IAFS 1000 Midterm 1 Vocabulary List CHAPTER 1 Vocabulary Word IR Pg.

3 Definition International relations concerns the relationships among the world's governments. These are closely connected with other actors, social structures and process, and with geographical and historical influences. These elements together power the central trend in IR today: globalization. The problem of how to provide something that benefits all members of a group regardless of what each member contributes to it. Collective goods are easier to provide in smaller groups where free riding is harder to conceal, has a greater impact on the overall collective good, and is easier to punish. The first solution to the collective goods problem that establishes a status hierarchy in which those at the top control those below. Social conflicts are resolved automatically in favor of the higher ranking actor. The stability provided by dominance comes at a cost of constant oppression of, and resentment by, the lower-ranking members in the status hierarchy. Ex. UN Security Council Reciprocity 5 The second solution to the collective goods problem that rewards behavior that contributes to the group and punishes behavior that pursues self-interest at the expense of the group. It is the basis of most norms and institutions. A disadvantage of reciprocity is that it can lead to a downward spiral as each side punishes what it believes to be negative acts by the other one or both parties must act generously to get the relationship moving in a good direction. The third solution to the collective goods problem that does not rely on self interest. Members of the community care about the interests of others in that same community enough to sacrifice their own interests to benefit others. Ex. Development assistance, world health, UN peacekeeping missions Issue Areas 11 Activities within IR on which scholars and foreign policy makers focus attention. Ex. Global trade, the environment, Arab-Israeli conflict Conflict & Cooperation 11 Policy makers of one nation can behave in a cooperative manner or in a conflictual mannerextending either friendly or hostile behavior toward the other nation. 7 6 4 # 1

Collective Goods Problem

Dominance

Identity

International Security 12 The first main subfield of IR that dominated the study of IR in the past, especially in the 1950s and '60s. It considers the movements of

armies and of diplomats, the crafting of treaties and alliances, and the development and deployment of military capabilities. International Political 12 A second main subfield of IR that concerns trade and financial Economy (IPE) relations among nations and focuses on how nations have cooperated politically to create and maintain institutions that regulate the flow of international economic and financial transactions. They pay growing attention to North-South relations. State 9

13 A territorial entity controlled by a government and inhabited by a 10 population. States have sovereignty that is recognized by other states through diplomatic relations and usually by membership in the UN. 13 The set of relationships among the world's states, structured according to certain rules and patterns of interactions. 13 States that exemplify the 200-year-old idea that groups of people who share a sense of national identity, usually including a language and culture, should have their own state. 11 12

International System Nation States

GDP

14 A state's total annual economic activity; measures the size of a state's 13 economy and is the most significant measurement of a state's relative power. 15 Actors in IR, such as NGOs and terrorist networks, that are independent of states. The increasing role of these actors have brought the identity principle to greater prominence in IR theory. 15 A kind of transnational IO whose members are national governments. Through, within, or in the context of IGOs, states can take actions and receive information. Ex. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries), WTO, NATO (North Atlantic Trade Organization), AU (African Union) 14

Nonstate Actors

International Government Organizations (IGO)

15

Nongovernmental 15 A private type of transnational actor, or IO, with a political, Organizations (NGO) humanitarian, economic, and/or technical purpose. They sometimes combine efforts through transnational advocacy networks. Globalization

16

19 The widening, deepening, and speeding up of worldwide 17 interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary social life through liberal economic policies. There are several theories of globalization: 1) It is the fruition of liberal economic principles that has brought growth and prosperity, made traditional states obsolete as economic units reflecting an emerging global civilization, and blurred the division between the North-South gap, 2) It has not integrated the world's major economies any more than before WWI, it has not blurred distinctions such as the North-South gap, it has led to distinct and rival regional blocs and the fragmentation of larger units, 3) Transformationalists see state sovereignty as being eroded by institutions, that globalization diffuses authority, and that state power has been transformed to operate in new contexts with new tools. Ex. Expanded international trade, telecommunications, monetary

coordination, MNCs, technical & scientific cooperation, cultural exchanges, migration & refugee flows, and North-South relations. North-South Gap 21 The most important geographical element at the global level of analysis that separates the rich countries from the poor ones with the majority of the world living in poverty in the Global South. The North contains only 20% of the world's people but 60% of its goods and services. 18

League of Nations

27 Formed by Woodrow Wilson in 1919 as a result of the Treaty of 19 Versailles that ended WWI, the League of Nations sought to maintain world peace through collective security, disarmament, and negotiation and arbitration. It was the forerunner to today's UN but did not prove effective because the US Senate would not approve US participation. An example of US isolationism between the world wars which, along with declining British power and a Russia cirippled by its own revolution, left a power vacuum in world politics. 27 In an effort to appease Nazi Germany's expansionist ambitions in the 20 pre-WWII Spanish Civil War, Britain and France agreed in 1938 to let Germany occupy part of Czechoslovakia, known as the Sudetenland. The agreement gave appeasement a bad name as it only seemed to encourage Hitler's further conquests. 31 From 1945 to 1990: A period of conflict between the US and USSR during which the primary concern of the West was that the Soviet Union would gain control of Western Europe. The US responded to this fear by creating the Marshall Plan in 1948 (US financial aid to rebuild European economies), the creation of the NATO alliance in 1949, and the policy of containment in the 1940s. 31 A policy adopted by the US during the Cold War in the late 1940s that sought to halt the expansion of Soviet influence globally on several levels at once: military, political, ideological, and economic. All of US foreign policy in subsequent aid (ex. The Marshall Plan) came to serve the goals of containment. 31 China opposed Soviet moves toward peaceful coexistence with the US in the late 1960s (post-Cuban Missile Crisis), engaging in a chaotic and destructive Cultural Revolution. Fearing Soviet power, China's leaders developed growing ties with the US during the 1970s. 31 After Stalin died in 1953, superpower leaders (Eisenhower for the US, Nikita Khrushchev for the USSR, and Winston Churchill for the UK) began holding meetings. Ex. Reconstitution of Austria 1955, shooting down of the U-2 1960, signing of the Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963 21

Munich Agreement

Cold War

Containment

22

Sino-Soviet Split

23

Summit Meeting

24

Cuban Missile Crisis

32 In 1962, Cold War hostilities peaked when the Soviet Union installed 25 medium-range nuclear missiles in Cuba. In response, JFK imposed a

naval blockade to force their removal. The Soviet Union backed down and the US promised not to invade Cuba in the future. As a result of the very real possibility of nuclear war that was realized during the Crisis, the US and USSR signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty in 1963. Proxy Wars 32 The US & USSR supplied and advised opposing factions in civil wars in the Global South. The alignments were often arbitrary. Ex. In the 1970s, US backed the Ethiopian government and USSR backed Somalia, but when an Ethiopian revolution caused its new government to seek Soviet help, the US switched its support to Somalia instead. CHAPTER 2 Vocabulary Word Realism Pg. Definition 27 43 Explains IR in terms of power. Realist philosophers include Thucydides, Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, and Hans Morgenthau. 43 A liberal tradition that emphasizes international law, morality, and international organizationsrather than power aloneas key influences on international events. 45 The capability or potential of a state to influence others based on the state's size, level of income, and armed forces. The best single indicator of a state's power is its total GDP. 26

Idealism

28

Power

29

Geopolitics

49 The use of geography as an element of power, often tied to the 30 logistical requirements of military forces. States increase their power to the extent they can use geography to enhance their military capabilities. Ex. Dispute over control of oil pipelines in the Middle East.

Anarchy

49 In IR theory, a term that implies not complete chaos but the lack of a central government that can enforce rules. Realists contend that no central authority exists to enforce rules and ensure compliance with norms of conduct in the international system, making the collective goods problem especially acute. 50 Shared expectations about what behavior is considered proper in state interaction. Norms change over time, slowly. The most important norm in IR is sovereignty. 50 The most important norm of IR. 1) Government has the right, in principle, to do whatever it wants in its own territory, 2) States are separate and autonomous and answer to no higher authority, 3) Sates are not supposed to interfere in the international affairs of other states. 51 A situation in which actions states take to ensure their own security (such as deploying more military forces) are perceived as threats to

31

Norms

32

Sovereignty

33

Security Dilemma

34

the security of other states. A prime consequence of arms races and a negative consequence of anarchy in the international system. Balance of Power 52 The general concept of one or more states' power being used to balance that of another state or group of states. The theory argues that counterbalancing occurs regularly and maintains the stability of the international system. 35

Great Powers

54 Generally, the half-dozen or so most powerful states; the great-power 36 club was exclusively European until the 20th century. These are states that can be defeated militarily only by another great power. They also tend to share a global outlook based on national interests far from their home territories. Membership in the great power system changes slowly. Ex. US, China, Russia, Japan, German, France, and Britain

Middle Powers

55 States that rank somewhat below the great powers in terms of their influence on world affairs. Ex. Brazil, India, Iran, Israel, Canada, Australia, South Korea, etc.

37

Neorealism

56 A 1990s adaptation of realist theory that emphasizes the influence on 38 state behavior of the system's structure, especially the international distribution of power. 57 An international system with typically 5 or 6 centers of power that are not grouped into alliances. 57 Holds that the largest wars result from challenges to the top position in the status hierarchy, when a rising power is surpassing 57 The holding by one state of a preponderance of power in the international system, so that it can single-handedly dominate the rules and arrangements by which international political and economic relations are conducted. 59 Holds that hegemony provides some order similar to a central government in the international system: reducing anarchy, deterring aggression, promoting free trade, and providing a hard currency that can be used as a world standard. Hegemons can help resolve or at least keep in check conflicts among middle powers or small states. This theory attributes the peace and prosperity of the decades postWWII to US hegemony, which created and maintained a global framework of economic relations supporting relatively stable and free international trade, as well as a security framework that prevented great power wars. 64 The ease with which the members hold together an alliance. Cohesion tends to be high when national interests converge and when cooperation within the alliance becomes institutionalized and habitual. When states with divergent interests form an alliance against a common enemy, the alliance may come apart if the threat subsides. 39 40 41

Multipolar System Power Transition Theory Hegemony

Hegemonic Stability Theory

42

Alliance Cohesion

43

Burden Sharing

64 The distribution of the costs of an alliance among members; the term 44 also refers to the conflicts that may arise over such distribution.

North Atlantic Trade 65 The most powerful formal alliance in the international security 45 Organization (NATO) scene. A US-led military alliance, formed in 1949 with mainly West European members, to oppose and deter Soviet power in Europe. It is currently expanding into the former Soviet bloc. Each state contributes its own military units. Article V is considered the heart of NATO; it asks members to come to the defense of a fellow member under attack. It was invoked for the first time when Europe came to the defense of the US after the terrorist attacks in 2001. Warsaw Pact 65 A Soviet-led Eastern European military alliance, founded in 1955 and disbanded in 1991. It opposed the NATO alliance. 46

US-Japanese Security 67 The second most important alliance in the international security 47 Treaty scene. It is a bilateral alliance in which the US maintains nearly 35,000 troops in Japan and Japan pays the US several billion dollars annually to offset about half the cost of maintaining these troops. The alliance was created in 1951, during the Korean War, against the potential Soviet threat to Japan. The US has used the alliance as a base to project US power in Asia, especially during the wars in Korea and Vietnam. Nonaligned Movement 79 A movement of Third World states, led by India and Yugoslavia, that 48 attempted to stand apart from the US-Soviet rivalry during Cold War. The movement was undermined by the membership of states such as Cuba that were clearly clients of one of the superpowers. In 1992, the nonaligned movement decided to remain active, although most of its member states now prefer to cooperate on security matters through more regionally based institutions. 74 The strategic use of threat to punish another actor if it takes a certain negative action (especially attacking one's own state or allies). Its success is measured in attacks that did not occur. Advocates believe that conflicts are more likely to escalate into war when one party to the conflict is weak. 49

Deterrence

Compellence

74 The use of force to make another actor take some action (rather than, 50 as in deterrence, refrain from taking an action). Generally compellence is more difficult than deterrence. 75 A reciprocal process in which two or more states build up military capabilities in response to each other, often the result of a strategy of compellence and education. 75 Actors conceived of as single entities that can "think" about their actions coherently, make choices, identify their interests, and rank their interests in terms of priority. 76 The interests of a state overall (As opposed to particular parties or factions within the state.). 76 Rationality implies that actors are able to perform a cost-benefit 51

Arms Race

Rational Actors

52

National Interest Cost-Benefit

53 54

Analysis

analysiscalculating the costs incurred by a possible action and the benefits it is likely to bring. It is not easy to tally intangible political benefits against the tangible costs of a war. 76 A branch of mathematics concerned with predicting bargaining outcomes. Game theory aims to deduce likely outcomes, given the players' preferences and the possible moves open to them. One assumes that each player chooses a move rationally, to maximize its payoff. Games such as Prisoner's Dilemma and Chicken have been used to analyze various sorts of international interactions. 77 A situation in which one actor's gain is by definition equal to the others loss, as opposed to a non-zero-sum game, in which it is possible for both actors to gain (or lose). 77 A game in which rational players choose moves that produce an outcome in which all players are worse off than under a different set of moves. The dilemma is that by following their individually rational choices, both prisoners end up serving a fairly long sentence, when they both could have served a short one by cooperating. Neoliberals use the Prisoner's Dilemma game to illustrate their argument that cooperation is possible when the game is iterated over and over again because players will assume that any defection will merely provoke a like defection in response. CHAPTER 3 Pg. Definition 58 55

Game Theory

Zero-Sum Games

56

Prisoner's Dilemma (PD)

57

Vocabulary Word Interdependence

87 Based on Kant's third explanation of peace and cooperation in IR, economic interdependence occurs as trade between states increases and they find that they become mutually dependent on one another for goods.

Neoliberal

88 Shorthand for "neoliberal institutionalism", an approach that stresses 59 the importance of international institutions in reducing the inherent conflict that realists assume in an international system; the reasoning is based on the core liberal idea that seeking long-term mutual gains is often more rational than maximizing individual short-term gains. The principle of reciprocity is a key strategy used by neoliberals for achieving cooperation in a situation of conflicting interests. 90 A set of rules, norms, and procedures around which the expectations 60 of actors converge in a certain international issue area. Regimes can help solve collective goods problems by increasing transparency. Also, with better international communication, states can identify conflicts and negotiate solutions through regimes more effectively. Regimes come into existence to overcome collective goods dilemmas by coordinating the behaviors of individual states; they create frameworks to coordinate their actions with those of other states if and when such coordination is necessary to realize selfinterest. The survival of regimes rests on their embedding in permanent institutions that become tangible manifestations of shared

International Regime

expectations as well as machinery for coordination. Collective Security 92 This concept grows out of liberal institutionalism and refers to the 61 formation of a broad alliance of most major actors in an international system for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression by any actor; sometimes seen as presupposing the existence of a universal organization (i.e., U.N.) to which both the aggressor and its opponents belong. The success of collective security depends on is members keeping their alliance commitments and that enough members agree on what constitutes aggression. 95 The liberal proposition, strongly supported by empirical evidence, that democracies almost never fight wars against each other (although they do fight against authoritarian states). 97 A movement in IR theory that examines how changing international norms and actors' identities help shape the content of state interests. 102 An approach that denies the existence of a single fixed reality, and pays special attention to texts and to discoursesthat is, to how people talk and write about a subject. 103 Meanings that are implicit or hidden in a text rather than explicitly addressed. These are the subject of postmodernist deconstructive studies. 103 Marxist approaches to IR hold that both IR and domestic politics arise from unequal relationships between economic classes. The implication that the domestic and economic attributes of societies shape external relations with other states contrasts with the realist approach. 104 A branch of socialism, a theory that hodls that the more powerful classes oppress and exploit the less powerful by denying them their fair share of the surplus they create. The oppressed classes try to gain power in order to seize more wealth for themselves in the process of class struggle. Marxism includes both communism and other approaches. Marxists have mostly followed a line of argument developed by Vladimir Lenin, founder of the Soviet Union, before the Russian Revolution of 1917. Lenin's theory of imperialism argued that European capitalists were investing in colonies where they could earn big profits and then using part of these profits to buy off the working class at home. Lenin's general idea still shapes a major approach to North-South relations. 106 The development and implementation of peaceful strategies for settling conflicts using alternatives to violent forms of leverage. Recently, the use of conflict resolution has been increasing and succeeding more. 106 Most conflict resolution uses a third party whose role is mediation between two conflicting parties. The UN is the most important mediator on the world scene. The mediator works to change each side's view of difficult issues. Strategies for mediation include 62

Democratic Peace

Constructivism Postmodernism

63 64

Subtext

65

Economic Classes

66

Marxism

67

Conflict Resolution

68

Mediation

69

citizen diplomacy, arbitration, confidence-building, and issue linkage. Militarism 107 The glorification of war, military force, and violence through books, media, speeches, games, sports, etc. It also refers to the structuring of society around war. Militarism may underlie the propensity of political leaders to use military force. 108 Peace that resolves the underlying reasons for war; not just a ceasefire but a transformation of relationships, including elimination or reduction of economic exploitation and political oppression (structural violence). 109 Some scholars believe progress is being made (through the UN) toward the eventual emergence of a world government. Others think the idea is impractical or even undesirable (merely adding another layer of centralized control, when peace demands decentralization and freedom). 109 Movements against specific wars or against war and militarism in general, usually involving large numbers of people and forms of direct action such as street protests. 70

Positive Peace

71

World Government

72

Peace Movements

73

Difference Feminism 112 Focuses on valuing the unique contributions of women as women. Difference feminists do not think women do all things as well as men or ice versa. Because of their greater experience with nurturing and human relations, women are seen as potentially more effective than the average man in conflict resolution as well as in group decision making. Liberal Feminism 112 Rejects the claims of difference feminists as being based on stereotyped gender roles. Liberal feminists see men and women as equal and they deplore the exclusion of women from positions of power in IR but don't believe that including women would change the nature of the international system. For liberal feminists, the main effect of this gender imbalance on the nature of IR is to waste talent. 112 Rejects the assumptions about gender made by both difference and liberal feminists. Postmodern feminists consider gender differences as important but arbitrary and flexible. Postmodernists suggest that, regardless of whether difference or liberal feminism is correct in its assumptions, women in leadership will try to overcompensate for their perceived lack of potency and will thus appear to be more like men in their leadership styles than they might be were they more comfortable in their roles.

74

75

Postmodern Feminism

76

Gender Gap

115 A gender gap in polls shows that women are about ten percentage 77 points lower than men on average in their support for military actions. This gender gap shrinks, however, when broad consensus on a military action exists. CHAPTER 4 Pg. Definition

Vocabulary Word

Rational Model

127 Decision makers set goals, evaluate their relative importance, calculate the costs and benefits of each possible course of action, then choose the one with the highest benefits and lowest costs. The choice may be complicated by uncertainty.

78

Organizational Process Model

128 An alternative to the rational model of decision making. In this 79 model, foreign policy decision makers generally skip the laborintensive process of identifying goals and alternative actions, relying instead for most decisions on standardized responses or standard operating procedures. Low-level decision makers apply general principles, but these decisions mau not even reflect the high-level policies adopted by top leaders. 128 Foreign policy decisions result from the bargaining process among various government agencies with somewhat divergent interests in the outcome. According to the government bargaining model, foreign policy decisions reflect a mix of the interests of state agencies. Ex. In 1992, the Japanese Agriculture Ministry, interested in the wellbeing of Japanese farmers, opposed the import of Californian sushi, while the Foreign Ministry, with an interest in smooth relations with the US, wanted to allow the imports. 80

Government Bargaining Model

Misperceptions & 129 When decision makers take in only some kinds of information when Selective Perceptions they compile information on the likely consequences of their choices. Decision-making processes must reduce and filter the incoming information on which a decision is based; the problem is that such filtration often is biased. Information Screens 129 Information screens are subconscious filters through which people put the information coming in about the world around them. Often they simply ignore any information that does not fit their expectations. Information is also screened out as it passes from one person to another. Information screens introduce bias into the decision making process. 131 Picking the very best option from a set of all possible options; this system is almost impossible to maintain due to time constraints. 131 People usually work on a problem until they come up with a 'good enough' option that meets some minimal criteria; finding a satisfactory solution. 132 Provides an explanation of decisions made under risk or uncertainty. According to this theory, decision makers go through two phases: in the editing phase, they frame the options available and the probabilities of various outcomes associated with each option. Then, in the evaluation phase, they assess the options and choose one. Evaluations take place by comparison with a reference point, which is often the status quo but might be some past or expected situation. 132 Refers to the tendency for groups to reach decisions without

81

82

Optimizing Satisficing

83 84

Prospect Theory

85

Groupthink

86

accurately assessing their consequences, because individual members tend to go along with ideas they think the others support. Unlike individuals, groups tend to be overly optimistic about the chances of success and are thus more willing to take risks. Because the group diffuses responsibility from individuals, nobody feels accountable for the actions. Groupthink is particularly likely in crisis situations. Ex. US war with Iraq. Interest Groups 138 Interest groups are coalitions of people who share a common interest 87 in the outcome of some political issue and who organize themselves to try to influence the outcome. They lobby for desired legislation and contribute to politicians' campaigns. Ex. French farmers who have a big stake in the international negotiations of the EU, which subsidizes agriculture, and world trade talks, which set agricultural tariffs. Military-Industrial Complex 139 Coined by by President Eisenhower, it is a huge interlocking network of governmental agencies, industrial corporations, and research institutes, working together to supply a nation's military forces. Was a response to the growing importance of technology and of logistics in Cold War military planning. This race for weapon development created a special role for scientists and engineers in addition to the more traditional role of industries that produce war materials. The size of the complex gave it more political clout than ordinary citizens could muster, yet its interest in the arms race conflicted with the interest of ordinary citizens in peace. 141 The range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens of a state. Public opinion has greater influence on foreign policy in democracies than in authoritarian governments. No government can lead by force alone: it needs legitimacy to survive. It must persuade people to accept its policies, because in the end, policies are carried out by ordinary people. 144 The public's increased support for government leaders during wartime, at least in the short term. Governments take advantage of this effect when it uses diversionary foreign policy. 88

Public Opinion

89

Rally 'Round the Flag Syndrome

90

Diversionary Foreign 144 Foreign policies adopted for the specific purpose of generating Policy public approval and hence gaining domestic legitimacy. This is the case when a government undertakes a war or foreign military intervention at the time of domestic difficulty, to distract attention and gain public support. Foreign Policy Process 146 How policies are arrived at and implemented. The study of foreign policy processes runs counter to realism's assumption of a unitary state actor because foreign policy outcomes depend on multiple forces at various levels of analysis. Because the study of foreign policy concentrates on forces within the state, its main emphasis is

91

92

on the individual and domestic levels of analysis. CHAPTER 5 Vocabulary Word Hegemonic War Pg. Definition 153 Hegemonic war is a war over control of the entire world orderthe 93 roles of the international system as a whole, including the role of world hegemony. Largely because of the power of modern weaponry, this kind of war probably cannot occur any longer without destroying civilization. Ex. The last hegemonic war was WWII. Total War 153 Total war is warfare by one state waged to conquer and occupy 94 another. The goal is to reach the capital city and force the surrender of the government, which can then be replaced with one of the victor's choosing. The practice of total war evolved with industrialization, which further integrated all of society and economy into the practice of war. Ex. Total war began with the Napoleonic Wars, which introduced large-scale conscription and geared the entire French national economy toward the war effort. The last total war between great powers was WWII. Limited War 153 Limited war includes military actions carried out to gain some objective short of the surrender and occupation of the enemy. Raids are limited wars that consist of a single action. Ex. The US-Iraq 1991 war retook the territory of Kuwait but did not go on to occupy Baghdad or topple Saddam Hussein's government. Any border wars have this character. Civil War 155 Civil war is war between factions within a state trying to create, or 96 prevent, a new government for the entire state or some territorial part of it. The aim may be to change the entire system of government, to merely replace the people in it, or to split a region off as a new state. Often seem to be among the most brutal wars. Many of today's civil wars emerge from ethnic or clan conflicts as well. Ex. US Ciil War of the 1860s or the war of Eritrea province in Ethiopia in the 1080s. Guerrilla War 155 Warfare without front lines, including certain kinds of civil wars. Irregular forces operate in the midst of, and often hidden or protected by, civilian populations. The purpose is not to directly confront an enemy army but rather to harass and punish it so as to gradually limit its operation and effectively liberate territory from its control. Rebels in most civil wars use such methods. There is much territory that neither side controls, both sides thus exert military leverage over the same places at the same time. Guerrilla wars are 97 95

extremely painful for civilians. Warfare is increasingly irregular and guerrilla-style. Ex. US military forces in South Vietnam fought against Vietcong guerrillas in the 1960s and 70s. Truth Commissions 156 A truth commission is utilized often by new governments in countries where long internal wars led to dehumanization and atrocities to help the society heal and move forward. Its role is to hear honest testimony from the period, to bring to light what really happened during these wars, and in exchange to offer most of the participants asylum from punishment. Ex. South Africa post-Apartheid in the 1990s Conflict 157 Refers to armed conflict, which is an ever present part of the international systemthe condition against which bargaining takes place. In conflict bargaining, states develop capabilities that give them leverage to obtain more favorable outcomes than they would otherwise achieve. The outcome of bargaining is the settlement of conflict. Rarely do conflicts lead to violence. 99 98

Cycle Theories

159 Theories of war at the global level of analysis that consider the 100 cycles of economic stability and/or power balance. These at best can explain only general tendencies toward war in the international system over time. 160 Devotion to the interests of one's own nation over the interests of 101 other states. May be the most important force in world politics in the past two centuries. Conflict often results from the perception of nationhood leading to demands for statehood or for the adjustment of state borders. 162 Ethnic conflict possibly being the most important source of conflict 102 in the numerous wars now occurring, ethnic groups are large groups of people who share ancestral, language, cultural, or religious ties and a common identity. Ethnic conflict stems from a dislike or hatred that members of one group systematically feel toward another group and is thus based on intangible identity causes. Ethnic groups often form the basis for nationalist sentiments. Territorial control is closely tied to the aspirations of ethnic groups for statehood. 164 In-group bias; the tendency to see one's own groups in favorable terms and an out-group in unfavorable terms. The ties that bind ethnic groups together and divide them from other groups are based on the identity principle. 103

Nationalism

Ethnic Groups

Ethnocentrism

Dehumanization

164 An in-group's actions to demean its out-group's members, especially 104 through the use of animal names and the stripping of all human rights. Dehumanization in wartime can be extreme and the normal restraints on war can be easily discarded in interethnic warfare. 166 Systematic extermination of ethnic or religious groups in whole or in 105

Genocide

part, used by governments in extreme cases to try to destroy scapegoated groups or political rivals. Acts of genocide are considered crimes against humanity. Ex. Nazi Germany exterminated 6 million Jews and millions of others, including homosexuals, Roma, and communists in the Holocaust. In recent years, genocides have occurred in Bosnia and Rwanda in the 1990s and most recently in Darfur, Sudan. Secular (State) 168 Political organizations created apart from religious establishments. The secular practices threatened by fundamentalist movements include the rules of the international system, which treat states as formally equal and sovereign whether they are believers or infidels. 169 Islam is the religion practiced by Muslims. It's populations include the majority Sunni and the Shiite minority, concentrated in Iran, southern Iraq, southern Lebanon, and Bahrain. Most countries with Muslim populations belong to the Islamic Conference, an IGO. Conflicts with the Muslim world result from geographical and historical circumstances including colonialism and oil. 106

Islam/Muslims

107

Islamist

169 Groups that advocate basing government and society on Islamic law. 108 These groups vary greatly in the means they employ to pursue this goal. In some countries, Islamists reject Western-oriented secular states. The more radical Islamist movements not only threaten some existing governments, but also undermine traditional norms of state sovereignty. In the Middle East, Islamists derive power from championing the cause of the poor masses against rich elites. Armed Islamist groups include Iran's Revolutionary Guards & the Mahdi Army in Iraq on the Shi'ite side and al-Qaeda and the Taliban on the Sunni side. 178 The goal of regaining territory lost to another state. This form of nationalism often leads directly to serious interstate conflicts. Because of their association with the integrity of states, territories are valued far beyond any inherent economic or strategic value they hold. Ex. After making peace in 1978, it took Israel and Egypt a decade to settle a border dispute at Taba, a tiny plot of beachfront. The states finally submitted to arbitration, and Egypt ended up in possession. 109

Irredentism

Ethnic Cleansing

180 The driving out or massacring of ethnic populations by another ethnic population. Ex. Serbia seized control of land inhabited by minority Serbs inCroatia and Bosnia after Yugoslavia broke up in 1991-92. As a result, non-Serbian populations in these areas underwent ethnic cleansing.

110

Territorial Waters

183 States treat territorial waters near their shores as part of their national 111 territory. Norms have developed in recent years, especially since the

UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Waters within 3 miles of shore have traditionally been recognized as territorial. 12 mile limit for all shipping and a 200 mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Ex. Libya claims ownership of the entire Gulf of Sidra, but the US insists that most of it is international waters and in 1986, the US sent warships into the Gulf to make this point. Airspace 184 Airspace above a state is considered the territory of the state. To fly over a state's territory, an airplane must have that state's permission. Ex. 1986 raid on Libya, US bombers had to fly a detour over the Atlantic because France would not grant permission for US planes to use its airspace during the mission. 112