Starvation in Ad-hoc and Mesh Networks: Modeling, Solutions, and Measurements

Jingpu Shi Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Rice University Houston, TX 77005
Abstract In this thesis, starvation is dened as the phenomena where a ow receives throughput persistently and severely lower than its reference rate. Throughout the thesis, I investigate the cause of starvation, explore its solution space, and present mechanisms to counter starvation in both ad-hoc and mesh networks where CSMA protocols are deployed as the medium access mechanism. I rst show that the root cause for starvation is incomplete and asymmetric channel state perceived by different stations even in very simple multi-hop scenario consisting of only two one-hop ows. Other factors that can contribute to starvation include closed-loop congestion control, multi-channel coordination, and imperfect clock synchronization. I analyze the effect of these factors on starvation by simulations, analysis and real world experiments. Motived by the analysis, I devise a protocol that utilizes multiple channels to counter starvation in ad-hoc networks, and propose a contention window policy to counter starvation in mesh networks.

highest to the lowest. The diagonal is the Lorenz curve if all ows achieve equal throughput. The Lorenz curve of 802.11 and slotted aloha deviates from the diagonal because the throughput ows achieve is different. The Lorenz curve deviates from the diagonal more as the degree of inequalities increases. The gini index is dened as the ratio of the area between the Lorenz curve and the diagonal over the whole area of the upper half triangle.
1
Fraction of aggregate throughput

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2 802.11 Slotted Aloha 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 top x flows 35 40 45 50

I. I NTRODUCTION A. Starvation Denition and Quantication Denition I dene starvation of an end-to-end ow as the phenomena in which the throughput of this ow is severely and persistently lower than its reference rate (which will be dened below). Starvation of a network occurs if any of the ows in the network receives throughput severely and persistently lower than its reference rate. Reference Rate To establish the reference rate, I use Slotted Aloha networks as the reference system, as suggested in [18]. In a Slotted Aloha network, nodes transmit in each slot with xed probability without sensing the carrier. In previous study [29], transmission probability is computed for each ow in the network to achieve proportional fair rates. In our reference system, we set the transmission probability for each link to the same value as in [29] to achieve proportional rates, which are used as our reference rates. Quantication To describe the metrics that we use to quantify starvation, we use an example of a multi-hop network consisting of 50 randomly placed ows. In the plots we show below, the 50 ows are sorted in descending order of the throughput achieved with IEEE 802.11. Some of the following metrics that quantatively capture starvation are also dened in [18]. Gini Index. The Gini index is derived from the Lorenz curve, which in Figure 1 plots the cumulative share of aggregate throughput achieved by 802.11 and slotted aloha ranked from the

Fig. 1.

Lorenz curves of 802.11 vs. slotted system

Poverty Index. The poverty index is dened as the ratio between ows achieving higher throughput in a specic protocol than in Slotted Aloha and the total number of ows in the network. Poverty index measures the fraction of ows that are better off in a specic protocol than in the reference system. Disproportional Index. To dene disproportional index, let N -dimensional vectors x and y denote the throughput achieved by the ows in the interested protocol and the reference system, respectively. Let denote the angle between vector x and y. The dis-proportionality index D is dened as: D = 1 cos = 1
N i=1 N i=1

xi yi
N i=1 2 yi

(1)

x2 i

Starvation Index. Detailed discussions of the aforementioned metrics can be found in [18]. While these metrics capture starvation for all ows as a whole in the network, they do not reect the severity of starvation on the level of individual ows. For example, in a network with a large number of ows, if only one ow receives zero throughput while all other ows receive throughput higher than their reference

rate, the metrics mentioned above would all indicate that starvation is not acute. However, starvation is severe in such networks according to our denition. To further quantify starvation, I propose Starvation Index as follows. Let ri and xi respectively denote the reference rate and the throughput achieved with an interested protocol for ow i. The Starvation Index for ow i is then computed as log (1 + xi ) , 0 xi ri , Si = log (1 + ri ) 1, xi > ri

(2)

The Starvation Index of a network is dened as the lowest Starvation Index among all individual ows in this network, S = inf {Si , 1 i N }, (3)

where N is the total number of ows in the network. B. Research Objectives The objectives of my research are to investigate the cause of starvation in both ad-hoc and mesh networks, explore its solution space, and propose solutions to counter starvation. Specically, I expect to identify and model the cause of starvation in simple twoow multi-hop topologies. explore the solution space where multiple frequency bands are used in the network, and propose a multichannel protocol to counter starvation. explore the solution space where contention between nodes is synchronized, understand the capabilities and limits of these protocols in countering starvation. investigate the cause of starvation for end-to-end multihop ows in mesh networks for both UDP and TCP trafc. For TCP trafc, propose solutions that do not require any changes of existing MAC protocol to counter starvation. evaluate effectiveness of proposed solution for TCP trafc in mesh network both by simulations and hardware implementation. C. Research Plan Starvation in Ad-hoc Networks To understand the cause of starvation in ad-hoc networks, I decompose such a network into building blocks, each consisting of four nodes and two ows. As the relative geometric positions of the two ows with respect to each other may have signicant impact on their starvation characteristics, I study all twelve possible topologies that arise according to whether the different nodes are in radio range of each other. I then perform simulations to characterize the long-term performance in each of the twelve scenarios. To further understand the cause of starvation and capture the effect of system parameters on starvation, I classify them based on their geometric properties and develop analytical models to characterize the performance in topologies where starvation arises. The study of two ows leads to the following ndings: in multi-hop CSMA networks, starvation arises due to (1) scarce wireless network resources as the medium is shared by all

ows in the same contention region, (2) geometric difference that leads to different ows having different information of the channel, and (3) misaligned contention due to which the ow with geometric disadvantages has to randomly identify very limited transmission opportunities and therefore incur high collision probability. Correspondingly, the solution space of the starvation problem consists of the three subspaces where the three conditions/constraints are respectively eliminated or alleviated. To address (1), namely scarce resource, multiple channel can be added to the network. To address (2), namely asymmetric channel information, message exchange between ows carrying channel information is needed. To address (3), namely the misaligned contention problem, the contention between different nodes can be synchronized. In my research, I investigate the solution space where (1) and (3) are addressed: I explore the solution space where more frequency bands are introduced into the network and the space where contention is synchronized. To address starvation, more capacity can be made available by adding multiple channels to the network. Indeed, if every node is equipped with sufcient number of orthogonal channels and transceiver so that each transmission in the same contention region is scheduled on a different channel, starvation would not occur. However, in practice only a limited number of transceivers and orthogonal channels are available. With this practical constraints, not only the distribution but the coordination of the transmissions across different channels are the key to efciently address starvation. I identify generic multi-channel coordination problems which, if not addressed appropriately, may lead to starvation that does not exist in single-channel protocols. I then revisit the basic design principles of multi-channel MAC protocols and design a multi-channel protocol with the objective of increasing perow throughput in the network by addressing both singlechannel and multi-channel coordination problems. I analyze the designed protocol and derive an approximate lower bound on the throughput of any ow in an arbitrary topology. Starvation can also be addressed or alleviated if the contention of the nodes is synchronized, e.g., nodes periodically contend at intervals of xed duration. In fact, there are already a broad class of CSMA protocols that use synchronized contention. Despite of this potential and the large number of such protocols, the fairness properties of synchronized contention has never been analyzed. In my thesis, I rst show the potential of synchronized contention to mitigate throughput imbalances in CSMA networks. I then introduce an analytical model that quanties the interplay and impact of the main performance factors: imperfect clock synchronization, contention window size, carrier sense, topology properties and usage of guard time. Utilizing this model, I investigate the isolated and combined impact of these factors to per-ow throughput and starvation properties in both single-hop and multi-hop networks. Through the model, I reveal conditions on protocol parameters under which starvation can occur due to losing synchronization and/or geometrical difference. It enables solutions that can offset such problems in a predictable manner. Starvation in Mesh Networks I plan to investigate starvation in mesh networks. since a mesh network can be treated as a special case of ad-

hoc networks, all the results obtained for ad-hoc networks can be applied to mesh networks. However, a mesh network has its own characteristics. For example, most trafc in the mesh network are directed to or from the wired gateway thus forming a logic routing tree. The special network structure and trafc pattern of a mesh network make it possible to investigate starvation in more depth and propose simpler solutions to counter starvation. I will rst investigate starvation for TCP ows in upload scenario, where all mesh nodes transmit TCP trafc to the wired-gateway. The fact that all trafc are directed to the gateway results in the last hop of each branch becoming the bottleneck of the network. The two-hop chain topology is the key topology for studying the network performance at the bottleneck, because this is the topology that any upstream ow has to traverse before reaching the wired-gateway. My preliminary simulation results show that starvation occurs even in this simple topology. I will proceed to perform measurements to observe whether starvation also occurs in real networks. Simple and controlled indoor experiments will be done rst, followed by more practical and outdoor ones. To understand the cause of starvation, I will propose an analytical model to predict per-ow throughput by studying the interaction between TCP congestion control and the MAC under simplied assumptions. The main challenges in the analysis are the following two aspects: (1) TCP window dynamics are closely coupled with the MAC DCF, and (2) more than 1 ow share the same medium with different channel information. I will make simplifying assumptions and propose analytical model to address these issues. The objective of the analysis is to quantatively capture starvation and gain insight how to alleviate starvation. Based on the model, I plan to propose simple solutions that require less or no changes (only parameter tuning) to the standard. I then plan to analyze the application range of the proposed solution, validate the solution through simulations, and eventually implement the solution and validate its effectiveness in real networks. As starvation also occurs to UDP ows in mesh networks, I will extend my investigation of starvation from TCP to UDP ows. I will rst examine the cause of starvation by extending previous models for one-hop ows to end-to-end ows. In the model, I will study key system factors such as minimum contention window, random backoff scheme, interframe intervals and the distance from the gateway. As IEEE 802.11e aims to provide different QoS to different trafc classes, I will evaluate the effectiveness of IEEE 802.11e in countering starvation by giving higher priorities to ows that are further away from the gateway. I will further explore other solutions to eliminate starvation in such networks. II. R ESULTS In this chapter I present the results I obtained on two-ow analysis, multi-channel protocol, and analysis of synchronized contention. A. Starvation in Two-hop Topologies: modeling Media Access in Embedded TwoFlow Topologies of Multihop Wireless Networks First, I enumerate all possible distinct congurations of two ows and classify them into three groups based on their

geometric properties: Senders Connected (SC), Asymmetric Incomplete State (AIS), and Symmetric Incomplete State (SIS). Through a spatial model, I obtain the likelihood of the scenarios and groups when nodes are placed randomly. I show that the problematic AIS and SIS groups should not be viewed as rare corner cases, but rather characterize topologies that occur with high frequency. Second, through simulations I characterize the short- and long-term performance in each of the twelve scenarios. The experiments quantify starvation of the AIS class and the seconds time-scale short-term unfairness of the SIS class. I then describe the MAC mechanisms that lead to each classs performance limits. Third, I develop an analytical model for the AIS class. I begin with a general decoupling model of IEEE 802.11 which provides key temporal embedding points that are critical for development of a Markov model for topologies in which nodes are not fully connected and performance is asymmetric. The model predicts that starvation of the AIS class is caused by incomplete channel information and the random nature of CSMA. Details of the results can be found in [19]. B. Adding Frequency Bands to Address Starvation Through examples, I rst show that multiple channels can be used to address starvation and then compare two broad classes of solutions. Then I present two generic coordination problems inherent in a multi-channel system, namely the Multi-Channel Hidden Terminal problem identied in [?] and the Missing Receiver problem which I identify in this paper. These multi-channel coordination problems manifest in both classes of solutions and may cause performance degradation if not addressed properly. I devise Asynchronous Multichannel Coordination Protocol (AMCP), a distributed medium access protocol that not only increases aggregate throughput, but more importantly, addresses the fundamental coordination problems that lead to starvation. Based on AMCPs counter-starvation mechanisms, I analytically derive and experimentally validate an approximate lower bound on the throughput of any ow in an arbitrary topology. The basic technique is to construct a hypothetical, low-throughput scenario on the control channel and to model the impact of the aggregate channel hopping pattern of the interfering ows. The lower bound depends on system parameters and the number of interfering nodes within the neighborhood of each ow. Therefore, it can be computed using only local information. I demonstrate via simulations that AMCP can deliver signicantly higher perow throughput than both IEEE 802.11 and existing multichannel solutions. More detailed results can be found in [43] C. Analysis on Synchronized CSMA In this work, I rst show the potentials of this protocol family in terms of addressing starvation. I then characterize their performance when synchronization is lost and identify condition that lead to starvation because of losing synchronization. I then identify the main factors that affect the fairness properties of S-CSMA, namely imperfect synchronization, control packet size and guard time. I introduce a Markovian model

for throughput prediction that incorporates clock phase drifts. Through the analytical model, I nd that in a network where all nodes are in transmission range, ows with the earliest (latest) clock phases receive maximum (minimum) throughput and that minimum throughput decreases exponentially with clock phase drift. I extend the model to multi-hop networks and nd out that ows with the earliest clocks do not necessarily receive the highest throughput. Instead, they may even receive zero throughput under certain conditions that I identify. I next consider arbitrary topologies and introduce an approximate model that lower bounds throughput for guardtime systems. The model reveals that the throughput of each ow depends on its own contention window size and the harmonic mean of the contention window sizes of its one-hop interferers. In addition, if a ow has a topology and/or clock phase disadvantage, its throughput will decrease exponentially with respect to control packet size and/or the average relative phase of its one-hop interferers, respectively. The model also reveals that this disadvantage cannot be offset by making this ow more aggressive (i.e., by decreasing its contention window), but only by making its interfering ows less aggressive (namely, by increasing the harmonic mean of their contention windows). III. R ELATED W ORK A. Starvation modeling and analysis. Models for single-cell CSMA networks. There is a large body of work on single-cell modeling [5], [30], [42], [6]. In this thesis, I focus on modeling multi-hop wireless networks. Models for multi-hop CSMA networks. Throughput analysis on multi-hop CSMA networks is presented in [39], [40], [21], [46]. None of these works captures sophisticated behavior of CSMA. In [39], [40], a queuing analysis of Scenario 11 neglects the time between retransmissions (i.e. the backoff delay) and assumes that (ii) the maximum number of retransmissions allowed for each packet is unlimited. In [21] the authors neglect the impact of the binary exponential backoff. In [46] does not model the Binary Exponential Backoff mechanism and all nodes are assumed to transmit independently according to some Poisson point process. In contrast, the analysis in this thesis incorporates all details of 802.11 DCF, applies to both saturated and nonsaturated conditions, incorporates variable packet sizes, and shows the signicant impact of the maximum retransmission limit and access method (two- or four-way handshake). [36] proposes a framework that models various systemwide fairness model via the specication of per-ow utilization functions. The framework captures different contention level at different nodes but not asymmetric view of the channel that exists in nodes even the the same number of contenders. [7] introduces a modeling frame work for predicting throughput of any one-hop ow in any topology. However, in this model, once the system parameters(minimum and maximum contention window) are xed, the transmission probability is only dictated by the conditional collision probability. However, our two-ow model captures that fact that even the conditional probability is zero, the transmission probability can still be very low. Our analytical model in mesh networks differs with their model in that we compute end-to-end ows and also consider the interaction across layer.

TCP models in wireless networks. [15] only considers aggregate throughput of a single ow. Further more, queue occupancy at different nodes is not considered. [20] only focus on single-cell networks. In this thesis, I investigate the contention between different ows in mesh networks. B. Solutions countering starvation. Improving fairness through scheduled access. Scheduled access (TDMA) protocols [12], [13], [14], [33], [55], [56], [8], [45], [2] can operate with a single transceiver, support both single or multiple channels and provide fair or minimum rate guarantees by establishing and maintaining conict-free transmission schedules. These interference-free scheduling algorithms share some common disadvantages. In all the above work, an implicit assumption is that all clocks are accurately synchronized throughout the network. Regardless of many synchronization protocol, this is difcult to achieve in practice, especially in multi-hop wireless networks. And it is not clear what is the impact of relaxing the synchronization assumption on the results obtained in the above works. Many of the scheduling algorithms are centralized and require global information of the network. Distributed versions are presented for some of the centralized algorithms mentioned above. However, distributed scheduling algorithms will either not yield a performance bound, or only guarantees a bound that is only a fraction of the optimal. Further more, in practice, if a ow demand changes for one link, re-computation and re-dissemination of the schedule may be needed, which yields additional overhead. Currently, CSMA protocols represented by IEEE 802.11 dominate in multi-hop networks. In this thesis, we focus on CSMA instead of scheduled access mentioned in above works. Improving fairness in CSMA networks. Distributed CSMA-based MAC protocols that provide fair access by enhancing coordination of transmissions over a single channel have been proposed in [16], [22], [25], [34], [36], [38], [23], [28], [27]. In this thesis, I alleviate starvation by using multiple channels. The schemes proposed in the papers mentioned above can not be extended to networks where multiple channels are deployed in a straightforward manner, because multi-channel coordination problems must be considered and addressed. A number of receiver-based access mechanisms, in which channel contention is initiated by the receiver, not the sender, have been proposed to improve fairness and performance in various scenarios [4], [17], [47]. The Request-for-Request-toSend (RRTS) solution is an example receiver-oriented mechanism originally proposed in MACAW [4]: whenever a station receives an RTS to which it cannot respond (due to deferral), it contends during the next contention period on behalf of the sender, reserving the channel by means of an additional control packet called RRTS. The RRTS message solicits the sender to immediately send a new RTS. This solution has a fundamental limitation in the fact that it requires the receiver of a ow to correctly decode the RTS packet sent by the sender. Unfortunately, this occurs extremely rarely when a transmission attempt is not successful. Improving fairness for TCP ows. There is an extensive body of work on TCP optimization and improvement. Packet

losses in the highly varying wireless environment are differentiated from congestive losses in [11], [52]. In [32], a Neighborhood RED scheme is proposed to extend the concept of Random Early Detection scheme to distributed neighborhood queue. In [15], link RED and adaptive pacing are proposed to increase aggregate throughput by reacting earlier to link overload and improving spatial reuse. In [51], the authors propose to reduce TCP timeouts for mobility-induced losses by making routing protocols aware of lost data packets and ACKs. In [9], a utilization maximization problem is formulated and solved by the joint design of congestion control and MAC for ad hoc networks. [32] improves TCP fairness by dynamically exchanging message to inform each others channel state. [51], [24] improves TCP throughput in presence of mobility, no fairness issues are addressed. In [49], an enhanced DCF is proposed, and shown to improve TCP fairness in WLAN. The work in this thesis differs from all these works in that I provide a solution that does not require any changes to TCP, and is completely compatible to IEEE 802.11 DCF. Improving fairness using Multiple channels. Distributed contention-based CSMA multi-channel protocols have been proposed in [1], [26], [37], [44], [50]. Regardless of assumptions on hardware or infrastructure support, all protocols in [1], [3], [26], [37], [44], [50] have focused on increasing aggregate network throughput and do not provide any form of analytical per-ow throughput guarantees. Contention window adjustment. A number of works are proposed to adjust the minimum backoff window [6], [31], [54], [48], [10], [35], [41] to achieve differentiated quality of service or arbitrary bandwidth allocation over Wireless LAN or Ad Hoc networks. All of these solutions are proposed either for ows in Wireless LAN or for one-hop ows in multihop networks. In contrast, we address unfairness problem for mulit-hop ows in mesh networks. [53] achieves delay guarantee in ad-hoc networks, but not focuses on bandwidth allocation. IV. C ONTRIBUTIONS In my PhD thesis, I dene starvation, investigate its root cause and propose solutions in multi-hop CSMA networks. Specically, I expect to contribute to the research literature in the following aspects. I quantatively investigate the cause of starvation in simplest multi-hop networks consisting of four nodes and two ows. The model reveals that severe starvation exist in scenarios that occur with very high probability. The model also reveals that starvation in two-ow topologies is caused by incomplete channel information and the random nature of CSMA. I show the protocol family of synchronized contention has the potential to address starvation. I characterize the performance of this protocol family especially under imperfect synchronization. I quantify the impact of various key performance factors such as carrier sense and key time, on the fairness property. This work contributes to the understanding of fairness properties and performance limitations of this protocol family. I show that protocols using multiple channels can be employed in the network to add additional capacity so that starvation can be alleviated. I identify both single-channel

and multi-channel coordination problem that these multichannel protocols may incur and show that if these coordination problems are not addressed appropriately, these protocols may even aggregate starvation, regardless of the improved aggregate capacity. I devise a multi-channel protocol that not only increases aggregate throughput of the network, but more importantly, signicantly improves per-ow throughput via addressing ow coordination problems. For TCP trafc in mesh networks, I expect to identify the cause for starvation in tree topologies. I expect to observe starvation in real networks. I will develop models to characterize starvation and then propose solutions. I will implement the proposed solution and test its effectiveness in real deployed networks. For UDP trafc in mesh networks, I plan to characterize starvation in multi-hop parking lot scenario via analytical models. I will evaluate the effectiveness of IEEE 802.11e in countering starvation by giving higher priority to ows that starve than those that do not. V. W ORK S CHEDULE

I expect to nish my thesis according to the following work schedule.

Two ow analysis Multi-channel SCSMA TCP over mesh UDP over mesh completed completed completed February 2007 August 2007

TABLE I T HESIS WORK SCHEDULE

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