eras there existed what the Ancient Greek philosopher Plato called good music and bad music, that is to say, in both periods there existed music that was neutral in its message and did not incur the wrath of the censor but also that of the bad kind, that which questioned the governments socioeconomic and political ideology. For a better understanding of the task at hand, the writers shall define the key terms of the motion and thus redefine the question in simpler terms. A relationship is as according to the Concise Oxford Dictionary second edition (1990), a connection between persons, things or situations. The music industry as stated by Chikowero(2001:3) is a combination commercial business and creative human activityIt consists of musicians, recording companies which produce the music in the form of tangible , durable and usable waves sustainable from retails shops and record bars and the radio stations which deliver the finished product to a wider listening public. Government refers to a group people controlling or directing the public affairs of a city, country or state. Thus, the motion redefined would read as, discuss the connection between the commercial business and creative human activity pertaining to music as a commodity and the people governing the state from 1896 to 1979 and 1980 to the present.

Kaufmann (1972) asserts that, the rise of Zimbabwean music was due to the influence of such institutions as mission schools, churches and military bands.From the earliest infiltration of Europeans in African societies in Zimbabwe, the church had viewed African musical traditions, due to their ritual origins, as evil, malignant and antiChristian. This view, in an era when the church and the government had a similar mission would have led to African musical expression being outlawed by the government. (Eyre 2001:36) Ethnomusicologist Paul Berliner, in his 1976 book, The Soul of Mbira, notes that, Religious authorities of many denominations took control of education in Southern Rhodesias rural areas and imposed European religious and aesthetic values on Africans and condemned Traditional forms of expressive culture. These acts of iconoclasm led Africans to discard their own form of musical expression and use of traditional instruments for a more Eurocentric mode of expression. This state of affairs went down well with the Prudish Rhodesian regime as it meant that the traditional stories of ancient pride and prowess and tales that would highlight the Africans plight would give way to the syrupy-purely-for-entertainment European and American modes. For the African musicians ,whose traditional musical idiom was jarringly unlike the European idiom they had been forced to embrace the struggle was one of fusing traditional aspects with the influences in the cosmopolitan setting (Chitando 2002:33) That simply means that for the Zimbabwean musician ,fresh out of a rural setting with all its nuances, and finding himself placed in a urban sprawl with new sounds and experiences, the process of producing music that was both urban and African and yet remained acceptable was a great struggle; a struggle which maintained the positive relationship with the colonial government. Municipalities (and therefore, the colonial government) were instrumental in promoting entertainment and in redirecting energies away from the oppression the colonial state. Shebeens, that is, illegal bars that promoted the sale of illicit alcohol, Concerts, Beer halls and entertainment halls were centres of urban musical performance in Zimbabwe. (Bender, 1991:159; Turino 2000:110-112) From the 1930s urban music emerged in Zimbabwe with predominantly male cultural workers like Kenneth Mattaka, De Black Evening follies, August Musarurwa et al becoming pioneer artists. In line with shifting

cultural practices, some Africans even took up ballroom dancing and the music that went with it(Turino, 2000:146-148). It was during this period that music production, with the help of the colonial government, took a commercial direction. Individuals such as Musarurwa became well known both regionally and internationally. The government owned Rhodesian Broadcasting Corporation (RBC) promoted the commercialisation of African music by paying artist after they had recorded a song which was played on the Radio. (Zindi 1985:3) With the rise of recording companies that were driven by the reality of profit and sustainability Zimbabwean music was on a sure path to commercialisation. With the UDI in 1965 that effected international isolation the music industry invested much more in indigenous artists and the local market. (Mukombahasha, 2001). African music could no longer be viewed in terms of its communal and spiritual value: The forces of urbanisation and commercialisation now required creative packaging and marketing strategies. This post UDI climate would see the rise of a young protest musicians such as Thomas Mapfumo , many of whom at this time was not yet producing protest anthems but rather ,were still performing cover versions of popular European and American Rock. (Eyre 2001:65) . To this effect, the relationship between the music industry and the colonial government may be viewed as being positive because artists were not questioning government policy and ideology but rather, producing music that focused on entertaining and thus helped shift focus away from the mounting political and socio-economic problems. However, this situation would not remain so for long. The foregoing assertions demonstrate that the Rhodesian governments relationship with the Zimbabwean music industry prior to the UDI was positive but with the declaration of war by the nationalists after Ian Smiths unilateral declaration of independence and his declaration that he would not bow to majority rule this situation soon changed. Professor Musa Zimunya (Eyre 2001:46) notes that , when people are under stress , colonial stress, as labourers on farms, in the mines, in the domestic industry or as peasants suffering the brunt of colonial oppression at every turn, Africans had recourse to one artistic medium. Music. Song. Although the Rhodesian governments methods were less hostile than those of The Nazis or the Pinochet regime of Chile, it did use both overt and covert methods to muzzle musicians hostile to the regime. Ian Smith

enacted a plethora of laws to this effect after the UDI. The most lethal one of these was the Censorship and Entertainment control act of 1967 which branded all revolutionary and popular music as subversive. As a result musicians who propagated dissenting views were targeted by the regime. Innuendo, however, concealed most of the protest songs which at the time had become central in African peoples music. A very apt example of innuendo in protest is in the example of Thomas Mapfumo who by the middle of the 1970s had started singing in shona while employing use of traditional as well as European instruments. This though being nothing new was unusual and in the face of the escalating war, automatically political.(Eyre, 2001:65) However, Mapfumo outmanoeuvred the censors through clever use of innuendo; however in 1978 he finally got banned and arrested. A Black veteran Radio broadcaster who worked in both the RBC and ZBC asserts that. was shrewd to avoid the censors for so long. He used to structure his lyrics in such a way that even black policemen would have no idea what he was talking about( Eyre ,2001:47) With the enactment of this hostile legislation, genres such as Township jazz and other popular music were forced underground. The decade of 1970 1980 represents an important phase in the development of music in Zimbabwe. Turino (2000) notes that musical trends that began as experiments to achieve commercial success became generalised in the second half of the 1970s It was due to this generalisation and rise that artist like Thomas Mapfumo , Zexie Manatsa,Oliver Mutukudzi et al became significant players on the local music scene. They were able to assert themselves because, firstly , the use of vernacular caused a rise in popularity with the buying and listening public. Secondly , as according to Manuel ( 1988:105), an indeginous popular music emerged under the familiar impact of urbanization and acculturation. That is to say, the African population in the urban centres finally embraced the concept that the urban ethos and culture was an irrevocable part of the African cultural landscape. That being so, a more indigenous as opposed to American or European music was welcome and appreciated. With the ban on African language songs and the escalation of the liberation war, music was produced for propaganda. Artist such as Dickson Chingaira ( alias Comrade Chinx) composed songs such as Hondo Yakura MuZimbabwe ( War has intensified in Zimbabwe) and Maruza Imi (you have lost) (1975)

which recounted the history of Zimbabwe, beginning with the colonization of the country in 1890, and the countless acts of white arrogance that culminated in Africans taking up arms. Others encouraged young Africans to take up arms ( Muka tiende) or highlighted the cruel conditions under which blacks lived , while also castigating the white settlers for their intransigence. There also those who made direct appeals to Mwari, the creator to intervene and release them from the yoke of oppression , for example, Chitaikas1978 song Tirwireiwo Mwari ( Fight for us God) and Mutukudzis Ndiri Bofu. This period, that is, the decade from 1970 to the end of 1979 may be said to be one of the most negative periods in the relationship between the Music industry and the Government in Zimbabwe . This was due to the escalation of war and the need for music that motivated and inspired the down trodden audiences.This was the period of the rise of Chimurenga ,and as asserted by (Pongweni ,1982), the songs won the war. The attainment of independence in 1980 may be said to be the rise of Zimbabwean music proper.That is to say, the use of the term Zimbabwe was no longer outlawed such that music produced at indepence with the name Zimbabwe were truelly songs of Zimbabwe no simply Rhodesian protest songs. In 1980 , Thomas Mapfumo, Zacks Manatsa, the Four brother and others produced songs that congratulated the Ruling party, the masses of Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe in particular. (Chitando, 2002:43) declares that the songs of Chimurenga had moved from protest to praise. Songs produced in the immediate post colonial period thanked the Ancestors and God for their guidance and support. Wolfgang (Bender, 1991:164) contends that the first year of Independence became the year of Chimurenga pop It must be noted that the first decade of Independence is often potrayed as a honey moon period in Zimbabwean music. To be precise, so confident were most people of the prosperity that lay ahead that one political and cultural nationalist declared in 1981 that , the protest song proper ended with the Independence of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.(Kahari, 1981:981) For their part artist like Mapfumo, Mutukudzi and others articulated the new governments goals of unity , national consolidation, reconciliation and development through hard work. (Kwaramba 1997: 72) The music of the first decade of Zimbabwe is largely characterized by as Maintained by Chitando ( 2001:45)

celebration and optimism. It would be prudent therefore to conclude that the relationship between the Music industry and the government at this juncture was a positive and optimistic one. The Independence honeymoon did not last long as weaknesses began to show. Starting in the late 1980s, elements of pessimism began to creep into the national psyche. In the 1990s harsh economic and political realities and political contradiction threatened the unified nationalist project. Corruption by the black elite ( lamented in Mapfumos 1988 song corruption), wastefulness by the state and intolerance of opposing views generalized the painful reality that the government could not deliver the economic miracle it had promised ( Chitando,2002:46) This led to a change in the relationship between the leadership and the people. A new genre of music emerged and took root. This was a genre protesting the failure of the government to deliver the boon of independence. In his 1990 song Varombo kuvarombo,, Mapfumo protested the leaderships consolidation of wealth while the poor majority remained trapped in a vicious property trap. Retrenchments, soaring prices ,unemployment and destitution became widespread. Gibbon(1995) asserts that the working poor struggled to make ends meet. Musicians captured the national mood in their compositions. In the late 1980s and early 1990s,young African singers were strident in their criticism the failure of the governments economic policies. Artsits like Edwin Hama ,Leonard Zhakata and Simon Chimbetu and others released songs that criticised the regular price increase as in Hamas Asila Mali ,oppressive labour situation ,high tax rate and other issues. In this case , the relationship negative with artists creating protests while the government banned those that were too open in their criticism , Edwin Hamas Asila Mali and Zhakatas Mugove faced bans while Chimbetus Pane Asipo was investigated. (Eyre 2001) The relationship remained on of negativity well into the 21 st century, however with the land redistribution that began in 2000 and that was legalised with the land distribution act , it took on an ambivalent face yet again. Suddenly many of the artists who had been silent in the protest era of the 1990s revived producing music praising the land redistribution and the govts stance against neo imperialism. However others such as

Mapfumo and the small time Bulawayo musician Bekhitemba Khumalo produced protests against the program. Mapfumos Marima Nzara (2001) blames the government for taking the white-controlled land. The singer criticizes the government for attempting to introduce equity in land redistribution. ( Eyre :2001) He takes the process of removing excess land from a white minority as an invasion; he sees white settlers as a silent and persecuted group, endowed with a natural capacity to farm. In the song, Mapfumo claims the government is misguided in taking away land from those with the capacity to farm. Khumalo faced struggle in recording and releasing a song titled The president is a thief (2001) On the otherside of the strata are artists like Chinx with his Hondo Yeminda (2002) and Joshua Sacco with Chenjera (2002) which are all in support of the land reform programme. (Vambe: 2004)It must also be noted that the government , which from its beginning had been accused of not supporting cultural work ,in 2003 removed all duty on all technology linked to the creation of cultural material that is to say recording and performance equipment such as microphones , cameras and musical instruments. Also , at the behest of the then minister of information ,Jonathan Moyo , all local broadcasters were required by law to have a playlist of seventy five percent local content. At the time this was viewed by many at the time as a bad thing , with some Deejays complaining that, all stations would sound the same. (Eyre ,2001: 39) However this was shortsighted as this move led to the rise of a modern urban idiom dubbed urban grooves. This has also led to a rise in underground and independent record labels independent of Gramma /ZMCs monopoly in terms of recording and distribution for example Leonard Mapfumos Hesh Mufesh Records , and Elias Musakwas Ngaavongwe which took away much of Grammas distribution monopoly. This move has also allowed a rise in underground protest movements with music equipment having become more easily accessible .

In conclusion , It is evident that the relationship between the Music Industry and The government in both colonial and post independence Zimbabwe has been one of Ambivalence.In each era there has been times of positivity and negativity . While there has also been points at which both polarities have been evident in the relationship. That

is, the relationship has been based on the ideology expressed by the artist, either it was in agreement with the government and warranted positivity or in protest against the government and warranted negativity.