S PA C E S

&
P LACES

of

SURVEI LLANCE

An Exploration Through Past, P resent and Future

Ryan Blackford #10363276

This essay explores the influence of surveillance, in all its forms, in the architectural themes of space and place. It proposes how architecture should work with a surveillant culture and aims to prompt further thought on the subject. By exploring this in past, present and future we can understand how surveillance has developed in society through time and how it could manifest itself in tomorrows world. An important aspect of this is taking the notion of surveillance beyond the realms of the CCTV camera and into the digital world.

All images used belong to their respective owners as referenced in the sources section at the back of this book (except those that are credited author).

2. 4. 6. 9. 12. 15. 17. 19. 21. 23.

In t r od uct ion . Past. - Religion and the Omnipresent. - Spatialisation of Power. Present - One Planet Under CCTV. - The Information Portrait. F ut ur e. - Are We Living In a Sci-Fi Future?. - Motifs of Surveillance. Conc lus ion . S o ur c e s. A ppe n dix.

 TELESCREEN
WITH ITS

HE THOUGHT OF THE

NEVER SLEEPING COULD EAR.THEYSPY ON YOU NIGHT DA Y

YOU COULD STILL OUTWIT THEM.

YOURHEAD

BUT IF YOU KEPT

&

- George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1947)

In t r od uct ion

the watchful eyes of surveillance, it is more important than ever to understand why and how we are being watched and who exactly is watching. In this essay I intend to explore the causes and consequences of a surveillance culture, understanding how these forces act within space and place. Looking from an architectural sense, the way surveillance occupies and defines space is decisive in how it relates to society as a whole, essentially becoming accepted and finding its place within that society. By using time as a vehicle for exploration, we can understand how surveillance has operated, does operate and could operate within society. Looking at past examples and origins of surveillance provides a context to modern perceptions and applications, therefore allowing us to speculate as to the future of a surveillant society. For the purpose of understanding the capabilities of surveillance, it becomes important that we look at surveillance as much more than the photographic image; as it is generally understood today. We should instead look at it as a gathering of information or data, our very own information portrait.

In a society where it has become almost impossible to escape

Science fiction provides an interesting outlet here as it covers every tense; being conceived by the author in the past, understood by the reader or viewer in the present, and speculating about the future. It allows us to pose the question of whether or not we already live in a science fiction society and to what extent we realise it. These themes of paranoia, transparency and hierarchy that recur in surveillance-based science fiction are arguably becoming apparent in modern societies across the world, particularly when looking at older speculations such as Orwells telescreen, a precursor to CCTV. One certainty is that these mechanics are not printed in black and white as they are in a novel and we must in fact peel back the layers of illusion and deception in order to make any sort of speculation of reality. I believe that looking at the way surveillance occupies space and place in both the imagined and real world offers a lucrative perspective of its trajectory.*

*Trajectory - noun - The path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time.(1)

1. Memidex, -Trajectory, http://www.memidex.com/trajectory [accessed 13 Jan 2013]

Past
Rel ig ion and t h e Omni pr e se nt

The fundamental goal of the surveillant society is that of omnipres-

ence. This theory of the all-seeing eye that we associate with modern mass surveillance and Big Brother has actually existed throughout history as a control mechanism. Take for example the Eye of Providence, the christian symbol of the all-seeing eye of god, that has even been adapted and used on the official Great Seal of the United States and printed on perhaps the most ubiquitous monument of American culture, the $1 bill, since 1935.(2) Although historically not a physical presence in society and space, the Eye of Providence exists as a method of self-surveillance, using fear to influence the thoughts and actions of people as modern surveillance methods aspire to do. It does, however, exist in a physical form through the act of being printed in abundance and finding its way into every purse, wallet and childs pocket across the USA. This subtle way in which methods of surveillance (although in this case a method of self-surveillance) occupy space and society should be understood by people, particularly designers of space.

Fig. A Eye of Providence (as shown on US dollar bill).

2. Pfiester, R. Have You Ever Wondered About the Back of a $1 Bill?, Rons Currency, http://www.ronscurrency.com/roner.htm#SEAL_REV [accessed 19 Dec 2012]

In a much more physical and spatial sense, the religious shrine or monument has often been considered as an intensifier of a power relationship. Joseph Piro uses the example of Rajaraja Temple in Southern India; it stands today in a tradition that has utilized architecture as a metalanguage, a visual symbol of a power relationship between sovereign and subject. (3) He suggests that the temple was constructed, somewhat successfully, to maintain power and hegemony over a society. We can understand this spatial hierarchy in a contemporary context by looking at large corporations and the buildings they inhabit, as an indicator of power within society. The importance of building up and over is obviously apparent in both contexts; the act of looking out at those below you and observing their actions, a simple act of surveillance.

Fig. B Rajaraja Temple, Thanjavur, India

Surveillance - From verb surveiller [French] (oversee, watch), from sur- over + veiller to watch(4)

3. Piro, J.M. Foucault and the Architecture of Surveillance: Creating Regimes of Power in Schools, Shrines, and Society, Educational Studies: A Journal of the American Educational Studies Association (2008), 44:1, p30-46 4. Dictionary.com, -Surveillance, Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition, http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/surveil lance?s=t [accessed 14 Jan 2013]

The biblical story of the Tower of Babel is perhaps the most profound example of a religious architectural intensifier of power and also has a strong relation to modern society. The tower was built by people of Earth, united with one language after the Great Flood. It was seen by God as an act of defiance and as a result he scattered the people across Earth and confused their languages so they could not communicate, causing the tower to remain unbuilt.(5) We can attribute the ideas of this homogenous society to globalization, looking at the tower as a symbol of absolute despotism and authority, a Big Brother figure surveying society below. It appears that in an age before mass-surveillance, this idea of an all-powerful, omnipresent religious power structure would be used to control and manipulate society. And perhaps with the development of mass-surveillance technologies, religion has lost its place as a method of control, particularly in large, developed cities where religion is much less a part of peoples life; instead becoming replaced with surveillance as we know it today.

S pat i al i sat ion of Pow er

With examples such as the monument and tower we can see that space has always been used as a method of societal regulation and control; Architecture, through the interaction of its symbolic and physical spatial components, is inseparable from manifestation of power. (6) One of the most important historical developments in

5.International Bible Society, Holy Bible (NIV International Version), (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2002), Genesis 11:1-9 6. Robert, R. L.-P. & Robert, V. P. Distructuring Utopias, Architectural Design, 79 (2009),p. 45.

this power-architecture relationship is Jeremy Benthams Panopticon in the late 18th century. The Panopticon, intended to reform prison inmates through the method of surveillance, featured a central guard room from which you could see into each prisoners cell. The most important aspect was that while the guards could monitor each inmate, the prisoners could not see into the guard room, not knowing whether they were being watched at any particular time. The design itself acts as a manifestation of dominance and paranoia; the power system of one social group controlling another can be seen as a mechanism for coding their reciprocal relationships at a level that includes the movement of the body in space as well as its surveillance. (7) Using surveillance itself, the Panopticon manages to discipline through architecture and space. The idea of knowing you could be under surveillance at any given point leads you to believe you are in fact constantly under surveillance. In a way, this becomes an example of omnipresence, whereby being confined to such a space you become aware of Fig. C your every action and the fear Benthams Panopticon of punishment. Hille Koskela argues that while the panopticon ostensibly keeps the body entrapped, it is in fact targeted at the psyche: in this mechanism the soul is the prison of the body. (8) The comparisons between the Panopticon and George Orwells Nineteen Eighty-Four are apparent in several aspects; both devices used in the book, the Telescreen and Thought Police, can be seen as developments of the Panopticon in the sense that they offer a constant notion of surveillance, whether or not you are actually being watched.

How often, or on what system, the Thought Police plugged in on any individual wire was guesswork. It was even conceivable that they watched everybody all the time. (9) For me, this model shows how much our so-called free thought can be influenced by external sources such as architecture and surveillance; how it occupies the space in our head. The idea of the Thought Police is the epitome of a surveillant culture, however, I feel its main function is not to actively survey but instead to passively influence the way people actually think and act accordingly. The collage below explores the influence of surveillance in the way we think and poses the question; are our thoughts really our own?

Fig. D - Mind Control - (Author) 7. Lawrence, D. L. & Low, S. M. The Built Environment and Spatial Form. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19 (1990), 453-505. 8. Koskela, H. The gaze without eyes: video-surveillance and the changing nature of urban space (2000), University of Helsinki, http://www.geog.psu. edu/courses/geog497b/readings/koskela.pdf#search=%22video%20surveillance%20panopticon%22 [accessed 12 Dec 2012]. 9. Orwell, G. Nineteen Eighty-Four, (New York: Harcourt, 1949).

P r e se nt
One Pl ane t U nder CC T V

as technology develops so does thought and application of surveillance. In its primitive form we are left with the CCTV camera, an icon that juxtaposes both protection and oppression simultaneously, considered in Orwellian terms, an example of Doublethink.(10) Benthams Panopticon and Orwells Telescreen can be attributed to the birth of CCTV in the sense that they are essentially the same Fig. E - British street artist Banksys concept, a one-way mirror that One Nation Under CCTV divides and defines space. This mechanism allows one group to exercise power over another, much like the Panopticon on a larger scale, and in doing this attribute towards social hierarchies within that society. The relationship between architecture and CCTV is interesting as it follows a parasite-host pattern, with the exception of institutional spaces such as schools, asylums and prisons that are designed with surveillance in mind. The result of this is a dissonance between architectural conceived space and retrofitted surveillance systems.

Naturally,

10. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, p.5 (See Appendix).

Ridley Scotts 1982 film, Blade Runner (based on Phillip K. Dicks 1968 novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?), deals with similar themes. One of the main aesthetic elements of the film is the idea of a retrofitted city(11), a city where new technology grows like a parasite on the architecture of the past. The nature of CCTV as a parasitic object that is purely functional and unsympathetic to its context is probably partly responsible for the negative connotations it receives from the public.

Fig. F - Los Angeles as portrayed in Blade Runner (1982)

Without doubt, CCTV has a huge effect on the spaces we occupy as a society and the UK is a prime example of a nation strongly affected by it; as Kevin Haggerty rightly states, The minute you arrive in England, from the ferry port to the train station to the city centres, youre being CCTVd. (12) It has the ability to define and divide spaces as Paul Goss explains; Boundaries are set up where cameras cover, or end coverage, implying a change in space, social contact, and control. (13)An important point to consider is that perception of these thresholds is dependent on how the individual relates to surveillance as views among the public vary considerably. For example, an advocate of CCTV might attain feelings of security and protection while under surveillance; on the other hand, opposition of surveillance might instead feel oppressed or paranoid. For this reason it becomes difficult for a designer of space to design with surveillance in mind.
11. Blade Runner, Dir. Ridley Scott, Warner Brothers (1982), Film. 12. Haggerty, K. D. & Ericson, R. V. The Surveillant Assemblage, The British Journal of Sociology, 51-4 (2000), pp. 605-622. 13. Goss, P. Surveillance, Architecture and Society (2010), Architecture Anthropology Collective, http://ezinearticles.com/?Surveillance,-Archi tecture-and-Society&id=3557213 [accessed 12 Dec 2012].

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In a post 9-11 age in which surveillance plays a huge part in our culture, we can see how architecture is beginning to be shaped by surveillance as opposed to surveillance acting like a parasite. This type of architectural design has previously been exclusive to institutional spaces such as schools, prisons and hospitals but is now becoming prevalent in everyday public spaces such as shopping malls and public parks. The ability of architecture to regulate and control is well documented; architecture can be substituted or used in conjunction with traditional regulatory mechanisms, such as the law or social norms, (14) and in this case, surveillance. The shopping mall is a primary example of architecture influenced by surveillance, often related to the prison in terms of its panopticism. The role of the guard is replaced by the consumer being able to view each and every part of the mall from any point and the role of the prisoner is replaced by the retailer, presenting themselves in the best way possible and adapting to the demands and habits of the consumer.(15) Looking at Plymouths Drake Circus, built in 2006, we can immediately recognize similar features to the panoptic prison theory.

Fig. G - Drake Circus, Plymouth

Fig. H - Kilmainham Jail, Dublin

14. Shah, R. C., & Kesan, J. P. How Architecture Regulates (2004), Govern ing With Code, http://www.governingwithcode.org/journal_articles/pdf/ How_Architecture_Regulates.pdf [accessed 14 Dec 2012]. 15. Helten, F. & Fischer, B. Reactive Attention: Video Surveillance in Ber lin Shopping Malls, Surveillance and Society, 2-2/3 (2004) pp. 323-345.

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The I nf or mat ion Port rai t

As mentioned earlier, surveillance in the modern world is much

more than the photographic. In one week, the average British citizen has 3254 entries of personal information stored in databases containing information such as shopping preferences, internet history and locations at certain times of the day.(16) This detailed digital data portrait is as much a form of surveillance as the CCTV camera or satellite and can also be considered in terms of space, even if it is heterotopic in nature. Although much more subtle in nature, this form of surveillance is in fact a much larger part of peoples lives and without doubt a much more invasive breach of privacy. A networked information-based society is inherently a surveillance society in which resources and services (hence consumer satisfaction, power and control) are allocated by abstracted classification and automated personalization. (17) The key phrase here is automated personalization, referring to a virtual persona of the consumer that inhabits a virtual space. In a society that is placing more and more of its fabric in a digital online world there becomes increasing need for a virtual variety of surveillance. Looking at China as a case study reveals the extremes of internet surveillance and censorship through a society that although technologically proficient, still faces strong state oppression and control.(18) This strict policing of virtual space is debatably unsuccessful and proving detrimental to the dictatorial regime in China and raises the theory that virtual space is much harder to control in terms of surveillance.(19)
16. Gray, R. How Big Brother Watches Your Every Move (2008), The Telegraph Online, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2571041/How-Big-Brother-watchesyour-every-move.html# [accessed 29 Dec 2012]. 17. Taipale, K. The Surveillance Society (2011), Center for Advanced Studies in Sci ence and Technology Policy, http://surveillance-society.info [accessed 29Dec2012]. 18. Hong, J. & Wong, S.S. Discourse behind the Forbidden Realm: Internet surveil lance and its implications on Chinas blogosphere, Telematics and Informatics, 27-1 (2010), p. 67 19. Hong & Wong, Forbidden Realm, p. 68

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In this collage I have tried to collate the idea of society occupying virtual space, a product of modernity and technological advancement. By representing the city as a computer system, the physical space that this virtual world actually inhabits, we can draw comparisons with the architectural grid system that can often be attributed to utopian visions of a city. Perhaps also as a system of components designed to manipulate energy (symbolising society) in a particular way.

Fig. I - Circuitboard City - (Author)

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Every breath you take

And every move you make Ill be watching you Every single day

Every bond you break, every step you take

And every word you say Ill be watching you

Every game you play, every night you stay

The Police - Every Breath You Take (20)

20. Police, The. Every Breath You Take, Synchronicity, A&M Records (1983). (See Appendix).

F u t ur e
Ar e We Liv i ng I n A Sc i - Fi Fut ur e ?

By

picking apart science fiction works we can start to unravel themes and motifs that are developed from past and present surveillance themes. Take Orwells Nineteen Eighty-Four for example; as early as the 1970s it was observed that a surprising amount of what Orwell imagined now seems plausible.(21) Sociologist David Lyon goes on to explain this in further detail, noting that Orwells dystopian vision (along with Benthams Panopticon) can offer clues as to what contemporary surveillance culture is all about.(22) The only real technological advancement that is yet to be realised in some form is related to the mind, such as Nineteen Eighty-Fours Thought Police. In some ways you could argue that the information portrait is attempting to do just this; gather enough information regarding our habits and movements to make educated guesses as to which consumer product we will need next or what our favorite route through the local supermarket is. With such a large amount of surveillance-related discourse being based around Nineteen Eighty-Four and the Panopticon there is no reason why we cant explore other works of science fiction in a similar way. The first major Sci-fi movie, Fritz Langs Metropolis (1927), offers some interesting thoughts that we dont usually associate with surveillance. Foremost is the theme of mind, hand and heart; the plot focuses around a city separated into two classes, the workers and thinkers, and uses the biblical story of the Tower

21. Martin, J. & Norman, A. The Computerized Society, (New York: Penguin, 1973). p. 52 22. Lyon, D. The Electronic Eye: The Rise of Surveillance Society, (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994). Pp. 57-58

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of Babel as a metaphor for the communication breakdown between these classes - symbolised as the mind and hands.(23) The relation to Babel comes in the way that the minds that designed the tower didnt communicate with the workers they hired and as a result the tower was left unfinished. In a modern context we can understand this in terms of transparency between society and state and how honesty is an important aspect of surveillance, whether for policing or marketing reasons. This is where the heart comes into the situation as a mediator between mind and hand, a marker of rational thought completing this personification of society.

Fig. J - New Tower of Babel as shown in Metropolis.

Perhaps instead we can gather clues from Scotts Blade Runner, where the film sympathises with this modern obsession of voyeurism and escapism that is epitomised in the Big Brother television show.(24) As Robert and Robert would say, The information society is rooted in voyeurism and escapism. The effect of constant media saturation is similar to perceiving a multitude of stimuli simultaneously. The omnipresent Orwellian viewer desires technological supremacy and a capacity for surveillance that brings power and God-like control. (25)
23. Metropolis, Dir. Fritz Lang, UFA (1927), Film. 24. McGrath, J.E. Loving Big Brother: Performance, Privacy and Surveillance Space, (London: Routledge, 2004). p. VI 25. Robert & Robert, Distructuring Utopias, p. 44.

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God-like control can be interpreted in Blade Runner in the form of the replicant, an artificial clone of a human or animal created by humans. Bearing in mind the original novel, P. K. Dicks Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep, was written well before issues of genetic cloning came to mainstream attention in the media (and even before that Aldous Huxleys Brave New World in 1932),(26) the predictions made have a strong contemporary context in a hotly debated scientific topic. In terms of surveillance theory, the issue of cloning makes for an interesting parallel in the way that it creates ultimate power of one group over another, much similar to the state-controlled dystopia of Nineteen Eighty-Four.

Mo t i f s of S urv e i l l anc e

Looking at spaces created through science-fiction works and the

way they are ordered and regulated can also draw connections to present day spaces and give designers of space a touchstone to work with. The Ministry of Truth [...] was startlingly different from any other object in sight. It was an enormous pyramidal structure of glittering white concrete, soaring up, terrace after terrace, 300 metres into the air. (27) Through Orwells description of the authoritarian architecture of Nineteen Eighty-Four, one can not help but draw comparisons to modern day examples such as Renzo Pianos Shard (2012). The pyramid motif is often connected to authoritarian architecture and surveillance, appearing in many works of science fiction. This can perhaps be attributed to its religious context (appearing on the Eye of Providence) and the authoritarian nature in which the great pyramids were constructed.

26. Huxley, A. Brave New World, (New York: Harper Collins, 1932). 27. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four, pp. 5-6.

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This image explores spatial relationships between buildings in a Big Brother context. By referring back to the historical notion of surveillance, literally looking down over others from as high as possible, we can start to understand how this is instead used metaphorically in todays world of surveillance.
Fig. K - Authoricity - (Author)

Conc lus ion

Through the understanding of this space-place-surveillance relationship as a complex, reciprocal system, we can only make educated speculations as to how events will unfold. Capabilities of surveillance, as Lyon comments, are undergoing certain rapid changes [...] so it is hard to get a handle on exactly what is happening. (28) I believe the world of science fiction can, however, offer clues to the consequences of a surveillant society and supply us with possible remedies. In a subject that entails such a broad spectrum of issues and infinite possibilities, science fiction allows us to refine these possibilities into a realised form. One piece of science fiction can only cover one possibility but with such a range of science fiction available it becomes possible to gather and collate these theories and ideas and analyse common areas of interest. From considering surveillance in past, present and future it allows us to see how motifs of surveillance have developed through history. I believe this is a way in which we can interpret these clues and remedies and is, in essence, what good science fiction does. Considering the place of surveillance in todays society, it is becoming more of an issue that architecture embraces these issues. Designers of space should consider the way in which surveillance can influence architecture and vice versa, ultimately trying to find sympathy between the two. Perhaps the traditional view of architecture as a static feature of the environment is becoming dated in an age where technology advances at such speed and unpredictability. While it is important that we as a society understand that surveillance is a part of our culture and probably always will be, a healthy opposition must be maintained for the purpose of avoiding an Orwellian dystopia; society should learn to live with a surveillant culture, but not let it overwhelm us.

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20

28. Lyon, Electronic Eye, pg. 223.

A ppe n dix
doublethink - Reality Control. The power to hold two completely contradictory beliefs in ones mind simultaneously, and accept both of them. An excellent example of doublethink in modern society is the war on drugs. If you ask people their opinion on alcohol prohibition in the 1920s, most people would agree that it was a complete failure. People agree that it only caused more crime, it made gangsters rich, it corrupted politicians, and most importantly ... it didnt keep people from drinking. Yet, we have almost the exact same situation today with war on drugs, yet most people think that our modern prohibition is a good idea ... and more than that, they believe that anybody that thinks that the war on drugs isnt a good idea must be completely out of their minds. In order for a person to be effective at doublethink, they must master the art of crimestop. This word has made its way into the Merriam-Webster dictionary: doublethink (d&-b&l-thi[ng]k), noun, Date: 1949 : a simultaneous belief in two contradictory ideas. Here is how Winston Smith described doublethink in the novel: To know and not to know, to be conscious of complete truthfulness while telling carefully constructed lies, to hold simultaneously two opin ions which cancelled out, knowing them to be contradictory and believing in both of them, to use logic against logic, to repudiate morality while laying claim to it, to believe that democracy was impossible and that the Party was the guardian of democracy, to forget whatever it was necessary to forget, then to draw it back into memory again at the moment when it was needed, and then promptly to forget it again: and above all, to apply the same process to the process itself. That was the ultimate subtlety: consciously to induce unconsciousness, and then, once again, to become unconscious of the act of hypnosis you had just performed. Even to understand the word doublethink involved the use of doublethink. Source: http://www.newspeakdictionary.com/ns-dict.html

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12.01.83 NEW MUSICAL EXPRESS The following interview with Richard Cook appeared in a December 1983 issue of New Musical Express magazine... Is Every Breath You Take is a song of personal sadness to you? I dont think its a sad song. I think its a nasty little song, really rather evil. Its about jealousy and surveillance and ownership. How does that quality survive in its transmission through a massively exposed record and these concerts? I think the ambiguity is intrinsic in the song however you treat it because the words are so sadistic. On one level, its a nice long song with the classic relative minor chords, and underneath theres this distasteful character talking about watching every move. I enjoy that ambiguity. I watched Andy Gibb singing it with some girl on TV a couple of weeks ago, very loving, and totally misinterpreting it. (Laughter) I could still hear the words, which arent about love at all. I expect you took some pleasure In that. Great pleasure. I pissed myself laughing.

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S o ur c e s
Dictionary.com, -Surveillance, Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 10th Edition, http://dictionary.reference.com/ browse/surveillance?s=t [accessed 14 Jan 2013] Fritz, L, Metropolis, UFA (1927), Film. Goss, P. Surveillance, Architecture and Society (2010), Architecture Anthropology Collective, http://ezinearticles.com/?Surveillance,-Architecture-and-Society&id=3557213 [accessed 12 Dec 2012]. Haggerty, K. D. & Ericson, R. V. The Surveillant Assemblage, The British Journal of Sociology, 51-4 (2000), pp. 605-622. Helten, F. & Fischer, B. Reactive Attention: Video Surveillance in Berlin Shopping Malls, Surveillance and Society, 2-2/3 (2004) pp. 323-345. Hong, J. & Wong, S.S. Discourse behind the Forbidden Realm: Internet surveillance and its implications on Chinas blogosphere, Telematics and Informatics, 27-1 (2010), pp. 67-78 Huxley, A. Brave New World, (New York: Harper Collins, 1932). International Bible Society, Holy Bible (NIV International Version), (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2002), Genesis 11:1-9 Koskela, H. The gaze without eyes: video-surveillance and the changing nature of urban space (2000), University of Helsinki, http://www.geog.psu.edu/courses/geog497b/readings/koskela. pdf#search=%22video%20surveillance%20panopticon%22 [accessed 12 Dec 2012]. Lawrence, D. L. & Low, S. M. The Built Environment and Spatial Form. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19 (1990), 453-505.

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Martin, J. & Norman, A. The Computerized Society, (New York: Penguin, 1973). McGrath, J.E. Loving Big Brother: Performance, Privacy and Surveillance Space, (London: Routledge, 2004). P. Vi Memidex, -Trajectory, http://www.memidex.com/trajectory [accessed 13 Jan 2013] Orwell, G. Nineteen Eighty-Four, (New York: Harcourt, 1949). Pfiester, R. Have You Ever Wondered About the Back of a $1 Bill?, Rons Currency, http://www.ronscurrency.com/roner.htm#SEAL_ REV [accessed 19 Dec 2012] Police, The. Every Breath You Take, Synchronicity, A&M Records (1983). Piro, J.M. Foucault and the Architecture of Surveillance: Creating Regimes of Power in Schools, Shrines, and Society, Educational Studies: A Journal of the American Educational Studies Association (2008), 44:1, p30-46 Robert, R. L.-P. & Robert, V. P. Distructuring Utopias, Architectural Design, 79 (2009),4249. Scott, R., Blade Runner, Warner Brothers (1982), Film. Shah, R. C., & Kesan, J. P. How Architecture Regulates (2004), Governing With Code, http://www.governingwithcode.org/journal_articles/pdf/How_Architecture_Regulates.pdf [accessed 14 Dec 2012]. Taipale, K. The Surveillance Society (2011), Center for Advanced Studies in Science and Technology Policy, http://surveillance-society.info [accessed 29 Dec 2012].

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I mag e s

A Unknown, http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1164/1415526476_
a434bb5648.jpg

B World Heritage Sites, http://worldhetitagesites.blogspot.

co.uk/2012/01/great-living-chola-temples.html case/2012/l/1331_16115218513.jpg

C Bentham, J. http://www.presidentsmedals.com/showD Author (Ryan Blackford), composite images found using google
searches and belong to respective owners.

E Daily Mail, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-559547/Graffiti-artist-Banksy-pulls-audacious-stunt-date--despite-watched com/2010/04/blade_runner1.jpg sizes/l/in/photostream/ age/832-03641025/

F Anderson, H. http://underthehollywoodsign.files.wordpress. G Spencer, A. http://www.flickr.com/photos/ajnspencer/1107069405/ H IIC, http://www.masterfile.com/stock-photography/imI Author (Ryan Blackford), composite images found using google
searches and belong to respective owners. er-of-babel.png

J Freund, K. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metropolis-new-towK Author (Ryan Blackford), composite images found using google
searches and belong to respective owners.

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