Two-theory view=== The theory of relativity was representative of more than a single new [[physical theory]].

There are some explanations for this. First, [[special relativity]] was published in 1905, and the final form of [[general relativity]] was published in 1916.<ref name=relativity/>

Second, special relativity applies to [[elementary particles]] and their interactions, whereas general relativity applies to the [[cosmological]] and astrophysical realm, including astronomy.<ref name=relativity/>

Third, special relativity was widely accepted in the physics community by 1920. This theory rapidly became a significant and necessary tool for theorists and experimentalists in the new fields of [[atomic physics]], [[nuclear physics]], and [[quantum mechanics]]. Conversely, general relativity did not appear to be as useful. There appeared to be little applicability for experimentalists as most applications were for astronomical scales. It seemed limited to only making minor corrections to predictions of Newtonian gravitation theory.<ref name=relativity/>

Finally, the [[tensor analysis|mathematics of general relativity]] appeared to be very difficult. Consequently, it was thought that a small number of people in the world, at that time, could fully understand the theory in detail, but this has been discredited by [[Richard Feynman]]. Then, at around 1960 a critical resurgence in interest occurred which has resulted in making general relativity central to physics and astronomy. New mathematical techniques applicable to the study of general relativity substantially streamlined calculations. From this, physically discernible concepts were isolated from the mathematical complexity. Also, the discovery of exotic astronomical [[phenomena]] in which general relativity was crucially relevant, helped to catalyze this resurgence. The astronomical phenomena included [[quasars]] (1963), the 3-kelvin [[microwave background radiation]] (1965), [[pulsars]] (1967), and the discovery of the first [[black hole]] candidates (1971).<ref name=relativity/> This book is written for anybody who is curious about nature and motion. Curiosity about how people, animals, things, images and empty space move leads to many adventures. This volume presents the best of them in the domains of relativity and cosmology. In the study of motion physics special and general relativity form two important building blocks, as shown in Figure 1. Special relativity is the exploration of the energy speed limit c. General relativity is the exploration of the force limit c /4G.The text shows that in both domains, all equations follow from these two limit values. This simple, intuitive and unusual way of learning relativity should reward the curiosity of every reader whether student or professional. The present volume is the second of a six-volume overview of physics that arose from a threefold aim that I have pursued since 1990: to present motion in a way that is simple, up to date and captivating.

In order to be simple, the text focuses on concepts, while keeping mathematics to the necessary minimum. Understanding the concepts of physics is given precedence over using formulae in calculations.The whole text is within the reach of an undergraduate. In order to be up to date, the text is enriched by themany gems both theoretical and empirical that are scattered throughout the scientific literature. In order to be captivating, the text tries to startle the reader as much as possible. Reading a book on general physics should be like going to a magic show. We watch, we are astonished, we do not believe our eyes, we think, and finally we understand the trick. When we look at nature, we often have the same experience. Indeed, every page presents at least one surprise or provocation for the reader to think about. Numerous interesting challenges are proposed. The motto of the text, dieMenschen starken, die Sachen klaren, a famous statement by Hartmut von Hentig on pedagogy, translates as: To fortify people, to clarify things. Clarifying things and adhering only to the truth requires courage, as changing the habits of thought produces fear, often hidden by anger. But by overcoming our fears we grow in strength. And we experience intense and beautiful emotions. All
8 preface
Galilean physics, heat and electricity Adventures: sport, music, sailing, cooking, describing beauty and understanding its origin (vol. I), using electricity, light and computers, understanding the brain and people (vol. III). Special relativity Adventures: light, magnetism, length contraction, time dilation and E0 = mc2 (vol. II). Quantum theory Adventures: death, reproduction, biology, chemistry, evolution, enjoying colours and art, all high-tech business, medicine (vol. IV and V). Quantum theory with gravity Adventures: bouncing neutrons, understanding tree growth (vol. V). Final, unified description of motion Adventures: understanding motion, intense joy with thinking, calculating couplings and masses, catching a glimpse of bliss (vol. VI). G c h, e, k PHYSICS: Describing motion with the least action principle. Quantum field theory

Adventures: building accelerators, understanding quarks, stars, bombs and the basis of life, matter, radiation (vol. V). How do everyday, fast and large things move? How do small things move? What are things? Why does motion occur? What are space, time and quantum particles? General relativity Adventures: the night sky, measuring curved space, exploring black holes and the universe, space and time (vol. II). Classical gravity Adventures: climbing, skiing, space travel, the wonders of astronomy and geology (vol. I). FIGURE 1 A complete map of physics: the connections are defined by the speed of light c, the gravitational constant G, the Planck constant h, the Boltzmann constant k and the elementary charge e.

Advice for learners Learning should be fast and fun.The most inefficient and most tedious learning method is to use a marker to underline text: it wastes time, provides false comfort and makes the text unreadable. Nobody marking text is learning efficiently or is enjoying it. In my experience as a student and teacher, one learning method never failed to transform unsuccessful pupils into successful ones: if you read a book for study, summarize every section you read, in your own words and images, aloud. If you are unable to do so, read the section again. Repeat this until you can clearly summarize what you read in your own words and images, aloud. You can do this alone or with friends, in a room or while walking. If you do this with everything you read, you will reduce your learning Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics pdf file available free of chignificantly, enjoy learning from good texts much more and hate bad texts much less. Masters of the method can use it even while listening to a lecture, in a low voice, thus avoiding to ever take notes. Advice for teachers A teacher likes pupils and likes to lead them into exploring the field he chose. His or her enthusiasm for the job is the key to job satisfaction. If you are a teacher, before the start of a lesson, picture, feel and tell yourself your how you enjoy the topic of the lesson; then picture, feel and tell yourself how you will lead each of your pupils into enjoying that topic as much as you do. Do this exercise consciously, every time. You will minimize trouble in your class and maximize your success. This book is not written with exams in mind; it is written to make teachers and students

understand and enjoy physics, the science of motion.

Using this book Text in green, as found in many marginal notes, marks a link that can be clicked in a pdf reader. Such green links are either bibliographic references, footnotes, cross references to other pages, challenge solutions, or pointers to websites. Solutions and hints for challenges are given in the appendix. Challenges are classified as research level (r), difficult (d), standard student level (s) and easy (e). Challenges for which no solution has yet been included in the book are marked (ny). Feedback and support This text is and will remain free to download from the internet. I would be delighted to receive an email fromyou at fb@motionmountain.net, especially on the following issues: What was unclear Challenge 1 s and should be improved? What story, topic, riddle, picture or movie did you miss? What should be corrected? In order to simplify annotations, the pdf file allows adding yellow sticker notes in Adobe Reader. Help on the specific points listed on the www.motionmountain.net/help.html web page would be particularly welcome. All feedback will be used to improve the next edition. On behalf of all readers, thank you in advance for your input. For a particularly useful contribution you will be mentioned if you want in the acknowledgements, receive a reward, or both. Your donation to the charitable, tax-exempt non-profit organisation that produces, translates and publishes this book series is welcome! For details, see the web page www. motionmountain.net/donation.html. If you want, your name will be included in the sponsor list.Thank you in advance for your help, on behalf of all readers across the world. The paper edition of this book, printed on demand and delivered by mail to any address of your choice, can be ordered at www.

Contents
15 1 Maximum speed, observers at rest, and motion of light Can one play tennis using a laser pulse as the ball and mirrors as rackets? 21 Albert Einstein 23 An invariant limit speed and its consequences 23 Special relativity with a few lines 26 Acceleration of light and the Doppler effect 28 The difference between light and sound 33 Can one shoot faster than ones shadow? 33 The composition of velocities 35 Observers and the principle of special relativity 36 What is space-time? 41 Can we travel to the past? Time and causality 43 Curiosities about special relativity 44 Faster than light: how far can we travel? 44 Synchronization and time travel can amother stay younger than her own daughter? 45 Length contraction 48 Relativistic films aberration and Doppler effect 50 Which is the best seat in a bus? 54 How fast can one walk? 54 Is the speed of shadow greater than the speed of light? 54 Parallel to parallel is not parallel Thomas rotation 57 A never-ending story temperature and relativity 58 60 2 Relativistic mechanics Mass in relativity 60 Why relativistic snooker is more difficult 62 Mass and energy are equivalent 64 Weighing light 65 Collisions, virtual objects and tachyons 67 Systems of particles no centre ofmass 68 Why is most motion so slow? 69 The history of themassenergy equivalence formula 70 4-vectors 70 4-velocity 72 4-acceleration and proper acceleration 73 4-momentum or energymomentum or momenergy 75 4-force 76 Rotation in relativity 78 Wave motion 79 The action of a free particle how do things move? 80 Conformal transformations 82 Accelerating observers 84 Accelerating frames of reference 86 Constant acceleration 87 Eventhorizons 89 The importance

of horizons 91 Acceleration changes colours 91 Can light move faster than c? 92 The composition of accelerations 93 A curiosity: what is the one-way speed of light? 93 Limits on the length of solid bodies 94 96 3 Specialr elativity in four sentences Could the speed of light vary? 96 Where does special relativity break down? 97 98 4 Simple general relativity: gravitation, maximum speed and maximum force Maximum force general relativity in one statement 99 The force and power limits 100 The experimental evidence 103 Deducing general relativity 104 Space-time is curved 108 Conditions of validity of the force and power limits 109 Gedanken experiments and paradoxes about the force limit 110 Gedanken experiments with the power limit and the mass flow limit 115 Why maximum force has remained undiscovered for so long 118 An intuitive understanding of general relativity 119 An intuitive understanding of cosmology 122 Experimental challenges for the third millennium 122 A summary of general relativity 124 126 5 How maximum speed changes space, time and gravity Rest and free fall 126 What clocks tell us about gravity 127 What tides tell us about gravity 131 Bent space and mattresses 132 Curved space-time 134 The speed of light and the gravitational constant 136 Why does a stone thrown into the air fall back to Earth? Geodesics 138 Can light fall? 140 Curiosities
Motion Mountain The Adventure of Physics pdf file available free of charge at www.motionmountain.net Copyright Christoph Schiller June 1990 May 2013

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