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Number 1
June 2012
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The Indian Journal of Ecology is an official organ of the Indian Ecological Society and is published sixmonthly in June and December. Research papers in all fields of ecology are accepted for publication from the members. The annual and life membership fee is Rs (INR) 500 and Rs 7500, respectively within India and US $ 60 and 300 for overseas. The annual subscription for institutions is Rs 2000 and US $ 300 within India and overseas, respectively. All payments should be by demand draft drawn in favour of the Indian Ecological Society payable at Ludhiana.
CONTENTS
Tree-ring Width of Teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) and Its Relationship with Rainfall and Temperature Satish Kumar Sinha Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies A Case Study of Amritsar City, India Minakshi*, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar Agro-Climatic Resource Inventory Characterization of Punjab State in Spatial Domain S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur Economic Impact of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) strategies in cotton in Muktsar district (Punjab) A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh Effect of Foliar Feeding of GA3, Triacontanol and Calcium Salts on Shelf-Life in Kinnow Mandarin Tanjeet Singh Chahal, J. S. Bal and Kiran Kour Effect of Sodium Sulphite-Microwave Pretreatment on Paddy Straw Digestibility Urmila Gupta Phutela, Karamjeet Kaur and N.K. Khullar Evaluation of Quality Parameters of Low Alcoholic, Self Carbonated Fermented Beverage P. Sahota, G. Pandove and T.S. Dhillion Impact of a Paper Mill on Surrounding Epiphytic Lichen Communities Using Multivariate Analysis Pulak Das, Santosh Joshi, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti Effect of pH upon Copepoda and Cladocera under Laboratory Conditions C.B. Tiwary and Kamlakant Thakur Diversity of Molluscan Fauna Inhabited by River Chenab-fed Stream (Gho-Manhasan) K.K. Sharma and Samita Chowdhary Diurnal Variation of Phytoplankton in the Kali Estuary, Karwar, West Coast of India U.G. Naik, V.V. Nayak and N. Kusuma Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water in Sangrur District of Punjab M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh and Dhanwinder Singh Interactive Effect of Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum on Yield Attributes of Pea (Pisum sativum L.). D. K. Singh, P. Kumar and S.K. Singh Micro-nutrient status of pear orchards in Kashmir M. A. Dar, J. A. Wani, S.K. Raina, M.Y. Bhat and M.A. Malik Evaluation of a Customized Fertilizer on Wheat B.S. Sekhon, Satwinderjit Kaur, and Pritpal Singh 1
6 11 18 23 27 32 38 44 48 52 58 63 67 71
Effect of Organic Nitrogen Management on Yield and Quality of Produce in RiceVegetable based Cropping System 76 R. N. Meena and Kalan Singh Effect of Biofertilizers on Yield and Quality Traits of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) N.S. Gill, J. S. Bal and D. S. Khurana Effect of Nitrogen Levels, Cultivars and Weed Control Treatments on Smothering Potential of Canola Gobhi Sarson (Brassica napus L.) Lovreet Singh Shergill, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal Vertical Distribution of Readily and Slowly Available Potassium in a Typic Haplustept under Different Cropping Sequences H.S. Jassal, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon 82
86
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CONTENTS
Forms and Quantity-Intensity Parameters of Potassium Applied to Wheat under Temperate Conditions of Kashmir J.A Wani, M.A.Malik, M.A. Dar, Farida Akhter and M.A. Bhat Evaluating Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Land Resources in Shiwalik Hills of J&K Narinder Deep Singh Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Promising Hybrids of Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss) Parminder Singh Sandhu, S.S. Mahal and Virender Sardana Studies on Growth, Yield and Yield Attributes of Wheat-Mentha Intercropping System in Relation to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Levels Sumedh Chopra, Jaspal Singh and Satpal Singh Evaluation of Bt Cotton as an Integral Component of Integrated Pest Management Vikas Jindal, Naveen Aggarwal and Vikram Singh Farmers perceived constraints in the uptake of cotton IPM practices Rajinder Peshin, A.K. Dhawan, Kamaldeep Singh and Rakesh Sharma A Case-Study of Two Sunscreens that May Prevent Apoptotic Sunburn Chanda Siddoo Atwal 98 102 108
Melia dubia: A Potential Species for Agroforestry Under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions of Haryana State of India 135 Jagdish Chander Response of Potting Media and Sunshine on Bougainvillea Cultivars Ravipal Singh and R.K. Dubey Efficient In vitro Sterilization Technique for Micropropagation of Banana (Musa acuminata) cv. Grand Naine Pooja Manchanda, Ajinder Kaur and S.S. Gosal Effect of Some Bio-pesticides and Chemical Pesticides on Survival of Larval Parasitoid Bracon hebetor Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Lakshman Chandra Patel and Anirudhya Pramanik Adsorption and Leaching Behaviour of Sulfosulfuron S. K. Randhawa and Amandeep Singh Brar Screening of Seed Sources and Development of Powdery Mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. K.S. Ahlawat, J.C. Kaushik, O.P. Lathwal and Avtar Singh Management of root-knot Nematode Meloidogyne javanica in Pigeonpea through Seed Treatment Tarique Hassan Askary Standardization of Method for Soil Arthropods Extraction by Tullgren Funnel Romila Akoijam and Badal Bhattacharyya Strategies to Enhance Fish Production from Ox-bow Lakes of Muzaffarpur, Bihar Sujeet Rajak, Arpita Sharma, S.K. Chakraborty, S.C. Rai, Dilip Kumar and A.K. Jaiswar Effect of Residue Management Practices and Nitrogen Levels on Soil Properties, Yield and Uptake of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in Soybean Sown after Preceding Wheat Crop K. S. Saini and S. K. Chongtham Sowing Time, Seed Rate and Planting Method effect on Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat Balkaran Singh, R.S. Uppal and R.P. Singh Performance of Direct Seeded Rice as Influenced by Variety and Date of Sowing U. S. Walia, S. S. Walia and Shelly Nayyar Effect of Fruit Maturity and Temperature on Seed Germination in Summer Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) Namarta Gupta, S.S. Bal and H.S. Randhawa Evaluation of N, P, Zn Complex Fertilizer for its Efficiency using Wheat as Test Crop in IndoGangetic Alluvial Soils of Northwestern India B.S. Brar, D.S. Benipal and Jagdeep Singh Effect of Bio-fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea Var. italica Plank) Pradeep Kumar, Sanjay Kumar, Yogesh Chandra Yadav and Adesh Kumar 138 141
169 172
Tree-ring Width of Teak (Tectona grandis L. F.) and Its Relationship with Rainfall and Temperature
Satish Kumar Sinha
Dendrochronology Laboratory, Wood Properties and Uses Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bangalore-560 003, India E-mail: sinhafri@gmail.com
Abstract: Tree-ring chronologies of teak (Tectona grandis L.) at two sites, Mundagod and Shimoga, in Western Ghats of Karnataka were established. Both sites are influenced by climate varying with altitude and proximity to the Arabian sea and the equator. Mundagod is a dry deciduous forest area in North Karnataka where the south-west monsoon is crucial for the main rainy season. Shimoga is a moist deciduous forest area in Central Karnataka dominated by both south-west and north-east monsoon. According to our comparison of the tree-ring chronologies with the respective climate data, teak growth at Mundagod is negatively correlated with October rainfall of previous year and positively correlated with June to August rainfall of current year. At Shimoga, however, teak growth is positively associated with December rainfall of previous year and May to August rainfall of current year. Temperature during the pre-monsoon season, plays an important role for the onset of cambium activity at both sites. Key Words: South-West monsoon, Tree ring, North-East monsoon, Teak
Attempts are going on to retrieve climatic information using growth rings of trees from several sites in India. Being dominated by the tropical monsoon and influenced by oceanic climate, the Western Ghats of Karnataka is an important site for dendroclimatic analysis. It is estimated that about twenty five percent of the total number of tree species produce growth rings (Chowdhury, 1939, 1940). Two taxa, teak (Tectona grandis) and toon (Toona ciliata) exhibit datability of growth rings to the exact years of their formation, which is a prerequisite for dendrochronology. Amongst these two taxa, teak is widely distributed in the peninsular region of the country. It has been studied from a dendrochronological point of view at several sites viz., from moist deciduous forest in Thane, Maharashtra (Pant and Borgaonkar, 1983; Ramesh et al., 1989; Bhattacharyya et al.,1992), dry deciduous forest in Korzi, Andhra Pradesh (Yadav and Bhattacharyya, 1996), Western ghats of Kerala (Bhat and Priya, 1997; Bhattacharyya et al., 2007), upper Narmada river basin in Central India (Wood, 1996) to dry deciduous forests of Madhya Pradesh (Shah et al., 2007; Somaru et al., 2008) and dry deciduous forests of Karnataka and Maharashtra (Sinha et al., 2009, 2011). These exploratory studies revealed that tree rings of teak could be valuable proxy data for dendroclimatic analysis, especially monsoon precipitation. Western Ghats of Karnataka are well known for the best teak growing sites in India. Shimoga and Mundagod falling in this region and with a distance of 200 km between them were selected for the present study. Shimoga is a tropical moist deciduous forest and Mundagod is a dry deciduous forest. No detailed tree-ring analysis
has been reported so far on this tree species in this area. In this paper, an attempt has been made to analyze the growth rings of teak (Tectona grandis) in relation to rainfall and temperature at these two sites of Western Ghats.
Tree-ring Data
The surfaces of the twenty samples were sanded with different grades of sand papers to expose the growth rings and prepare the wood for microscopic analysis. In the case of discs, two radial strips of 1.5 cm width were cut from opposite sides of each disc, which included all the rings from pith to bark. After counting the rings, ring-widths were measured along two radii of each disc and a single radius of each core sample to the nearest 0.01 mm under a Leica stereo-zoom microscope with a linear stage (Velmex) interfaced with a computer system to record the measurements. Each ring of these radii was dated to the calendar year of its formation using cross-dating technique (Stokes and Smiley, 1968). These measurements and dates were re-checked using the computer programme
COFECHA (Holmes, 1983) for any error in the measurement or dating of the samples. Finally, corrected measurements of tree-ring sequences along 30 radii were selected for further analysis. The ring-width data series of two sites were standardized using a negative exponential method of ARSTAN programme (Cook, 1985). After standardization, a ring-width index chronology was prepared from each ringwidth series from both the sites. Indices were derived by dividing the measured ring-width data with the corresponding predicted value of ring-width for each year to extract useful climatic signals. The chronologies of both sites contain significant autocorrelation at lags of 1-2 years, which were removed from each ring-width series by autoregressive modeling. All individual index series were averaged from both the sites to form a site- tree-ring-widthindex chronology. The prepared mean tree-ring-width-index chronology of Mundagod and Shimoga extend from AD 1941-1999 and AD 1947-2007, respectively (Fig. 1). The chronology considered suitable for climatic study should have good correlation both between trees and within trees, high mean sensitivity, high standard deviation, high values of common variance and a high signal to noise ratio. All these statistics considered for the evaluation of tree ring chronology are shown in Table 1. Mean sensitivity is a measure of the relative difference in width between consecutive rings (Fritts, 1976). Its value ranges from 0 (indicating no change in ring-width from one year to the next) to 2 (where a zero value occurs next to a non-zero one in a time series, i.e., occurrence of missing
ring). High value of mean sensitivity is desirable for ringwidth series as it indicates the presence of considerable high-frequency variance (Fritts, 1976). Autocorrelation is the association between ring width for the year (t-1) and the subsequently formed ring t, t+1, to t+k, which can perturb the casual relationship between climate and tree growth. The Expressed Population Signal (EPS) is a measure of the correlation between the mean chronology of samples from each site and the population from which they are drawn. Wigely et al. (1984) suggest that chronologies with EPS e 0.85 can be accepted as reliable chronology for dendroclimatic analysis. Strength of signal between trees (common variance) has been estimated by calculating the signal to noise ratio (Wigley et al., 1984). The value of signal
Fig. 1. Mean ring-width index chronology of Tectona grandis at Mundagod and Shimoga in Western Ghats of Karnataka
Climatic Data
The mean monthly temperature and rainfall data of two meteorological stations namely Belgaum and Shimoga, close to the tree-ring sampling sites have been used in the response function analysis for Mundagod and Shimoga tree-ring samples. The records extend from AD 1941-1999 and AD 1947- 2007 for Mundagod and Shimoga respectively.
Fig. 2. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature at Mundagod based on the data from AD 1941-1999.
Fig. 3. Mean monthly precipitation and temperature at Shimoga based on the data from AD 1947-2007.
temperature were positively associated with tree-ring width whereas, October rainfall of previous year, April rainfall and temperature of current year were negatively associated (Fig. 4 a, b). Positive tree growth and climate relationship during June-August suggests that southwest monsoon rainfall plays an important role in the growth of teak. October rainfall of the preceding year showed negative influence on tree growth. This might be due to non-availability of moisture and nutrients as meager rainfall may have eluviated the nutrients to the non-availability zone. A high temperature during March is required for the initiation of cambial activity (Rao and Rajput, 1999). Increased temperature during this pre-monsoon month was also recorded to have an important role in the initiation of cambial activity by Bhattacharyya et al. (2007). The inverse relationship with April rainfall and temperature might be due to a lower net photosynthetic rate, presumably due to higher evapotranspiration. During this month, precipitation is less but temperature is at its maximum level in this region (Fig. 2). Thus, increased precipitation during a hot summer accelerates the rate of evapotranspiration, which might have caused a water stress for teak trees. At Shimoga, December rainfall of the previous year, May-August rainfall and March-April temperature of current year were positively associated with ring width whereas January rainfall was negatively associated (Fig. 4 c, d). Shimoga receives rainfall due to early south-west monsoon (May-August) and north-east monsoon (OctoberDecember). The positive relationship between tree growth and May-August rainfall of current year is due to the effect of
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present paper represents part of a research project sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India. The author thanks Dr. H.P. Borgaonkar from Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, for assisting in tree ring sample analysis. Facilities provided by Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore are gratefully acknowledged.
Fig. 4. Response function analysis of tree-ring chronologies of teak (Tectona grandis) at Mundagod and Shimoga using monthly temperature and rainfall at Belgaum and Shimoga, respectively. Vertical bars indicate 95% confidence interval.
REFERENCES
Bhat, K.M. and Priya, P.B. (1997) Tree ring responses to physical changes in climate in ring porous tropical hardwood-teak. In: Proc. IUFRO World Congress, Division 5, Pullman, USA. Bhattacharyya, A., Yadav, R.R., Borgaonkar, H.P. and Pant, G.B. (1992) Growth-ring analysis of Indian tropical trees: dendroclimatic potential. Curr. Sci. 62 (11):736-740. Bhattacharyya, A., Eckstein, D., Shah, S.K. and Chaudhary, V. (2007) Analyses of climatic changes around Parambikulum, South India, based on early wood mean vessel area of teak. Curr. Sci. 93 (8):1159-1164. Chowdhury, K.A. (1939) The formation of growth rings in Indian trees-I. Indian Forest Records 1-39. Chowdhury, K.A. (1940) The formation of growth rings in Indian trees-II. Indian Forest Records 41-57. Cook, E.R. (1985) A time series analysis approach to tree ring standardization. Dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. Fritts, H. C. (1976) Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, London, pp.567. Holmes, R.L. (1983) A computer assisted quality control in tree-ring dating and measurement; Tree-Ring Bull. 43: 69-78. Pant, G.B. and Borgaonkar, H.P. (1983) Growth rings of teak trees and regional climatology (An ecological study of Thane region). In: L.R. Singh, S. Singh, R.C. Tiwari and R.P. Srivastava (Eds), Environmental Management. Geog. Soc. Allahabad, India, pp.153-158. Priya, P.B. and Bhat, K.M. (1999) Influence of rainfall, irrigation and age on the growth, periodicity and wood structure in teak (Tectona grandis). IAWA 20: 181-192. Ramesh, R., Bhattacharya, S.K. and Pant, G.B. (1989) Climatic significance of D variations in a tropical tree species from India. Nature 337: 149150. Rao, K.S. and Dave, Y.S. (1981) Seasonal variations in the cambial
anatomy of Tectona grandis (Verbenaceae). Nordic J. Bot. 1: 535-542. Rao, K.S. and Rajput, K.S. (1999) Seasonal behavior of vascular cambium in teak ( Tectona grandis L . ) growing in moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests. IAWA Journal 20 (1): 85-93. Shah, S.K, Bhattacharyya, A. and Chaudhary, V. (2007) Reconstruction of June-September precipitation based on treering data of teak (Tectona grandis L.) from Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh, India. Dendrochronologia 25: 57-64. Sinha, S.K., Deepak, M.S. and Rao, R.V. (2009) Climatic response of early wood mean vessel area of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) from Shimoga of Central Karnataka. J. Ind. Acad. Wood Sci. 6 (1 &2): 90-97. Sinha, S.K., Deepak, M.S. Rao, R.V. and Borgaonkar, H.P. (2011) Dendroclimatic analysis of teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) annual rings from two locations of peninsular India. Curr. Sci. 100 (1): 84-88. Somaru, R., Borgaonkar, H.P. and Sikder, A.B. (2008) Tree-ring analysis of teak (Tectona grandis L.F.) in Central India and its probable linkage with moisture fluctuation: A case study. J. Earth System Sciences 117 (5): 637-645. Stokes, M.A. and Smiley, T.L. (1968) An introduction to tree-ring dating; The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Wigley, T.M.L., Briffa, K.R. and Jones, P.D. (1984) On the average value of correlated time series, with applications in dendroclimatology and hydrometeorology. J. Climate Appl. Meteorol. 23: 201-213. Wood, M.L. (1996) Synoptic dendroclimatology in the upper Narmada river basin- an exploratory study in Central India. MS thesis, University of Arizona. Yadav, R.R. and Bhattacharya, A. (1996) Biological inferences from the growth climate relationship in teak from India. Proceedings of Indian Academy of Science B 62(3): 233-238.
Land Transformation and Urban Sprawl Mapping Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies - A Case Study of Amritsar City, India
Minakshi*, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
Punjab Remote Sensing Centre, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: minakshi_kaur@yahoo.com
Abstract: Understanding of the growth dynamics of urban agglomerations is essential for ecologically feasible developmental planning. The inefficient and consumptive use of land and its associated resources is termed sprawl. By monitoring changes in the urban sprawl over a period of time, the impact of changing land use on land, ecology and environment system can be assessed. Mapping urban growth by conventional methods is too tedious and a slow process, and by the time information becomes available to planners, it is already outdated and redundant since the damage has already been done. Satellite remote sensing data and application of GIS technology provide an alternative means of rapidly assessing the dynamics and development of sprawl so that timely action may be taken. The urban growth analysis of Amritsar city was undertaken with an objective of studying the expansion of Amritsar city at the expense of fertile agriculture land. The study was carried out using panchromatic cartosat-1 data of 2.5 m spatial resolution and IRS P6-LISS 1V MX data of 5.8 m spatial resolution to delineate the extent, pace pattern and direction of growth of the city area of Amritsar with time. The urban area in Amritsar city has increased almost three times since 1972. The rate of land consumption was substantially moderate till 2002 but after 2002 witnessed a sharp increase in land consumption. It is also evident from the land use map for years 1972, 2002 and 2006 that the land consumed for built up after 1972 was mainly agriculture land. Key Words: Urban Sprawl, Remote Sensing, GIS, Amritsar, Land use
The shift of rural population to cities and towns for livelihood is leading to unplanned growth of towns and cities. The pressure of an ever growing population becomes a burden on the limited civic amenities which are virtually collapsing. Asymmetrical growth of urban centers consumes agricultural land at their periphery. The outward spread of cities is accompanied by many environmental problems: changes in the land use patterns, fragmentation and destruction of wild life habitat, discharge of polluted runoff water into stream and surface water bodies, and pollution of ground water resources. Besides taxing the groundwater resources available for an urban centre, an increase in the paved area severely reduces the ground water recharge potential, leading to situations which may truly be potential catastrophes. The current trend of spatial urban growth in most of the Indian cities is haphazard and in an unplanned manner, particularly along the urban-rural fringe. There is an obvious need for continuously monitoring the phenomena of growth of cities/towns, and mapping and analyzing the growth patterns (Farooq et al., 2008). Barnes et al. (2001) categorized the sprawls depending on their forms and patterns. This information is needed by the urban administrators and planners so as to provide basic amenities and infrastructure for the complex urban environment (Pathan et al., 1991; Mundia and Aniya, 2005; Mahesh et al., 2008). Mapping urban growth by conventional methods is too
tedious and a slow process. Satellite remote sensing data and application of GIS technologies provide an alternative means of rapidly assessing the dynamics and development of sprawl so that timely action may be taken. Besides being flexible and extensible, the datasets are easily rectified, updated and may be used for other applications. Infrastructral development brings along negative impacts on natural resources and ecology of the area and particularly it matters most in agrarian state like Punjab (Narinder et al., 2011). The study area shown in Fig. 1 was decided keeping in view the local planning area map of Amritsar city. It covers an area of 485.9 km2 including 87 villages in full and parts
c) d)
The objective of the study was to map the land transformation of agriculture land to built up land from 1972 to 2006. For mapping the extent of the urban area as it stood at the 1972 level, survey of India Topographic map 44 I/14 was used. Apart from the extent of the urban area, this has details of drainage, water bodies, rail and road network, built up area and administrative boundaries. IRS IC/ID, LISSIII multi spectral data of 2002 was used to map the extent of sprawl for 2002. Similarly most recent built up was marked from Cartosat data and IRS P6, LISS IV digital data of 2006. The study area was marked using the local planning area map of Amritsar city. Base map of the study area showing permanent features like road, railway and canal was prepared. All the built up areas were marked with in the study area using the available information for the year 1972 from topographic maps and digitized in Arc-Info 9.1 GIS software. With in the same study area built up was interpreted on line from March, 2002 data of IRS IC/ID-LISS-
Minakshi, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
commuted and amounts to be 49.43 km2 (Table 1). The IRS-IC/ID LISS-III, March 2002 data was used to map the built up area with in the area of interest for the year 2002.
Table 2. Urban population in Amritsar city during 1971-2001 Year 1971 1981 1991 2001 Population 434951 594844 708835 1003917 Decadal per cent increase in population 36.8 19.2 41.6
III. Similarly IRS P6 LISS IV data of 2006 was also interpreted to update the built up for 2006. The fine resolution Cartosat I data for the year 2005 facilitated clear demarcation of built up areas and agriculture areas which was other wise not possible from LISS III data of spatial resolution 23.5 metres. The maps generated for years 1972, 2002 and 2006 were overlaid in Arc GIS to map the urban sprawl and land transformation from agriculture to build up. The area statistics of built up land with in the study area for these three years was calculated. The methodology followed has been depicted in Fig. 2.
This core area is almost completely covered and there appears to be no patch available for any kind of development. The city has a peculiar example of planning system with unique areas called katras. The katras are self styled residential units that-provided unique defence system. To the south east of Amritsar railway station is the dusty and congested old city crowded with narrow zig zag streets with mixed commercial and residential structures. Golden temple is in the heart of the old city and the walls of Maharaja Ranjit Singh time had been demolished to a ring road around the city. The other rural built ups are scattered around the city with in the study area. The area statistics of built up land with in the study area for the year 1972 was
The general trend of growth from 1972 to 2002 was observed mainly along the transportation corridors connecting Amritsar to Delhi and Pathankot. The increase in city area through incorporation of surrounding rural areas in the city limits has been a continuing process. However it could not develop much towards western side due to the proximity of the Indo-Pak border. But after wars in 1965 and 1971, military camps were established in the western side of the city. The new urban areas are being developed to the North East part of the city like Rambagh, Mall and other posh areas of Amritsar. Part of many surrounding villages were covered by built up land in 2002 e.g., Verka, Saidpura, Naushehra, Nangli, Kaler, Kambo, Kala Ghanupur, Gumtala, Mahal, Hair, Bal, Kathanian, Hamidpur, Vadala Guru, Khurmanian, Baser Ke, Guru Wali, Fatehpur, Sultan Wind, Rakh Sukar Garh, Tung Bala, Tung Paian, Miran Kot, Nizarpura and Kot Khalsa. In the year 2002, the total built up land with in the study area was calculated to be 127.29 km2, almost an increase of 157.5 per cent with in a time span of thirty years. The cartosat data of 2006 depicts the recent picture of urban development (Fig. 3) and according to this data the total built up land with in the study area comes out to be 142.01 km2 (an increase of 187.3 per cent in thirty four years). The land transformation (Fig. 4) shows that after 2002 the pattern of growth is mainly high density ribbon sprawl towards north western part along Ajnala and Verka roads. According to census 2001, the total population of Amritsar city has been upto 1,003917, is much more than the total population of the city in 1971 (Table 2). There is a population increase of 130.8 per cent in three decades. This has been accompanied by an unprecedented wave of development. During the last thirty four years, on an average 2.72 km2 of area per year is paved over or otherwise converted to urban human uses. Not with standing the poor pollution control facilities, every person added to the population, consumes additional resources and creates additional waste. All this has resulted in decline in the quality
10
Minakshi, N.S. Tur, Amardeep Singh, Deepak Mehra, Harpinder Singh, Virrat Devaser and Rajneesh Kumar
thereby, environmental quality.
of life, especially for the growing development. One of the primary issues is the loss of prime agricultural land due to urbanization. The study reveals that the urban area has increased almost three times since 1972. The rate of land consumption was substantially moderate till 2002 but after 2002 witnessed a sharp increase in land consumption. It is also evident from the land use map for year 1972, 2002 and 2006 that the land consumed for built up after 1972 was mainly agriculture land. Hence the fertile crop land is being used extensively for commercial, industrial, residential, educational and recreational establishments. The satellite data and GIS technology are very well used for broad land use/land cover mapping with respect to agricultural and urban areas. Urban fringe development of construction sites are easily delineated on satellite data because of their tone, texture and pattern. The urban sprawl maps generated using GIS technologies are very useful for other applications. As observed the agricultural land is being consumed at alarming rate for unplanned development of urban regions. There is a need to balance the present requirements of land against future needs. Preserving agricultural land in the fringe areas of expanding cities is vital for preserving and maintaining open spaces and
REFERENCES
Barnes, K.B., Morgan, III J., Roberge, M.C. and Lowe, S. (2001) Sprawl development; its pattern, consequences and measurement, Towson University Retrieved June 27, 2006 from http:// Chesapeake.towson.edu/landscape/urban sprawl/ download/sprawlwhilepaperPDF Farooq, S. and Ahmad, S. (2008) Urban sprawl development around Aligarh city: A study aided by satellite remote sensing and GIS. J. Ind. Soc. Rem. Sens. 36:77-88. Pathan, S.K., Shukla, V.K., Patel, R.G., Patel, B.R. and Mehta, K.S. (1991) Urban land use mapping. A case study of Ahmedabad city. J. Ind. Soc. Rem. Sens. 19: 95-112. Economic Advisor, Punjab. (2007) Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Economic and Statistical Organisation, Govt. of Punjab. Publication No. 915. Mundia, C.N. and Aniya, M. (2005) Analysis of land use/cover changes and urban expansion of Nairobi city using remote sensing and GIS. Int. J. Rem. Sens. 26:2831-2849 Jat, M.K., Garg, P.K. and Khare, Deepak (2008) Monitoring and modelling of urban sprawl using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Int. J. App. Earth Observation and Geoinformation 10:26-43. Tur, N.S., Singh, A., Mehra, D., Singh, H., Minakshi, Kumar, R. and Devasar V. (2011) Mapping of urban sprawl around Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar. Indian J. Ecol. 38(2): 155-162.
The survival and failure of particular land use or farming system in a given region heavily relies on careful assessment and adoption to location specific agro-climatic resources. Temperature (thermal) and moisture regimes are the two most important components represent agroclimatic resources of an area. Plants can grow and thrive only between certain limits of temperature (upper, lower and optimal) and that limits also differ from species to species and even within a given species from one stage of life cycle to next (Schulze et al., 1997). Availability of soil moisture also plays a great role in deciding the length of crop growth periods. A general characterization of moisture conditions is achieved through the concept of length of growing period (LGP), i.e., the period during the year when both moisture availability and temperature are conducive to crop growth. Farmers cropping strategies are undoubtedly influenced by the variability they have experienced in the onset of the rainy season. A practical zoning approach of agro-climatic regions thus arises, based on thermal and moisture regimes because climate represented by similar thermal and moisture regimes forms uniform geographic areas capable of supporting agricultural developmental planning and other interventions (FAO, 1976). Each zone has a similar combination of constraints and potentials for land use and serves as a focus for formulation and implementation of
location specific recommendations in order to improve the existing land use situation, either through increasing sustainable production system or by arresting further degradation of productive landmasses. In the post green revolution era, it is impossible for Indian Punjab, to increase financial returns by expanding cropped area as there is little scope left for further increase in horizontal expansion of cultivable area. As a byproduct of green revolution, multiple problems have surfaced and are now confronting agricultural productivity and sustainability of natural resources particularly due to large scale adoption of high input intensive mono-cropping without due consideration to site suitability based on agro-climatic and agro-physical resource inventory. This has led to substantial changes in the growth of agriculture and land use/land cover and ultimately the change in global climate contributing factors have led to change in climate at various places of Punjab in the recent past (Hundal and Kaur, 2002; Mukherjee and Bal, 2003). In the past, agro-climatic resource inventory characterization for the state of Punjab involved manual integration of data (Mavi, 1984). Manual integration is time consuming, labour intensive and generally, lack in providing information in time space dimension for a large region like the whole state of Punjab. As a result, large amount of climatic data and other agro-physical inputs could not be
12
S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury, Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur
Table1. Locations of meteorological observatories used for the study area. Sr No Station name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Abohar Amritsar Ballowal Saunkhri Bathinda Ferozepur Jalandhar Ludhiana Patiala Kapurthala Gurdaspur Pathankot Chandigarh Hoshiarpur Sirsa Ambala Hissar Ganganagar Latitude 30.15 N
o o o o
handled easily. This led to the loss of information on spatial variability. However, with the advent of space technologies such as remote sensing (RS), geographic information systems (GIS) and global positioning systems (GPS) and their integration with traditional tools, the homogenous zoning and agro-climatic resource inventory characterization of particular region considering space and time dimension has become much easier for achieving sustainable development of natural resources (Steven, 1993). Modern tool as GIS has been providing newer dimensions to effectively monitor and manage the natural resources in spatial domain. Thus, to sustain the food security of the Indian Punjab, it is of great importance to delineate the state into different zones according to the climatic requirements and various agro-physical parameters suitability to specific landuse. Therefore, agro-climatic resource inventory characterization in spatial format for the Punjab state is the urgent need. Thus, in the changing climatic and land use scenario, the revision of characterization of climatic resources inventory has become imminent.
Longitude 74.20o E 74.87o E 76.12o E 74.98o E 74.61o E 75.58o E 75.87o E 76.47o E 75.38o E 75.51o E 75.65o E 76.75o E 76.05o E 75.44o E 76.78o E 75.76o E 73.88o E
29.90 N
Table 2. Equipments/Inputs and sources of data collection Equipment / Inputs Data and maps Climatic data Temperature Rainfall Softwares and hardwares GPS (Global Positioning System) ARC GIS 9.1 P.R.S.C., Ludhiana PAU, Ludhiana Used for collection of ground truth data in identification of crops and met station locations Multi-layer analysis State Agricultural Universities, India Meteorological Department, Air port, Air Force Stations To generate thermal maps To generate LGP maps Source Purpose
13
The agreement between the observed and generated data was evaluated using the statistical indices like Residual Mean Square Error (RMSE), General Standard Deviation (GSD) and Willmotts (1982) index of agreement (d). RMSE d GSD = SQRT [{(1/n) * ni=1 (Pi Oi)2}] = 1.0 - (Oi - Pi)2 / [ |Pi - Obar| + |Oi - Obar| ] 2 = RMSE / Obar
where, Oi = observed data; Pi = generated data and Obar = mean of the observed data. The performance of the model was evaluated from GSD and d indicators. If GSD is 0.10 and d is 0.95 then the model performance was good; and if 0.10 < GSD 0.20 and 0.95 > d 0.90, performance was considered acceptable. Values other than the above conditions indicated poor performance. Willmotts index (d) is considered an improved model evaluation tool over R2 because it takes into account differences in observed and model means (biases) and variances, as well as correlation.
14
S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury, Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur
6) Then the point file coverage was converted to raster format through Krigging method giving equal distance points. Clipping was done to get the thermal and LGP zones of Punjab state.
weekly data on these two parameters were analyzed for calculation of length of growing period (LGP). The LGP is the period in days during a year when precipitation exceeds half the potential evapo-transpiration plus a period required to evapotranspire assured estimated stored moisture (Higgins and Kassam, 1981). Lengths of Growing Periods (LGPs) year wise were calculated using Excel spreadsheet for the period of time that precipitation (P) + stored soil moisture (S) exceeds 0.5 ETp (Potential evapotranspiration). The yields of many common crops decline markedly if the soil moisture falls below this level (Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979). The soil moisture storage capacity was assumed to be uniform throughout the state, because a particular soil type was scattered irrespective of rainfall and PET zones. The LGP excludes any period in which the temperature is unfavourable for crop growth.
7)
3) 4) 5)
Table 3. Statistical evaluation of ClimGen model for generating maximum and minimum temperature for selected weather stations Weatherparameter Maximum temperature (OC) Minimum temperature (OC) Rainfall (mm) Monthly average Observed value 29.5 2.6 16.8 2.6 65.8 5.7 Generated value 29.5 3.3 15.8 2.9 50.7 4.7 0.94 0.97 0.40 0.8 1.1 38.1 0.06 0.09 1.36 R2 RMSE GSD Wilmotts index (d) 0.98 0.99 0.71 Good Good Poor Remark
15
Thermal Layer
The inventory of thermal layer was prepared by using temperature data of individual stations. A spatial coverage layer was generated using point data on temperature in Arc GIS. The boundaries of thermal zone were constructed by spatial interpolation (krigging) in GIS environment. Later on, the thermal map was subsequently digitized (Map 1). The thermal regime refers to the amount of heat available for plant growth and development during the growing period. It is usually defined by the mean daily temperature during the growing period. In the present study, five thermal zones have been defined based on temperature intervals of 1OC across the zones. Average annual mean temperature ranges from 21OC to 26OC. The high-lying areas over the extreme north and north-eastern parts of the state (Map 1) record relatively low temperatures representing zones T1 and T2 (22 to 23OC) while in the low-lying south-western arid zones (T4 & T5), temperature is 24-26OC. The high temperature in the south-western parts of the state may be due to the proximity to Thar Desert, scanty rainfall and lack of sufficient vegetative covers. The lower temperature in the northern part may be ascribed to its higher latitudinal location and its proximity to the foot hills of Himalayas (Siwalik Hills). Most of the areas of the state however lies within the moderate thermal zones of 22-23OC to 24-25OC. Area under T3 zone was highest followed by T4 zone and the least area was under T1 zone (Table 4).
Table 4. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different thermal zones of Punjab Thermal Zones T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Annual average temperature 21-22oC Annual average temperature 22-23oC Annual average temperature 23-24oC Annual average temperature 24-25 C
o
Description
These LGP data of different meteorological stations were fed into GIS environment and through spatial interpolation method (krigging), LGP surface layer map was generated. Altogether, seven LGP zones were categorized ranging from < 60 days to 180 days with an interval of 20days (Map 2). Maximum number of days (L1=160-180 days) with sufficient moisture for crop growth was found in the extreme northern part of Gurdaspur district of Punjab. This was mainly due to the occurrence of higher rainfall and lower ET demand. The lowest number of days (L7 < 60 days) lies in the extreme south-western parts of the state comprising southern parts of Ferozepur and Muktsar districts. This may be attributed to occurrence of less rainfall, higher temperature and subsequent high ET demand. Most of the areas of the state however lie with in the moderate
Table 5. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different LGP zones of Punjab LGP Zones L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 Description LGP 160-180 days LGP 140-160 days LGP 120-140 days LGP 100-120 days LGP 80-100 days LGP 60-80 days LGP < 60 days % TGA 0.7 9.8 34.1 27.6 16.8 3.8 7.2
16
S.K. Bal, J. Mukherjee, Gurjot Singh, Anil Sood, B.V. Choudhury, Harpreet Singh and Prabhjyot Kaur
LGP zones of L5 (80-100 days) to L2 (140-160 days). The maximum area was under L3 followed by L4 and L5. The least area was under L1 zone (Table 5).
southernmost part of Firozpur district. Maximum area was under Z3 zone followed by Z4 and Z5 (Table 6).
Table 6. Per cent total geographical area (TGA) under different Thermal-LGP zones of Punjab LGP Zones Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Z6 Z7 21-22 22-23 23-24 23-24 24-25 24-25 25-26 Description Temperature (C ) LGP (days) 160-180 140-160 120-140 100-120 80-100 60-80 < 60 0.7 9.7 36.0 25.8 17.0 8.0 2.8 % TGA
The test of goodness of fit between observed and generated data using GSD and Wilmotts index indicated that performance of ClimGen generated data for maximum and minimum temperature was good for selected stations situated at different agro-climatic conditions of the state. In total, five thermal zones were defined based on temperature intervals of 1 OC, the gradient being from northeast to southwest. The northeast and southwestern part of the state experiences the lowest and highest temperatures of the state, simultaneously. The LGP pattern in the state is normal type and a total of 7 zones were identified with an interval of 20-days, the highest being in the north-eastern part and
17
trends in Agricultural Physics and Four Decades of Research in Division of Agricultural Physics. 22-24 April, Division of Agricultural Physics, I.A.R.I., New Delhi, pp 105.
Richardson, C.W. (1981) Stochastic simulation of daily precipitation, temperature and solar radiation. Water Resour. Res. 17: 182190. Schulze, R.E., Maharaj, M., Lynch, S.D., Howe, B.J. and MelvilThomson, B. (1997) South African Atlas of Agrohydrology and Climatology. Report TT82/96. Water Research Commission, Pretoria, pp 277. Sehgal, J.L., Mandal, D.K., Mandal, C. and Vadivelu, S. (1996) Agroecological regions of India. Publication 24. NBSS & LUP (ICAR), Nagpur, India. Steven, M.D. (1993) Satellite remote sensing for agricultural management: Opportunities and logistic constraints. ISPRS J. Photogramm. 48: 29-34. Stckle, C.O., Campbell, G.S. and Nelson, R. (1999) ClimGen manual. Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, pp. 28. Tang, W.Y., Kassim, A.H.M. and Abubakar, S.H. (1996) Comparative studies of various missing data treatment methods - Malaysian experience. Atmos. Res. 42: 247-262. Willmott, C.J. (1982) Some comments on the evaluation of model performance. Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc., 63: 1309-1313. Xia, Y., Fabian, P., Winterhalter, M. and Stohl, A. (1999) Forest climatology: estimation of missing values for Bavaria, Germany. Agr. Forest Meteorol. 96: 131-144.
REFERENCES
Das, G. and Ray, S.S. (2005) Comparative evaluation of two weather generators for Punjab. J. Agrometeorol. 7: 231-240. Doorenbos, J. and Kassam, A.H. (1979) Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 33, FAO, Rome. FAO. (1976) A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soils Bulletin, 32. Food and Agricultural Organisation, Rome, Italy. Higgins, G.M. and Kassam, A.H. (1981) The FAO agro-ecological zone approach to determination of land potential. Pedologie 31: 147168. Hundal, S.S. and Kaur, P. (2002) Annual and seasonal climatic variability at different locations in Punjab. J. Agrometeorol. 4: 113-126. Kingra, P.K. and Hundal, S.S. (2002) Estimation of PET by various methods and its relationships with mesh covered pan evaporation at Ludhiana. J. Agrometeorol. 4: 143-149. Matalas, N.C. (1967) Mathematical assessment of synthetic hydrology. Water Resour. Res. 3: 937-945. Mavi, H.S. (1984) Introduction to Agrometeorology. (2nd ed). Oxford & IBH Publishers Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, pp. 209-227. Mukherjee, J. and Bal, S.K. (2003) Climatic variability at Ballowal Saunkhri, Punjab. Proc. National Symposium on Emerging
Economic Impact of Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) Strategies in Cotton in Muktsar District (Punjab)
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar*, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India *E-mail: vijay_ento@pau.edu
Abstract: To disseminate Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) strategies, 10 villages were adopted in Muktsar district of Punjab during 2008 and 2009. Two villages were kept as check (Non-IRM) for comparing the impact of IRM strategies on the major insect pests and natural enemies in Bt cotton arthropod fauna. The impact of adoption of IRM strategies leads to reduction in the population of jassid and whitefly in IRM villages as compared to non-IRM villages. The mean population of nymphs jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida), and whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), adults per three leaves was 0.41, 0.45 and 0.61, 0.69 in IRM villages, while in non-IRM villages, it was 0.50, 2.00 and 0.80, 2.40 during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively. No incidence of bollworms was observed in IRM as well as Non-IRM villages. Cotton IRM villages were sprayed 3.73 and 3.40 as compared to 6.30 and 6.05 in non-IRM villages for both the years. The per cent reduction in number of sprays, cost of sprays and increase in seed-cotton yield was 40.79 and 43.80, 64.96 and 51.16, 22.70 and 30.45 over non-IRM villages in 2008 and 2009, respectively. The additional net profit per hectare in IRM villages was Rs 11422 and Rs 18441 during both the years. Key Words: Arthropod fauna, Bt Cotton, Insecticide resistance management, Economics, Non-IRM, Natural enemies
Cotton ( Gossypium sp.) being the most important commercial crop, plays a vital role in social and monetary affairs of the India. Besides other causes, major bottleneck in cotton cultivation is biotic stresses due to attack of insect pests and diseases which play a significant role in achieving optimum yield potential. In India, cotton ecosystem harbours about 162 insect species, of which 9 are of utmost importance inflicting significant losses in yield (Dhaliwal et al., 2004). Before the introduction of Bt cotton, farmers solely relied on insecticides for effective management of Bollworms. Besides increasing cost of production and environmental problems, the excessive and indiscriminate use of insecticides for the control of these pests has resulted in development of insecticidal resistance particularly in Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) decline in natural enemies population and resurgence of the pests like whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadiaus) and jassid, Amrasca biguttula biguttula (Ishida) (Gill and Dhawan, 2006). Besides, A. biguttula and B. tabaci, other sucking pests like thrips, Thrips tabaci (Lindemann) hitherto occurring during May-June and aphids, Aphis gossypii (Glover) at fag end of the crop season are also gaining importance. During 2006, a new sucking pest, mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) appeared in few pockets of Bathinda, Ferozepur and Muktsar districts and caused economic loss (Dhawan et al., 2007). Keeping in view the above facts, IRM window based strategies were implemented in the last two years with the aim to slow or reverse the development of resistance in sucking pests. The various strategies includes the use of refugia, mechanical control of immature stages of tobacco caterpillar
and other damaging insects, use of insecticides on the basis of economic threshold, and alternations as well as rotation of insecticide group in window based adoption of chemical and non-chemical methods for the management of cotton insect-pests.
19
Need based use of Novaluron as first spray for the control of tobacco caterpillar. Use of non- chemical methods for control of mealy bug Need based spray of Buprofezin for the control of mealy bug as spot treatment.
Table 1. Agronomic practices adopted in IRM villages of Muktsar during 2008 and 2009 Year Land holding (ha) Total area 2008 2009 2008 2009 4263 4466 347 454 Under cotton 2627 2068 163 245 Before April 30 5.50 21.10 6.30 18.50 31.50 70.90 24.30 55.00 Area under different dates of sowing (%) May 1-15 After May 15 IRM villages 63.00 8.00 69.40 26.50 2.20(1.90-2.60) 3.86(2.10-3.15) 2.23 4.07 300 325 310 289 75 77 72 70 2.10 2.95 1.59 1.75 Irrigations N (Urea) P (DAP) KNO sprays (13:0:45) Fertilizer (Kg ha-1)
20
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
the years. Subsequently their population declined which might be due to the insecticidal sprays (Table 2). Insecticide use pattern. In IRM villages, maximum numbers of sprays were given for the control of sucking pest (2.22 and 3.28) followed by sprays for control of tobacco caterpillar (1.51 and 0.12) in both the year 2008 and 2009. Insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group organophosphates (2.09) followed by neonicotinoids (0.95) and organochlorine (0.25) in 2008 , while in 2009 crop season, insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group neonicotinoids (1.35) followed by organophosphate (1.20) and organochlorines (0.70). In non-IRM villages, number of insecticide sprays was maximum for control of sucking pest (5.52 and 5.75) followed by sprays against tobacco caterpillar (0.78 and 0.30) during 2008 and 2009, respectively. Insecticides sprayed the maximum times belongs to group organophosphates (3.10) followed by neonicotinoids (1.60) and carbamates and IGRs (0.60) in 2008, while in 2009, insecticides sprayed maximum times belongs to group neonicotinoids (3.20) followed by organophosphate (1.80) and miscellaneous (0.40).
villages, its population was 0.50 and 2.00 during the respective years. Similarly, the data on the population of whitefly per 3 leaves showed that it remains below ETL level with 0.61 and 0.69 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, while in non-IRM villages, it was 0.80 and 2.40 per 3 leaves for the corresponding years. The population of mealy bug per 2.5 cm of central shoot was 0.34 and 0.00 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, whereas in non-IRM villages, it was 0.70 and 0.80 for the corresponding years. The population of thrips per plant was 0.07 and 0.05 in IRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively, whereas in non-IRM villages, it was 0.58 and 0.50 for the corresponding years (Table 2). Maximum number of sprays was given for sucking pest in both the years. The number of sprays for sucking pests was 2.22 and 3.28 in IRM villages and 5.52 and 5.75 in nonIRM villages during 2008 and 2009 crop season, respectively. Bollworm complex and foliage feeders. No incidence of pink bollworm, spotted bollworm and American bollworm in 2008 and 2009 due to adoption of recommended varieties/Bt cotton. The mean population of tobacco caterpillar was 0.27 and 0.01 in IRM villages; however it was 0.35 and 0.10 in non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, respectively (Table 2). Natural enemies. The most common natural enemies observed were spiders, lady bird beetle, Coccinellids and green lace wing, Chrysoperla spp. The population of natural enemies in IRM villages was high as compared to non-IRM villages. The average number of natural enemies in IRM villages was 0.94 and 0.86 per plant during 2008 and 2009, respectively, while in non-IRM villages it was 0.47 and 0.20 per plant. The peak population of natural enemies was recorded during 32nd-35th meteorological weeks during both
Table 2. Status of insect pest in IRM and non-IRM villages of Muktsar district during 2008 and 2009. Year Jassid nymphs (per 3 leaves) 2008 2009 2008 2009 0.41 0.45 0.50 2.00 0.61 0.69 0.80 2.40 Whitefly (per 3 leaves) Mealy bug (2.5 cm of central shoot) 0.34 0.00 0.70 0.80 0.07 0.05 0.58 0.50 Thrips (per 3 leaves) Tobacco (no. per plant) IRM villages 0.27 0.01 Non-IRM villages 0.35 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.15 0.03 0.02 0.16 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 0.67 0.04 0.02 0.20 0.17 0.00 0.00 Numbers per plant Bollworm Spider Chrysopa Coccinellid Predatory bug
caterpillar complex*
Bollworm complex includes American bollworm, spotted bollworm and pink bollworm
21
Fig. 1. Insecticide used pattern in Muktsar cotton belt (Punjab) during 2008
Fig. 2. Insecticide used pattern in Muktsar cotton belt (Punjab) during 2009
Table 3. Impact of IRM strategies on economics in Muktsar district during 2008 and 2009 Year Number of sprays 2008 2009 2008 2009 3.73 (40.79)* 3.40 (43.80)* 6.30 6.05 Cost of sprays (Rs ha-1) 1638 (64.96)* 1778 (51.16)* 4675 3641 Seed cotton yield (kg ha-1) IRM villages 2189 (22.70)** 2630 (30.45)** Non-IRM villages 1784 2016 22301 25898 27645 37587 1 : 1.23 1 : 1.45 22222 (0.35)* 25518 (1.46)* 39067 (41.31)** 56028 (49.06)** 1:1.75 (42.27)** 1: 2.19 (51.03)** Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost :Benefit ratio
* Figures in parentheses are per cent decrease over non-IPRM villages ** Figures in parentheses are per cent increase over non-IPRM villages
22
A.K. Dhawan, Vijay Kumar, Amardip Singh, Jasbir Singh and Amrik Singh
seed cotton yield as compared to non-IRM villages.
the two years. Thus, adoption of IRM strategies resulted in additional profit of Rs 11422 and Rs 18441 of IRM villages over non-IRM villages during 2008 and 2009, representing 41.31 and 49.06 per cent increase over IRM villages. The present findings collaborate with the result of Kranthi et al. (2000) who estimated 90 per cent reduction in sprays and seed cotton yield increased up to 59 per cent and plant protection cost reduced by 25-60 per cent due to adoption of IRM strategies. He also reported that number of sprays for the control of sucking and bollworm complex varied from 8-17 in North India. Dhawan et al. (2006) also reported reduction in number of sprays, cost of sprays (Rs ha-1) and increase in seed cotton yield was 24.4 and 25.6; 19.2 and 42.0; and 25.8 and 15.5 per cent in IRM villages over non-IRM villages during 2002 and 2003, respectively. Suruli Velu et al. (2004) also reported 63 per cent reduction in number of sprays at Coimbatore and Theni districts, with the mean of 2.7 in project village as compared to 7.3 in control villages. Likewise, in our study, reduction in spray cost, number of sprays and increased seed cotton yield was recorded during 2008 and 2009. The per cent increase in net profit of IRM villages over non-IRM villages was 41.3 and 49.1 during both the years. The cost benefit ratio increased up to 29.7 and 33.7 per cent during both the years. Similarly, Rajak et al. (1997) reported 30 to 50 per cent reduction in pesticide consumption in IRM-adopted fields with 21-27 per cent increase in seed-cotton yield. With the adoption of IRM strategies, there was no damage of bollworms and also less incidence of sucking pests and foliage feeders, higher number of natural enemies in IRM villages with increase in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are graeful to The Director CICR, Nagpur for the financial help provided under IRM Project.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2009) Package of Practices for Crops of PunjabKharif. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Dhawan, A. K., Singh, K., Arora, P. K. and Kumar, T. (2006) Insecticide resistance management (IRM) strategies: their impact on arthropod fauna and economics in cotton agro ecosystem. Indian J. Ecol. 33(2): 158-162. Dhawan A. K., Singh, K., Saini, S., Mohindru, B., Kaur, A., Singh, G. and Singh, S. (2007) Incidence and damage potential of mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, on cotton in Punjab. Indian J. Ecol. 34 (2): 166172. Dhaliwal, G. S., Arora, R. and Dhawan, A. K. (2004) Crop losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture. Indian J. Ecol. 31 (1):1-7. Gill, H. K. and Dhawan, A. K. (2006) Global status of insecticide resistance in Helicoverpa armigera on cotton. J. Cotton Res. Dev. 20 (2): 226-231. Kranthi, K. R., Banerjee, S. K. and Russell, D. (2000) IRM strategies for sustainable cotton pest management in India. Pestology, 24: 58-67. Rajak, R. L., Diwaker, M. C. and Mishra, M. P. (1997) National IPM programme in India. Pestic. Inf. 23: 23-26. Suruli Velu, T., Sumathi, E., Matharajan, V. G. and Rajendran, T. P. (2004) Evaluation of success of insecticides resistance management in Tamil Nadu. In: B. M. Khadi, M. H. Vaamadevaiah, I. S. Katageri, Chattannawar, S. S. Udikeri and S. B. Patil (Eds.) International Symposium on Strategies for Sustainable Cotton Production A Global Version 3. Crop Protection, Dharwad, pp. 204-207.
Effect of Foliar Feeding of GA3, Triacontanol and Calcium Salts on Shelf-Life in Kinnow Mandarin
Tanjeet Singh Chahal*, J. S. Bal1 and Kiran Kour2
1
Fruit Research Station, Gangian (PAU), Hoshiarpur, India Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar, Punjab, India 2 Division of Fruit Science, SKUAST-J, Jammu - 180 019, India *E-mail: tanjeetchahal@yahoo.com
Abstract: The studies on the effect of pre-harvest chemical treatments in kinnow were conducted investigate their effect on shelf life of the fruits. The plant material used was fifteen year old plantation raised on citrus jambhiri rootstock. Pre-harvest foliar application of GA3 (10, 20, 30 ppm), triacontanol (400, 600 ppm), CaCl2 (4, 6 %) and Ca(NO3)2 (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 %) were applied to the kinnow plants on 25th October. The harvesting of the fruits was done on January 15th and the fruits were kept under ambient conditions for 30 days. The fruit samples were analysed for physico-chemical evaluation at 10 days interval. It was observed that CaCl2 6% proved to be the most effective treatment for minimizing the weight loss during ambient storage. Like physiological loss in weight, the minimum spoilage loss was also recorded in the fruits from CaCl2 6% treatment. Significantly lower spoilage loss was also observed with GA3, triacontanol and other calcium treatments. Highest level of TSS content was shown by fruits treated with GA3 30 ppm, while the highest acidity level was observed in the fruits treated with CaCl2 6% and Ca(NO3)2 0.3%. Key Words: Kinnow mandarin, GA3, CaCl2, Ca(NO3)2, Triacontanol
Citrus deliciosa Tenore) is dominant citrus fruit of Punjab and is expanding fastly to Haryana and Rajasthan. It grows successfully is all frost free, tropical and sub-tropical regions of India. Kinnow appears to be very exacting in its climatic requirements.
Large plantations have been brought under kinnow during the last two decades and consequently it has become the major fruit crop dominating the state. This resulted into increased production of kinnow, which is posing a serious handling problem and thus invites research on increasing its shelf life. In this fruit crop, harvesting is confined to a limited period so market glut is the serious problem faced by the growers, which engage the attention of horticulturists to enhance its storage period after harvest. This process can help to overcome the hurdles in its further expansion and regulation of marketing. Essential plant nutrients and growth regulators like calcium and GA3 are known to be involved in number of physiological processes concerning membrane structure, functioning and enzyme activity. There use for extending the shelf life has good scope in kinnow mandarin. Keeping this in view, the investigations were conducted with the aim to study the effect of different chemicals on shelf life of kinnow fruits with the help of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts along with their thresh hold levels.
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Table 1. Effect of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts on physiological loss in weight (%) during storage of kinnow fruits Treatments 10 GA3 10ppm GA3 20ppm GA3 30ppm Tria 400ppm Tria 600ppm CaCl2 4% CaCl2 6% Ca(NO3)2 0.1% Ca(NO3)2 0.2% Ca(NO3)2 0.3% Control Mean 3.27 3.03 3.47 4.01 3.98 2.25 2.10 3.60 3.52 2.26 4.37 3.26 Physiological loss in weight (%) 20 8.02 6.93 7.13 8.81 6.24 4.45 4.03 6.34 6.27 4.45 8.52 6.47 30 11.68 10.49 9.94 14.85 14.60 9.11 7.27 11.22 11.13 8.14 15.43 11.26 Mean 7.66 6.82 6.85 9.22 8.27 5.27 4.47 7.05 6.97 4.95 9.44 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00 Spoilage (%) 20 10.33 9.67 10.67 13.67 12.67 8.67 7.33 10.67 10.00 7.67 15.33 10.61 30 21.00 17.00 21.00 29.00 27.00 15.00 13.00 21.00 19.00 15.00 36.67 21.33 Mean 10.44 8.89 10.56 14.22 13.22 7.89 6.78 10.56 9.67 7.56 17.33
CD(0.05) Physiological loss in weight: Treatments (A) 0.36; Storage Interval (B) 0.19 and AxB 0.62 Spoilage : Treatments (A) 0.78; Storage Interval (B) 0.41 and AxB 1.35
breakdown associated with lower respiratory rate compared to control fruits (Faust and Shear, 1972). Pathmanaban et al. (1995) in acid lime revealed similar retardation in physiological loss in weight with CaCl 2 and Ca(NO 3) 2 treatments. GA3 treatments were also found to lower the physiological weight loss significantly over control. The most efficacious dose of GA3 in lowering the weight loss was 20 ppm. The reduced weight loss in GA3 treated fruits might be due to antisenescent property of GA3 and also by binding the ethylene biosynthesis as reported by Khader (1992). Triacontanol at 600 ppm was also found to reduce the weight loss in comparison to control. However, effect of this chemical in reducing weight loss during storage was significantly lesser than calcium and GA 3 treatments. Physiological loss in weight increased with the increase in storage period irrespective of treatments. This may be due to continuous water loss from fruits during storage. The data presented in Table 1 revealed that the application of all the calcium treatments recorded significantly lower spoilage in the fruits during storage of kinnow mandarin. The minimum spoilage loss was observed in the fruits applied with CaCl2 at 6 per cent. This might be due to the fact that the exogenously applied calcium became localized in the cell wall, thus increasing the number of salt bridges, which could have accounted for the resistance of this tissue to maceration by fungal polygalacturonase and for resistance to pathogens, thus avoiding spoilage. Significantly lower spoilage loss was also observed with the GA3 and triacontanol treatments. All the GA3 concentrations were found to be superior over triacontanol. The most effective GA3 application was at 20 ppm. The lower spoilage loss with these growth regulators
might be due to firmer fruits produced by them, which may have checked fungal attack and rotting for longer period. The spoilage losses fastly increased with the progressive increase in storage period in kinnow mandarin under all the treatments. This could be owed to continuous biochemical changes in the fruits after picking, causing the aging which could have attracted fungal infection that leads to fruit softening and hence spoilage. The results are in close confirmation with those of Kumar et al.(2002) who observed increased fruit rot with increased storage period in Red Blush grapefruit. The TSS level of the fruits significantly decreased with the application of triacontanol at 400 ppm (Table 2). The decrease might be due to higher firmness in the triacontanol treated fruits in comparison to control, which might have decreased the biochemical changes in fruits. All the CaCl2 and Ca(NO3)2 treatments showed significant decrease in the TSS level of the kinnow fruits in comparison to control. The maximum decrease was recorded in the fruits treated with CaCl2 at 6 per cent. In the present studies, calcium had probably reduced the TSS level of the fruits due to reduced respiration rate (Faust and Klein, 1973). Similar decrease in the TSS level of the mango cv. Totapuri fruits with calcium application was also observed by Dhaka et al. (2001). The soluble solids recorded a general increase in kinnow fruits during storage under all the treatments. The exceeded TSS with prolongation of storage period can be attributed to increased hydrolysis of polysachharides and concentration of juice due to dehydration (Bhullar et al., 1985). Similar increase in TSS level of the fruits with prolongation in storage period was advocated by Mahajan et al. (2002) in kinnow.
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Mean 0.64 0.63 0.59 0.69 0.64 0.67 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.71 0.63
CD(0.05) TSS: Treatments (A) 0.45; Storage Interval (B) 0.24 and AxB N.S. Acidity : Treatments (A) - 0.03; Storage Interval (B) - 0.02 and A x B - N.S.
The data in Table 3 regarding acidity level of the kinnow fruits, depicted that with the increase in the application of GA3 concentration the acidity level of the fruits decreased. The minimum acidity was observed with the application of GA3 at 30 ppm. The acids under the influence of growth regulator might have either been rapidly converted into sugars and their derivatives by the reactions involving reversal of glycolytic pathway or might be used in respiration or both (Brahmachari et al., 1997). The fruits treated with triacontanol 400 ppm registered significantly higher acidity level in the fruits. The control fruits showed significantly lower acidity level from all the calcium treated fruits. The highest acidity was observed in the fruits treated with CaCl2 at 6 per cent and Ca(NO3)2 at 0.3 per cent. Higher acidity in the calcium treated fruits may be attributed to slower
utilization of organic acids in oxidative process because of slow rate of respiration (Nagpal and Kumar, 1999). The average acidity level of kinnow fruits recorded a descending trend with the advancement of storage period. The decrease in acidity level may be attributed to the utilization of organic acids in respiratory process (Ulrich, 1974). The data regarding the total sugars and reducing sugars of kinnow fruits clearly shows that the application of GA3 at 10 ppm and 20 ppm registered lower level of the sugars in comparison to control (Table 4). However, the maximum total sugar and reducing sugar level was observed with GA3 at 30 ppm, which was higher than control. The application of GA3 at 30 ppm may have increased the activity of the enzymes such as amylases, which hydrolyse the complex polysaccharides into simple sugars
Table 3. Effect of GA3, triacontanol and calcium salts on total sugars and reducing sugars (per cent) during storage of kinnow fruits Treatments 10 GA3 10ppm GA3 20ppm GA3 30ppm Tria 400ppm Tria 600ppm CaCl2 4% CaCl2 6% Ca(NO3)2 0.1% Ca(NO3)2 0.2% Ca(NO3)2 0.3% Control Mean 6.67 6.72 7.21 6.63 6.68 6.04 5.99 6.24 5.92 5.80 6.92 6.44 Total sugar 20 6.83 6.89 7.24 6.75 6.79 6.18 6.15 6.47 6.09 6.01 7.08 6.59 30 7.12 7.18 7.57 7.04 7.08 6.40 6.32 6.64 6.31 6.15 7.53 6.85 Mean 6.87 6.93 7.34 6.81 6.85 6.21 6.15 6.45 6.11 5.99 7.18 10 3.34 3.38 3.49 3.30 3.34 3.02 2.99 3.11 3.04 2.89 3.46 3.21 Reducing sugars 20 3.42 3.48 3.63 3.41 3.40 3.10 3.16 3.21 3.07 3.09 3.52 3.32 30 3.55 3.72 3.79 3.52 3.53 3.21 3.30 3.52 3.13 3.18 3.75 3.47 Mean 3.44 3.53 3.64 3.41 3.42 3.11 3.15 3.28 3.08 3.05 3.58
CD(0.05) Total Sugars: Treatments (A) 0.26; Storage Interval (B) 0.13 and AxB N.S. Reducing Sugar: Treatments (A) - 0.12; Storage Interval (B) - 0.06 and AxB N.S.
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(Brahmachari et al., 1997). Shinde et al. (2000) in Mosambi revealed similar results to that observed in the present study. All the triacontanol and calcium treatments produced lower total sugars and reducing sugars in comparison to control. The decrease in the sugars with calcium application owes to the fact that exogenous calcium incorporates into protopectin molecules in the middle membrane retards hydrolysis during post-harvest ripening (Sharma et al., 1996). The results are in proximity with the findings of Ramakrishna et al. (2001) in papaya. A continuous increase in the total sugars and reducing sugars on an average was recorded with increase in storage period. Increase in the level of sugars during storage might be either due to hydrolytic conversion of polysaccharides (starch) into monosaccharides (sugars) or due to concentration of juice owing to dehydration (Jain et al., 2001). From the foregoing discussion, inference can be drawn that pre-harvest application of all calcium salt treatments and GA3 treatments help in reducing the physiological loss in weight and spoilage losses during ambient storage of the kinnow fruits. However, the pre-harvest application of CaCl2 6 per cent was observed to be the most efficacious treatment in reducing the spoilage losses. Thus, foliar application of CaCl2 6 per cent can be used for enhancing the shelf-life of kinnow fruits during ambient storage.
REFERENCES
Bhullar, J. S., Dhillon, B. S. and Randhawa, J. S. (1985) Effect of wrappers on the storage of kinnow mandarin. J. Res. Punjab Agric. Univ. 22 : 663-666. Brahmchari, V. S., Kumar, Naresh and Kumar, Rajesh (1997) Effect of foliar feeding of calcium, potassium and growth substances on yield and quality of guava (Psidium guajava L.). Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 26(3-4): 169-173. Dhaka, R. S., Verma, M. K. and Agrawal, M. K. (2001) Effect of post harvest treatments on physico-chemical characters during
In India, annual production of rice is about 136.5 million tonnes (http://www.indiastat.com) and about 136.5-150 million tonnes of paddy straw is estimated to be produced. Paddy straw burning can be commonly seen during the harvesting season which causes soil erosion and emission of pollutants. Paddy straw has high content of cellulose (35-40%), hemi-cellulose (20%), lignin (12%) and silica (8%) (Pathak et al., 1986). But, the lignin complex and silica incrustation shields the microbial action and hence restricts paddy straw digestibility. So, the first step towards economical utilization of paddy straw is to remove/degrade lignin and silica. Different types of pretreatments i.e., physical (mechanical and thermal), chemical (acid, alkali, oxidizing agents), physico-chemical (AFEX, CO2 and steam explosion) and biological (using ligno-cellulosic microbes/enzymes) are being tried to increase the digestibility of rice straw. These pretreatments technologies either change or remove structural and compositional constraints to improve hydrolysis rate. Amongst all these pretreatment methods, a few can be used on an industrial scale based on economics and environmental consideration (Sun and Cheng, 2002). Keeping in view all these aspects and the importance of paddy straw for energy and power generation along with combating the environmental pollution, the present study of microwave supplementation to the sodium sulphite pretreatment was carried out so as to reduce the concentration of chemical for enhancing paddy straw digestibility.
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A control (untreated paddy straw) was also analyzed simultaneously along with these pretreatments in order to determine the extent of degradation of various components of paddy straw. All the experiments for proximate and chemical analysis were conducted in triplicates. Analytical procedures and statistical analysis. The proximate and chemical analysis of paddy straw i.e. total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin and silica content was done as per standard methods (AOAC, 2000). Total sugars were estimated by PhenolSulphuric acid method using glucose as standard (Dubois et al., 1956). Critical difference (at 5% level) was calculated.
Table 1. Effect of sodium sulphite-soaking pretreatment on paddy straw digestibility Na2SO3 concentration (%) CD 5% (Na2SO3 conc.) 8 95.6 (0.8) 95.3 (1.1) 89.7 (0.8) 89.9 (1.0) 57.8 (24.3) 59.2 (27.3) 44.4 (3.0) 44.7 (3.7) 25.5 (4.5) 25.9 (6.1) 5.2 (13.3) 4.9 (18.3) 6.2 (4.6) 5.8 (10.8) 6.1 (6.2) 5.7 (12.3) 4.9 (18.3) 4.6 (23.3) 5.9 (9.2) 5.6 (13.8) 60.9 (31.0) 44.8 (3.9) 45.2 (4.9) 26.2 (7.4) 26.9 (10.2) 4.5 (25.0) 4.2 (30.0) 5.7 (12.3) 5.4 (16.9) 0.38 0.22 NS 0.38 0.22 NS 0.41 0.24 NS 0.32 NS NS (27.5) 59.3 (1.2) 0.39 0.22 0.55 90.1 (1.0) 89.9 0.40 (1.3) 0.23 0.57 95.1 (1.2) 95.2 0.37 0.21 10 NS CD 5% (Soaking period) CD 5% (Na2SO3 conc. X soaking period)
Proximate and chemical composition of paddy straw 0 24 (0.1) 48 (0.2) 24 (0.2) 48 (0.3) 24 (1.9) 48 (1.5) 24 (0.2) 48 (0.5) 24 (0.4) 48 (1.2) 24 (6.7) 48 (3.3) (0) 6.6 (1.5) 6.4 (1.5) 24 (4.6) 48 (3.1) 6.7 6.8 6.2 6.0 5.0 (16.7) (1.7) (11.7) 6.4 6.1 5.3 (2.0) (2.9) 24.7 24.9 25.1 25.6 (4.9) (0.4) (1.2) (3.3) 24.5 24.5 24.7 25.2 (1.4) (2.1) (2.6) 43.3 43.7 44.0 44.2 (1.2) (1.9) (2.3) 43.2 43.6 43.9 44.1 (13.1) (19.1) (25.8) 47.2 52.6 55.4 58.5 (8.6) (18.1) (22.2) 47.4 50.5 54.9 56.8 (0.4) (0.7) (0.8) 89.3 89.4 89.6 89.7 (0.2) (0.6) (0.6) 89.2 89.2 89.5 89.5 (0.3) (0.6) (1.0) 96.2 96.1 95.8 95.4 (0.1) (0.2) (0.7) 96.3 96.3 96.2 95.7 2 4 6
Total solids
96.4
(%)
Volatile solids
89.0
(%)
Total sugars
46.5
(mg-1 PS)
Cellulose (%)
43.1
Hemi-cellulose
24.4
(%)
Lignin (%)
6.0
Silica (%)
6.5
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Table 2. Effect of sodium sulphite-microwave pretreatment on paddy straw digestibility Na2SO3 concentration (%) CD (Na2SO3 conc.) 8 95.4 (1.0) 95.1 (1.3) 89.9 (1.0) 90.0 (1.1) 85.5 (83.9) 89.7 (92.9) 46.5 (7.9) 47.8 (10.9) 25.6 (4.9) 25.9 (6.1) 3.4 (43.3) 2.9 (51.7) (48.3) 5.8 (10.8) 5.5 (15.4) 5.7 (12.3) 5.4 (16.9) 2.7 (65.0) 2.4 (60.0) 5.3 (18.5) 4.9 (24.6) 98.7 (112.3) 47.7 (10.7) 48.4 (12.3) 26.1 (7.0) 26.7 (9.4) 2.6 (56.7) 2.3 (61.7) 4.8 (26.2) 4.5 (30.8) 0.48 NS NS 0.44 0.25 NS 0.40 NS 0.57 0.36 0.21 0.52 (99.8) 92.9 (1.3) 0.48 0.28 0.68 90.2 (1.2) 90.1 0.37 (1.8) NS NS 94.7 (1.2) 95.2 0.38 0.22 10 CD (Micro wave duration) NS
Proximate and chemical composition of paddy straw 0 30 (0) 60 (0.1) 30 (0.2) 60 (0.3) 30 (1.9) 60 (1.5) 30 (0.2) 60 (3.5) 30 (0.4) 60 (0.4) 30 (6.7) (0) 5.7 (5.0) 6.5 (0) 6.3 (3.1) 3.1 60 (0) 30 (4.6) 60 (15.4) 7.5 6.8 6.0 (41.7) 6.4 6.0 3.5 (1.2) (3.7) 24.5 24.7 25.3 25.7 (5.3) (0.4) (2.0) (3.3) 24.5 24.5 24.9 25.2 (1.9) (7.7) (8.8) 44.6 43.9 46.4 46.9 (1.4) (4.6) (6.0) 43.2 43.7 45.1 45.7 (24.5) (40.6) (77.6) 47.2 57.9 65.4 82.6 (18.9) (25.8) (58.7) 47.4 55.3 58.5 73.8 (0.4) (0.7) (0.9) 89.3 89.4 89.6 89.8 (0.3) (0.4) (0.7) 89.2 89.3 89.4 89.6 (0.5) (0.9) (1.1) 96.3 95.9 95.5 95.3 (0.3) (0.6) (0.8) 96.4 96.1 95.8 95.6 2 4 6
96.4
89.0
Total sugars
46.5
(mg-1 PS)
Cellulose (%)
43.1
Hemi-cellulose
24.4
(%)
Lignin (%)
6.0
Silica (%)
6.5
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Gregg, D. and Saddler, J.N. (1996) A techno-economic assessment of the pretreatment and fractionation steps of a biomass to ethanol process. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 57-58: 711-727. http://www.indiastat.com Ma, H., Liu, W.W., Chen, X., Wu, Y.J. and Yu, Z.L. (2009) Enhanced enzymatic saccharification of rice straw by microwave pretreatment. Bioresour. Technol. 100: 1279-1284. Pathak, B.S., Jain, A.K. and Singh, A. (1986) Characteristics of crop residues. Agri. Wastes 16: 27-35. Park, S.Y., Koda, K., Matsumoto, Y., Meshitsuka, G. and Iiyama, K. (2000) Oxygen weak base pulping of rice straw with minimum silica removal. Japan TAPPI J. 54(9): 1245- 1251. Rosa, A.M.D., Mines, A.S.D., Banson, R.B. and Nuguid, Z.F.S. (1983) Radiation pretreatment of cellulose for energy production. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 22(3-5): 861-867. Sun, Y. and Cheng, J. (2002) Hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 83: 1-11.
REFERENCES
AOAC (2000) Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Official Methods of Analysis, 17th Edition, Maryland, USA. Banik, S., Bandyopadhyay, S. and Ganguly, S. (2003) Bio-effects of microwave-a brief review. Bioresour. Technol. 87: 155159. Dubois, M., Gilles, K.A., Hamilton, J.K., Rebers, P.A. and Smith, F. (1956) Calorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem. 28: 350-356.
India stands second in the world for production of fruits and vegetables owing to the remarkable diversity of its geographical conditions. The country produces about 50 million tonnes of fruits per year but only 2 per cent of this goes for processing, while over 25 per cent is spoiled due to improper handling and storage resulting in quantitative and qualitatively losses (Singh and Goswami, 2006). Consumers like carrot juice because of its high nutritive value, fiber, carbohydrates, vitamin A derived from its high a carotene (b-carotene), b-carotene content, colour, aromatic compounds and refreshing characteristics (Desobry et al., 1998). A major problem for processing carrot is color loss and requires double pasteurization (Czepa and Hofmann, 2004). Fruits like amla because of its high acidity and astringent taste, is not palatable for direct consumption, but its excellent nutritional and therapeutic values offer enormous potentiality for processing. Amla is a richest source of ascorbic acid, an antioxidant (600 mg100g-1), which is said to be the second highest among all the fruits and a good source of choline, an effective free radical scavenger (256mg100g-1). It contains 20 times as much ascorbic acid as orange juice. Amla is exception among fruits as it contains substances, which partially protect the ascorbic acid from destruction on heating or drying. As it is highly acidic, so it protects its ascorbic acid. Blending of carrot juice with astringent, highly nutritious fruits like amla can provide health beverages with medicinal and therapeutic values. The fermented beverage retains nutrients, and additionally CO2 so produced is anti microbial and adds tangy taste, fizz and sparkle to the beverage. Carrot
and amla are available for short span of time in a year and result in seasonal glut. To make them available throughout the year, the present study was conducted with objective to develop a reliable, controllable, reproducible technology for the production of low alcoholic self carbonated beverage with shelf-life of three months.
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205C. The beverage was refrigerated for 24 h, siphoned, bottled and stored in refrigerated conditions. Chemical Analysis. The pH of the juice was determined using a digital pH meter (Electronic Corporarion of India Ltd., Hyderabad, type 101). Total acidity expressed as per cent anhydrous citric acid by titration against standardized 0.1N NaOH (AOAC, 1980). Per cent total soluble solids (%TSS) determined by using Erma hand refractometer of 0-32B (UNICO make). Total sugars estimated by phenol-sulphuric acid method of Dubois et al. (1956) using glucose as standard. Reducing sugars estimated by the method of Miller (1959). Ascorbic acid was determined by titrametric method using 2, 6dichlorophenol indophenol dye (AOVC, 1996). Per cent ethanol in beverage was estimated by the Spectrophotometric method. Higher alcohols, aldehyde and ethyl acetate in beverage were estimated by GC Headspace Injection, TR wax Column, Detection by FID [Punjab Biotechnology Incubator, Phase-V, SAS Nagar (Mohali), Punjab, India]. Carbon dioxide volumes in beverage bottles were determined by Zahm and Nagel piercing device. Sensory evaluation of beverage was carried out using ninepoint hedonic scale (Amerine et al., 1965). Statistical analysis was done by using GSTATO4 and CPCS1 software developed by Maths, Statistics and Physics Department, PAU, Ludhiana.
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metabolize soluble starch, ethylamine, L-lysine, and cadaverine. Similarly, isolate 84 was able to grow at temperatures up to 42C; in high osmotic pressure conditions (50 % glucose); exhibited a negative starch test; was resistant to 1000 ppm cycloheximide; and was not able to grow in vitamin-free media. On the basis of physiological, biochemical, nucleotide homology (Table 1) and phylogenetic analysis (Fig.1), the isolate 84 was detected to be Clavispora lusitaniae and was deposited in GenBank of NCBI under accession number: EF221824. Nearest homologous genus and species of isolate 84 was found to be Candida flosculorum (Accession No. EF137918).
Table 1. Percentage homologies of yeast isolate 84 based on nucleotide sequence Isolates 1 84 (1) EF221824 (2) EF568047 (3) EF568024 (4) AYI74102 (5) A Y 493434 (6) EU568925 (7) A Y321464 (8) EF137918 (9) A Y321465 (10) EF060724 (11) * 2 100 * 3 100 100 * 4 100 100 100 * Percentage homology 5 98 98 98 98 * 6 99 99 99 99 98 * 7 95 95 95 95 95 94 * 8 96 96 96 96 96 95 93 * 9 82 82 82 82 82 81 80 80 * 10 99 99 99 99 98 98 98 96 81 * 11 77 77 77 77 77 77 76 77 78 77 *
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during sensory evaluation due to its effervescence, improved tangy taste, color, appearance, texture, and aroma as well as enriched with the nutrients and typical flavour of the fruits. As compared to fruit juices the formulation of low alcoholic self carbonated beverage offers more variety of flavour, nutrients, long shelf life and other physiological benefits with greater margin of safety in a fermented drink. The fermentation conditions and technology is simple and can be adopted at small and pilot scale. Carrot-amla (3:1, 1:1 and 1:3) beverages were analyzed by panelists for sensory scores (Table 2). Blended carrot beverage is pale yellow in color and not red as expected by consumer because of settling of red pigment. The blended beverages did not show significant difference in color, appearance, taste but differed significantly with respect to for texture, aroma and overall acceptability. Blended beverage from carrot-amla (1:1) scored highest for texture (7.5), taste (7.7) and overall acceptability (7.7). Shelf-life studies (Effect of fermentation on physicochemical properties of carrot: amla beverage). Shelf-life of low alcoholic self carbonated carrot-amla (1:1) blended beverage stored at refrigerated temperature was studied and evaluated fortnightly for organoleptic, biochemical and microbiological qualities. The results of carrot: amla beverage (1:1) show significant decrease in brix from 16.0 to 11.0 and Brix acid ratio from 44.44 to 25 (Table 3). Under anaerobic conditions and at high glucose concentration, the pyruvate formed in glycolysis is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde, which is then reduced to ethanol. The pH of the beverage decreased from 3.5 to 3.3 and acidity increased from 0.36 to 0.44 during fermentation. The decrease in pH and increase in acidity was non-significant. This is due to buffering action of juices. These results are in accordance with Aruna et al. (1992)
Table 2. Effect of blending on sensory attributes* of low alcoholic self carbonated beverages Sensory attributes Color Appearance Texture Taste Aroma Overall acceptability A 7.0+0.10 6.6+0.89 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.89 6.6+0.89 B 7.3+0.98 7.2+0.45 7.5+0.50 7.5+0.50 7.7+0.45 7.7+0.45 C 7.2+0.84 7.2+0.45 7.3+0.45 7.3+0.45 6.6+0.55 6.6+0.55 F-ratio 0.13 NS 1.50
NS
*On a 9 point hedonic scale, 9=liked extremely,1= disliked extremely, values are mean+SD, NS=non Significant, Mean value of five panelists A-Carrot: Amla (3:1) B- Carrot: Amla (1:1) C- Carrot: Amla (1:3)
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Table 3. Effect of storage on low alcoholic self carbonated carrot:amla (1:1) blended beverage Carrot: amla (1:1) Fresh 15days 30days 45days 60days 75days 90days CD at 5% (p= 0.05) Physico-chemical properties TSS ( B)
o
pH Acidity (%) Brix acid ratio Alcohol (w/v) CO2 (bar) Total plate count (cfu ml-1)
Organoleptic properties Color Appearance Texture Taste Aroma Overall acceptability NS: Non-significant 8.0+0.50 8.1+0.22 7.8+0.84 8.2+0.84 7.8+0.84 7.8+0.84 8.2+0.45 8.0+0.50 7.7+0.45 8.1+0.22 7.7+0.45 7.7+0.45 8.1+022 8.0+0.50 7.9+0.22 8.1+0.22 7.6+0.55 7.9+0.22 8.1+022 8.1+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.8+045 7.7+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 7.8+0.45 8.0+0.50 7.7+045 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.8+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.7+0.45 7.9+0.22 7.9+0.22 7.6+0.55 NS NS NS NS NS NS
who observed that during storage, total soluble solid, and pH decreased while acidity increased. Babajide et al. (2002) also reported decrease in pH and increase in acidity during storage of low-alcoholic beverage made from millet grain. Ezeronye (2005) observed decrease in Brix from 20B to 6B during fermentation. Ilamaran and Amutha (2007) reported gradual decrease in BAR content of carbonated banana beverage during storage. The ethanol after 15 days was 0.40 per cent and gradually increased to 0.70% v/v after 60 days and reached up to 1.0 per cent after 90 days. Higher alcohol like propanol, butanol, isopropanol and acetaldehyde and ethyl acetate was absent in beverage after 90 days of storage. The CO 2 pressure of fresh beverage was 0.90 bar that increased to 1.5 bar at the end of 90 days. Viable cell count increased from 1.5x107-9.5x108 cfu ml-1. During fermentation CO2, alcohol and glycerol produced is proportional to the amount of sugar fermented. The yeast strain produce large amount of glycerol at the expense of ethanol represent an advantageous alternative for development of beverages with low ethanol contents versus physical processes which alter the organoleptic properties of the final product. Kumar (1997) found that carbonated pure mandarin juice beverage at 100 psi pressure of carbonation, the best, similarly low alcoholic self carbonated beverage from carrot: amla (1:1) has been adjudged the best with sensory scores ranges from liked very much to moderately liked with shelf life of three months as carbonation enhances the sensory quality of beverage partly due to increased acidity, sparkle and unique fizz.
The alarming wastage associated with carrot and amla (Emblica officinalis) coupled with its low level of industrial utilization in the developing countries calls for a great concern. The nutritional and therapeutic value of amla (Emblica officinalis) and carrot can be tapped by processing them into value added fermented product (low alcoholic self carbonated beverage) with retention of nutritional properties, highest sensory qualities and shelf life of three months
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledged the financial assistance provided by University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, India for support of the project entitled Preparation of non-alcoholic naturally carbonated beverage from fruit juices.
REFERENCES
Amerine M. A., Pangborn R. M., Roessler E. B. (1965) Principles of Sensory Evaluation of Food. Academic press , London. AOAC (1980) Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 13th ed., Washington, DC, USA. AOVC (1996) Methods of Vitamin Assay. Association of Vitamin Chemists Inc. (Ed.) Interscience Publishers, pp.306-312. Aruna-seralthan, M., Malathi, D. and Susheela-Thirumaran, A. (1992) Preparation of carrot based ready to serve beverage. S. Indian Hort. 40: 41-52. Babajide, J. M., Atanda, O. O. and Idown, M. A.(2002) Microbial and sensory quality of freshly processed and reconstituted Kununzaki A Nigerian Mille based beverage. J. Food Technol. 7: 65-67.
37
carbonated citrus fruit juices and their blends with synthetic beverage. M. Sc. Thesis, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni-Solan, (HP), India. Markides, A. J. (1986) The microbiology of methode Champenoise. In: Proceedings of 6 th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference, Adelaide, 14-17, 1986. Australian Industrial Publishers, Adelaide, pp 232-236. Miller, G. L. (1959) Use of Dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Anal. Chem. 31: 426-428. Sambrook, J., Maccallum, P. and Russell, D. (2001) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 3rd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Press, NY, 2344 p. Singh, A. K. and Goswami, T. K. (2006) Controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables: A review. J. Food Sci. Technol. 43: 1-7. Tamura, K. D., Nei, J. M. and Kumar, S. (2007) MEGA4, molecular evolutionary genetics analysis (MEGA) software version 4.0. Mol. Biol. Evol. 24: 15961599. Van der Walt, J. P. and Yarrow, D. (1984) Methods for the isolation, maintenance, classification and identification of yeasts. In: N. J. W. Kreger-van Rij (Ed.). The Yeasts: A Taxonomie Study. Elsevier Science Publishers.
Impact of a Paper Mill on Surrounding Epiphytic Lichen Communities Using Multivariate Analysis
Pulak Das*, Santosh Joshi1, Jayashree Rout and D.K. Upreti1
Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, Assam788 011, India 1 Lichenology Laboratory, Plant Biodiversity and Conservation Biology Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (UP)226 001, India * E-mail: pulakdas.ecology@gmail.com
Abstract: The present study analyses the effect of a paper mill on epiphytic lichen communities in Barak Valley, Assam, India. Lichen thallus size, thallus number and frequency of occurrence, along with diversity of lichens at three levels (species, generic, and family) are considered as variables to see the community composition across the distance from a paper mill. Number of lichen thallus per tree in study area ranged from 3 to 16, while thallus area per tree varied from 20 cm2 to 256.48 cm2. Number of species showed high positive correlation with number of genera, families, thalli and thallus area. Number of thalli showed high positive correlation with area covered, number of thallus, and thallus area per tree. Distance from the paper mill exhibited no significant correlation with either variable. Multivariate analysis showed two major groups and two subgroups of communities. Sites which are more polluted showed a decrease in the community variables. Fifteen out of seventeen sites were most affected ones. Epiphytic lichen community study thus can be used to study levels of pollution impact around a source of pollution. Key Words: Epiphytic lichen community, Paper mill, Pollution, Cluster analysis
Lichens are among the most frequently used indicators of atmospheric pollution in the last couple of decades due to their sensitivity towards atmospheric pollutants in the form of oxides and other hazardous pollutants. Important factors behind the high sensitivity of lichens are the absence of a protective cuticle that lead to the direct exposure of thallus surface to atmosphere and rather unspecific uptake of mineral nutrients from the surrounding environment. Pulp and paper mills are considered as one of most polluted industries in India. SO2 and NOx are two major air pollutants emitted from pulp and paper mills along with some other pollutants. Impacts of the polluted environment upon lichens have been observed from morphological changes to community structure changes (Gries, 1996). It has been observed that air pollution leads to a reduction of thallus size and frequency of lichens, and sometimes even to the complete loss of sensitive species (Zambrano et al., 2000; Brodo, 1966). Ultra structural changes in lichens due to SO2 and NOx consequently develop physiological changes, which may affect the dispersal mechanism through reduction in abundance and species richness (Nash and Gries, 2002), changes in frequency and coverage (LeBlanc et al., 1974), directing the overall lichen community structure. The changes in frequency, coverage, abundance, number of lichen individuals, and richness in terms of species, genera, and family can therefore be considered important parameters to study the impact of pollution on surrounding lichens. In other words, the spatial pattern of lichens in such community can be deciphered by studying these
parameters. Considering these, the present study aims to assess the role of industrial point source pollution in the reformation of epiphytic lichen communities around a paper mill in Barak Valley by studying above mentioned variables and delineating the areas which are most affected.
39
Site Nos.: 1-Gumra, 2-Dumkur, 3-Baroital, 4-Mohanpur, 5-Elongjuri, 6-Umarpur, 7-Bhanga, 8-Devendranagar, 9-Bornogod, 10Lokhirbond, 11-Uttarkanchanpur, 12-Kalinagar, 13-Ghagrapar, 14-Sangjurai, 15-Udharbond, 16-Jalalpur, 17-Kaliganj
Fig. 2. Locations of the seventeen study sites (plots) around the paper mill
40
similar diameter at breast height (DBH) were selected. All species of lichens present on trunks of the trees up to a height of 2 m from the base were collected and enlisted. The lichen samples were collected on completion of rainy season between September to November 2005. The specimens were studied and identified up to species level after following the protocols given by Awasthi (2007), Walker and James (1980) and Orange et al. (2001). Total numbers of lichen species, individuals within a species, thallus (coverage) area per individual and total coverage of lichens were calculated for each model tree and subsequent calculations were done. Cluster analysis is done using software STATISTICA.
Table 1. Range and average of lichen community variables around the paper mill Minimum (Site) Species (number) Genus (number) Family (number) Number of thallus per tree Number of thallus per plot Thallus area (cm2) per tree Thallus area (cm2) per plot Mean frequency of occurrence per plot (%) 5 (Site 12) 3 (Site 12) 2 (Site 12) 3 (Site 3) 54 (Site 8) 20 (Site 8) 340 (Site 8) 24.44 (Site 15) Maximum (Site) 24 (Site 14) 15 (Site 14) 10 (Site 14) 16(Site 16) 894 (Site 16) 256.48 (Site 16) 10772.3 (Site 16) 51.67 (Site 7) Average 13.59 9.24 6.47 6.66 219.59 112.02 3277 38.16
41
Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina Dirinaria aegialita Pyxine cocoes Parmotrema saccatilobum Physcia dilatata Phyllopsora corallina
6.2 12.54 3.25 1.46 4.52 Highest thallus area (cm2) per tree 105.88 439 8.67 14.63 117.5 51 35 4 10 26 Highest area (cm2) per thallus
Gumra (1) Udharbond (15) Bornogod (9) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) Uttarkanchanpur (1) Udharbond (15) Bornogod (9) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) Uttarkanchanpur (11) Udharbond (15) Dumkur (2) Sangjurai (14) Devendranagar (8) CRUSTOSE GROWTH FORM
16.9 23.3 12.1 8.8 5.6 4.8 23.3 12.1 8.4 5.6 4.8 23.3 16.1 8.8 5.6
Table 3. Correlation between different community variables. Bold values are significantly correlated (p<0.05) Distance from the pollution source Distance from the pollution source Number of species per plot Number of genera per plot Number of families per plot Number of individual per plot Area covered per plot Mean frequency per plot 1.00 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.33 0.31 0.21 1.00 0.92 0.76 0.52 0.64 0.15 1.00 0.89 0.35 0.56 0.11 1.00 0.03 0.34 0.11 1.00 0.83 0.38 1.00 0.31 1.00 Number of species per plot Number of genera per plot Number of families per plot Number of individual per plot Area covered per plot Mean frequency per plot
cleaner. Both the areas are amidst hillock; former being a part of tea garden near Jalalpur and the latter belongs to Srikona region. The distance from the mill is not showing statistically significant relationship with either of the variable, which declines its significance in role as factor in the overall variation; the topography of the region and other sources of pollution besides the paper mill could be held responsible for the same. High positive correlation between species
richness and thallus area per plot is consistent with the results found by Cceres et al. (2007). Although in the present study species richness is not significantly correlated with the thallus area per tree, some authors like Lbel and Rydin (2009) believes that a general decrease in epiphyte cover could lead to a decrease in species richness. In the present study, the area coverage is increasing on increasing the number of thallus in other trees within a plot. The community
42
Fig.3. Cluster analysis of seventeen sites on the basis of thallus area, number of thallus, frequency and lichen richness at species, genus and family levels,
structure of different lichen species up to some extent can be attributed to the dispersal behaviour of the lichen species. ckinger et al. (2005) showed that the dispersalrestricted species is favoured by increasing habitat patch area and connectivity between nearby patches, while a habitat-restricted species tend to create new patches and increase habitat quality in persisting patches. However, in the present study numbers of lichen thallus per tree have significant positive correlation with thallus area per tree, which intended to a peculiar strategy adapted by lichens in the study area having characteristics of both dispersalrestricted species and habitat-restricted species. As new patches are created, their patch area is also increasing. No correlation was found between thallus area and frequency as is found in some studies (Cceres et al., 2007). Groups A and B reflects polluted and clean air regions respectively while subgroups A1 and A2 indicate comparatively more polluted and less polluted regions, respectively. All the major polluted sites (urban, minor and major industry) lies within Subgroup A1 while all cleaner areas (hilly vegetated areas) are situated within Group B. Species of group A are rare and
characterize by least coverage, number of individuals, and frequency, so they can be considered as highly pollution sensitive species. The species of group B, which are rare but show highest level of area coverage and number of individuals can be considered as highly tolerant. The present study helps in understanding the community structure of lichens in and around a potential pollution source and throws light on their adaptive strategies in response to pollution. Lichens exhibit two major groups having different ranges of community variables. Fifteen sites (88.2%) (Group A) seems to be polluted, out of which 12 sites (70.6%) (Subgroup A1) are highly polluted in the region. Lichen community pattern hence can be used as potential bio-indicator to measure the impact of pollution on surrounding lichens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors kindly acknowledge the Head, Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Assam University, Silchar, and Director, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for providing laboratory facilities.
43
REFERENCE
Awasthi, D.D. (2007) A Compendium of the Macrolichens from India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India. Brodo, I. M. (1996) Lichen growth and cities: A study on Long Island, New York. The Bryologist 69: 427-449. Cceres, M. E. S., Lcking, R. and Rambold, G. (2007) Phorophyte specificity and environmental parameters versus stochasticity as determinants for species composition of corticolous crustose lichen communities in the Atlantic rain forest of northeastern Brazil. Mycological Progress 6: 117136. Gries, C. (1996) Lichens as indicators of air pollution. In: T. H. Nash III (Ed.), Lichen Biology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Holopainen, T. H. (1983) Ultrastructural changes in epiphytic lichens, Bryoria capillaries and Hypogymnia physodes, growing near a fertilizer plant and pulp mill in central Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 20:169-185. Insarov, G.E. (2010) Epiphytic montane lichens exposed to background air pollution and climate change: monitoring and conservation aspects. International J. Ecol. and Environ. Sci. 36 (1): 29-35.
LeBlanc, F., Robitaille, G. and Rao, D.N. (1974) Biological response of lichens and bryophytes to environmental pollution in the Murdochville Copper mine area, Quebec. Hattori Bot. Lab. 38:405-433. Lbel, S. and Rydin, H. (2009) Dispersal and life history strategies in epiphyte metacommunities: alternative solutions to survival in patchy, dynamic landscapes. Oecologia 161:569579. Nash, T.H III. and Gries, C. (2002) Lichens as bio-indicators of sulfur dioxide. Symbiosis 33:1-21. ckinger, E., Niklasson, M. and Nilsson, S.G. (2005) Is local distribution of the epiphytic lichen Lobaria pulmonaria limited by dispersal capacity or habitat quality? Biodiversity and Conservation 14:759-773. Orange, A., James, P.W. and White, F.J. (2001) Micro-chemical methods for the identification of lichens. British Lichen Society. Walker, F.J. and James, P.W. (1980) A revised guide to the microchemical technique for the identification of lichen products. Bulletin of British Lichen Society 46: 13-29. Zambrano, G.A., Nash III, T.H. and Herrera-Campos, M.A. (2000) Lichen decline in Desierto de los Leones (Mexico City). The Bryologist 103(3): 428-441.
Temperate lakes has shown that the number of species present are strongly correlated with pH, with species diversity highest in lakes varying in pH from 6.8 to 7.2 (Ivanova, 1987), but there is scarcity of literature in freshwater tropical conditions. Thus, it seems that the abundance and presence of may zooplankton species are negatively affected by both low and high pH in tropical conditions. Considerable experimental research has been done on the effects of pH on the population dynamics and community composition of micro-crustacean zooplankton (Havens,1992). However, these studies were concerned with the effects of acidification, while the ecological importance of high pH has been less investigated. Information based on field and laboratory experiments suggests that most Cladoceran species have an upper pH limit in the range of 10.5-11.5 (OBrien and DeNoyelles, 1972; Hansen et al., 1991). It is unclear, however, how these high pH values affect the population growth rate of Cladocerans. Most previous studies have been concentrated on direct toxic effects of pH on the free-living stages. However, an elevated pH may affect the population growth rate through chronic effect on somatic growth and fecundity. In our study, the response of a Zooplankton population to elevated pH was examined. Special interest is focused on the impact of elevated pH on egg viability. The pH values tested in the experiments were chosen because spring and summer pH values of many eutrophic and hypertrophic lakes and ponds fall within this range (Jeppesen et al., 1990).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pH effect upon copepods. The various life cycle stages
of copepods, such as fertilization, cleavage, planktonic larva, metamorphosis, juvenile and adult reproductive stages
45
Table 1. Mean number of eggs per female (+95% C.L.) of D.carinata cultured at different pH values
Daphnia carinata
pH 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 Mean 11.1 (1.90) 9.7 (1.57) 9.0 (1.28) 7.6 (1.72) N 30 28 31 27
but instar effect (P=0.001) and interactions between instar number and pH (P=0.037) and between adult and pH (P=0.045) were significant. The mean number of eggs per adult female decreased significantly with pH, but the differences were small. Also, a substantial and significant increase in egg mortality occurred with increasing pH (Fig. 1). Eggs degenerated and were reabsorbed before the next molt accord. At pH 10.5, egg mortality also resulted in reduced fecundity. Dead and inactive neonates were frequently observed. In some cases, the neonates were still alive, although in a very poor condition. However, these individuals were always lying on the bottom of petridish, were never observed swimming and invariably died within 24 hour after they had seen. All these newborns are categorized as stillborn neonates. We observed a distinct and significant increase in stillborn neonates with increasing pH (x2=193.2; df=3,P<0.001). At pH 10.5, almost half the neonates were stillborn, which caused a marked reduction in fecundity; newborn at pH 10.0 were also seriously affected, while the effects were smaller at the series below pH 10.0. Assuming all eggs are
D. Carinata M. hyalinus
Fig. 1. Effect of pH on D. carinata and M. hyalinus in terms of per cent degenerated eggs
pH effect upon cladocera. The apparent food quality of the algae was not influenced by the pH treatment as indicated with measurement of P,N and content of algal particles just before and 48 hour after their suspension in Daphnia carinata medium (Table 1). Within the pH range 9.0-10.5, no clear relationship between mortality and pH was observed pH effects were non-significant (P=0.068),
viable and result in living newborn, t-tests with the sequential Bonferonni corrections showed no significant differences in the rate of population increase between treatments. However, the combined effects of egg mortality and stillborn neonates resulted in strong and significant reductions in r. The r-value shows a more general decrease over the pH range of 9.0-10.5 (Fig. 2).
46
A strong effect of high pH on reproduction, but the question arises whether this pH effect acts directly (as a stress factor) or indirectly via variations in the food quality. Direct effects that may have played a role at high pH are toxic effect of un-ionized ammonia (NH3) on Daphnia carinata and disruption of ion-exchange in Daphnia. An indirect effect may have been the change of algal food conditions for Daphnia as result of pH shock undergone by the algae. The changes in food quality as a result of the variation in pH are less likely because nutrient status of the algae showed no pH effect. The high P content of the algae is an indication that the food was enriched (Sterner, 1993). Additionally, an indirect effect would have resulted in reduced somatic growth and a reduced number of larger eggs; larger eggs contain more yolk and will have a higher viability (Tessier and Consolatti,1989). Because no reduced growth rate in relation to elevated pH was observed, egg viability decreased, and reduction in number of eggs produced was small and did not contribute to the observed overall reduction in r (Fig. 2). The high degeneration and stillborn rates at elevated pH are likely due to direct effects. The two direct effects on Daphnia carinata that may have played a role are the toxic effect of un-ionized ammonia and the disruption of ion exchange. The equilibrium between unionized and ionized ammonia is strongly effected by pH. The un-ionized ammonia is toxic for cladocerans. Results of culture experiments by Elendt and Bias (1990) suggest that selenium deficiency in culture media may cause egg abortion and neonate mortality in Daphnia carinata. Exactly the same phenomena at high pH was observed, which tempting to regard Se limitation as the possible causal factor. However, it is not likely that this was the case. First, because we used 12 per cent filtered water from a local waterbody for Daphnia medium, the Se concentration in this medium was ~0.1 g liter-1, which is high enough for successful reproduction and low neonate mortality (Elendt
D. Carinata M. hyalinus
Fig 2. Mean per cent of stillborn neonates affected by pH in D. carinata and M. hyalinus.
47
Jeppesen, E., Sondergaard M., Sortkjaer,O., Mortenson,E. and Kristensen, O.P. (1990) Interactions between phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish in a shallow, hypertrophic lake : A study on phytoplankton collapses in lake seleygard, Denmark. Hydrobiologia 191: 149-164. Kurihara, H. and Shirayama,Y. (2004). Effect of increased atmospheric CO2 on copepod development. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Series 274:161-168. Kurihara, H. and Ishimatsu, A. (2008). Effects of elevated CO2 on the life cycle of Copepoda. Mar. pollution Bulletin. 56: 10861090. Nilssen, J.P., Potts, W.T.W. and Ostdahl, T. (1984). Physiology of zooplankton subjected to acidification and liming. A pilot study using radioisotopes. Kalkningsprosj. Rapp. 11:37pp. OBrien, W.J. and Denoyelles, F. (1972). Photosynthetically elevated PH as a factor in zooplankton mortality in nutrient enriched ponds. Ecology 53: 606-614. Potts, W.T.W. and Fryer, G. (1979) The effect of pH and salt content on sodium balance in Daphnia magna (cladocera). J. Comp. Physiol. 129:289-294. Reinikainen, M., Ketola M. and Walls, M. (1994) Effects of the concentration of toxic Microcystis Geruginosa and an alternative food on the survival of Daphnia pulex. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39: 424-432. Sterner, R.W. (1993) Daphnia growth on varying quality of scendesmus : Mineral limitation of zooplankton. Ecology 74:2351-2360. Tessier, A.J. and Consolatti, N.L. (1989) Variation in offspring size in Daphnia and consequence for individual fitness. Oikos 56: 269-276.
REFERENCES
Boersma, M. and Vijverberg, J. (1994) Seasonal variations in the condition of two Daphnia species and their hybrid in a eutrophic lake: Evidence for food limitation under field conditions. J. Plankton Res. 16: 1793-1809. Boersma, M. and Vijverberg, J. (1995) The significance of nonviable eggs for Daphnia population dynamics. Limnol. Oceanogr. 40:1215-1224. Elendt, B.P. and Bias, W.R.(1990) Trace nutrient deficiency in Daphnia magna cultured in standard medium for toxicity testing: Effects of the optimization of culture condition of life history parameters of D. Magna. Water Res. 24: 1157-1167. Hansen, M., Christensen, J.V. and Sortkajaer,O.(1991) Effect of high pH on zooplankton and nutrients in fish free enclosures. Arch. Hydrobiol. 123:143-164. Hart, M.W. and Strathmann, B.R. (1995) Mechanisms and rates of suspension feeding. In: Mc Edward, L. (Ed.) Ecology of Marine Imertebrate Larvae. CRC press, Boca Raton, pp 183-222. Havens, K.E.(1992). Acidification effects on the plankton size spectrum an in situ experiment. J. Plankton. Res. 14: 16871697. Ivanova, M. B. (1987) Relationship between zooplankton development and environmental conditions in different type of lakes in the zone of temperate climate. Int. Rev. Gesamten Hydrobiol. 72:669-684.
Macrobenthic organisms occupy the bottom of water body and display a wide range of life histories, and sensitivities to water quality impairment. The abundance and variance of macrobenthic invertebrates flourishing in the bottom depends upon the physico-chemical conditions of water, soil and biological complexes. The functional role of macrobenthic communities in the trophic dynamics of reservoir ecosystems is well acknowledged. The composition, abundance and distribution of benthic organisms over a period of time provide an index of the ecosystems. In recent years, there used to be a greater emphasis world over for better understanding of benthic environment, its communities and productivity, which has led to increased exploitation of many inland water bodies. Though a lot of work has been done on the hydrological and macrobenthic faunal aspects on lotic freshwater bodies by earlier workers (Dutta and Malhotra, 1986; Dutta et al., 2000; Sawhney, 2008; Mushtaq, 2007) but no work has been done on the molluscan diversity. The phylum Mollusca is a large assemblage of animals having diverse shapes, sizes, habits and occupies different habitats (Subba Rao, 1993). Although molluscs are common components of the benthic communities, their role in the dynamics of the aquatic ecosystem and their contribution to biomass production is not well known. Our freshwater molluscs are not only a fascinating part of our natural heritage but have global significance. As a group, they serve vital functions in freshwater ecosystems and many species are commercially important. Freshwater molluscs have been known to play significant roles in the public and veterinary health and thus need to be scientifically
explored more extensively. In the present paper, some of the basic observations on the molluscan diversity of a subtropical stream, a tributary of River Chenab, have been presented.
49
Winter
549
315
360 72 136 72
Autumn
432
90
36
36
27
Summer
802
252
54
117
72
81
Spring
234
54
198
54
Table 1. Seasonal fluctuation of molluscan fauna (org m-2) recorded in Gho-manhasan, during Oct.2008 to Sept.2009
accuminata (f.brevissima)
accuminata (f.patula)
36
Melanoides
Physidae
Planorbidae
Viviparidae
Thiaridae
Lymnoidae
Mesogastropoda
Basommatophora
Mellanoides tuberculata is the commonest and most wide ranging member of the family Thiaridae, found dominant in the stream. M. tuberculata contributed 47.18
Gastropoda
Bivalvia
Class
Trigoinidae
Order
Pisididae
Family
Sphaerium
Bellamya
Gyraulus
Lymnaea
Pisidium
Genus
Physa
indicum (Deshayes)
tuberculata (Muller)
acuta (Draparnaud)
Species
luteola (f.typica)
mitchelli (Prashad)
ladacensis (Nevill)
72
54
18
126
54
36
63
50
org m-2
per cent of the total number of species recorded. Numerical abundance of M.tuberculata may be due to the reason that it is among the hardiest of the prosobranchs and it covered mainly in its parthenogenetic mode of reproduction. It can occupy a great diversity of habitats (Berry and Kadri, 1974). In addition, Melanoides tuberculata can tolerate high nutrient levels and was found to be positively correlated with carbonates and nitrates and was found to be highly associated with macrophytes.
d simp =0.549. Marglefs richness index was recorded minimum in November and December (d=0) and was maximum in June (d=0.933). Pielous evenness index was low (Pi=0) in winter season but was found to be maximum (pi=0.913) due to the presence of some communities in which abundances and distributions were more homogenous, such as in the dry period of June. This study indicate that in many freshwater systems molluscan populations may be playing a central role in supporting both local and ecosystem level biodiversity. The ultimate extirpation and extinction of such molluscan populations may therefore have profound effects on the wider ecosystem. The results emphasized the importance of conserving the worlds freshwater molluscan populations, which are declining at an alarming rate through habitat destruction, pollution and the invasion of non-native biota. Benthic macroinvertebrates being widespread and sensitive to environmental changes are the group of
L.luteola being a minor contributor, forms only 2.16 per cent of the overall density of molluscan fauna. Among bivalves, Pisidium mitchelli forms 15.38 per cent and thus dominates Sphaerium indicum (6.49%). Numerical abundance of Pisidium mitchelli indicated greater nutrient concentration and is used as a bioindicator of water quality.
Low Shannon-Wiener indices were recorded, varying between H=0 to H=1.623 (Table 2). Species dominance index i.e., Simpsons index varied between d simp=0 to
Table 2. Seasonal variations in different biological indices of the Molluscan fauna Month October November December January February March April May June July August September Shannon (H) 0.793 0 0 1.306 1.22 1.231 1.623 1.167 1.585 1.266 0.902 1.176 Marglef (d-) 0.361 0 0 0.621 0.513 0.514 0.865 0.625 0.933 0.595 0.532 0.813 Simpson (dsim) 0.549 0 0 0.293 0.338 0.327 0.213 0.233 0.266 0.310 0.522 0.328 Pielous (Pi) 0.722 0 0 0.811 0.830 0.883 0.905 0.725 0.814 0.913 0.650 0.655
51
Metcalf, J.L. (1989) Biological water quality assessment of running waters based on macroinvertebrate communities. History and present status in Europe. Environ. Poll. 60:101-139 Mushtaq, R. (2007) Impact of urban influences on the diversity of macrobenthic invertebrate fauna of River Tawi. M.Phil Dissertation, University of Jammu, Jammu. Pielou, E.C. (1966) The measurement of diversity in different types of biological collections. J. Theor. Biol. 13: 131-144. Sawhney, N. (2008) Biomonitoring of river Tawi in the vicinity of Jammu City. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Jammu, Jammu. Shanon, C.E. and Wiener, W. (1949) The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois press, 117, Urbana, USA. Simpson, E.H. (1949) Measurement of diversity. Nature, Lond. 164: 163-688. Singh,R. and Munshi, J.S.D.(1992) Molluscan diversity and role of certain abiotic factors on the density of Gastropods Pila globosa and Bellamya bengalensis in a tank at Jamalpur. J. Freshwater Biol. 4(2):135-140. Singh, R. (1984) Hydrobiological investigations of Neeru Nullah (Bhaderwah) with reference to the Benthic macroinvertebrates. M. Phil. Dissertation, University of Jammu, Jammu. Subba Rao,N.V. (1993) Freshwater Mollusca of India. In: Rao K.S. (Ed.). Recent Advances in Freshwater Biology. New Delhi. Anmol Publication. Vol. 2, pp.187-202. Wadaan, A.M. (2007) The fresh water growing snail Physa acuta : A suitable bioindicator for testing cadmium toxicity. Saudi J. Biological Sciences 14(2): 185-190. Whitton,B.A. (1975) Zooplanktons and Macroinvertebrates. In: Whitton.B.A. (Ed.). Studies in River Ecology. Vol.2. Baker Publisher Limited London, pp. 87-118.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
Authors are grateful to ZSI Kolkata especially Dr. Rao and Dr. Amit Mudhopadhay for their selfless help in the identification of molluscs.
REFERENCES
Berry,A.J. and Kadri,A.B.H. (1974) Reproduction in the Malayan freshwater cerithiacean Gastropoda, Mellanoides tuberculata. J. Zool. Lond. 172: 369-381. Dutta, S.P.S. and Malhotra, Y.R. (1986). Seasonal variations in the macrobenthic fauna of Gadigarh stream (Miran Sahib) Jammu. Indian J. Ecol. 113(1): 138-145. Dutta, S.P.S., Malhotra, Y.R., Sharma, K.K. and Sinha, K. (2000). Diel variations in physico-chemical parameters of water in relation to macrobenthic invertebrate in some pool adjacent to the River Tawi, Nagrota Bye Pass, Jammu. Him.J. Env. Zool. 14:13-24. Gupta,S.D. (1976). Macrobenthic fauna of Loni reservoir. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 8:49-59. Manoharan, S., Murugesan, V.K. and Palaniswamy, R. (2006) Numerical abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates in selected reservoirs of Tamil Nadu. J. Inland Fish. Soc. India 38(1): 54-59. Marglef, R. (1958) Perspective in ecological theory. Univ. Chicago Press, 122, Chicago, USA.
Diurnal Variation of Phytoplankton in the Kali Estuary, Karwar, West Coast of India
U.G. Naik*, V.V. Nayak1 and N. Kusuma
Department of Marine Biology, Karnatak University PG Centre, Kodibag, Karwar-581 303, Karnataka, India 1 Shri Mahasatee Arts, Commerce and Science College, Ulga, Karwar-581 324, Karnataka, India *E-mail: ugnaik66@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: Along with different hydrographic parameters variations in phytoplankton density and photosynthetic pigments were studied at every two hour for 24 hours, at a fixed station in the lower reaches of the Kali estuary. During flood tides, the species diversity and phytoplankton density increased and decreased during ebb tides. Considerable discrepancy (about 12%) was noticed between cell counts of day and night high waters. Oscillation in Chl. a, followed by the cell number. Among the nutrients, silicate and nitrate concentration was increased markedly during ebb tide periods. An inverse relationship was noticed between salinity and nutrients like nitrite, nitrate, phosphate and silicate. Linear relationship was observed between salinity and nitrate and salinity with silicate compared to salinity versus nitrite and phosphate. Key Words: Phytoplankton, Kali estuary, Chlorophyll
In an estuary, the physico-chemical properties and biological entities variations is mainly governed by the differential tidal amplitude and the Kali estuary is no exception for it. Hence it is very essential to acquire information on circadian (diel) variations in hydrographic (environmental) parameters of such water body. Information available on such diurnal variations on estuarine phytoplankton in India is limited to few regions (Chandran, 1985; Gouda and Panigrahy, 1989). Kali River estuary located between 14o 50 15" - 14o 51 12" N latitude and 74o 07 30" E - 74o 10 09" E longitude is one of the major estuaries of Uttara Kannada maritime district of Karnataka state (west coast of India), it is opening into the Arabian Sea near Karwar. It is a shallow estuary with maximum depth of 3.5 m at its deepest region but influenced by semi-diurnal tide. This region is free from pollution and is surrounded by the rich mangrove flora and is high productive zone from the point of fishery resource. Many more estuaries on west coast of India still remain either little known or totally unexplored. Therefore, in the present investigation an effort is made to study the diurnal variations in phytoplankton population along with some physico-chemical factors of Kali estuary, Karwar, west coast of India.
measured by fixing a tide staff near the collection site. Both temperature and pH were recorded at study site only. Analyses for nutrients, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a and carotenoids were made following the standard procedures (Strickland and Parsons, 1975). For enumerating density of phytoplankton population, the sedimentation technique was followed (Utermohl, 1931). Using the numerical density of phytoplankton, the species diversity index was also calculated (Shannon and Weiner, 1963).
53
Fig.1.Diurnal variation in the tidal amplitude range at study station River Kali
(13.15 - 15.15 hours) and once again found lower than air temperature in 17.15 -19.15 hours. Considerable variation was noticed between air temperature and surface water temperature and fluctuated from 21.4o to 27.5oC and 16.5o to 27.4oC, respectively. During night hours, well-marked difference between surface and bottom water temperature was noticed when the bottom water remained relatively warmer than that of surface water. Salinity did not show any marked variation in its salt content in both surface and bottom water but the content in the bottom water was lesser than surface layer in day and night hours (Fig. 3). High salinity was recorded during 21.15 and 13.15 hours low during 05.15 hours in both layers. The salinity conditions revealed conspicuous tidal variations ranging from 18.4 to 26.8 for surface and 16.1 to 26.3 parts per thousand for bottom waters. Higher salinities were recorded during flood periods compared to ebb periods. The vertical salinity gradients during extreme high water and low water were 0.3 and 1.7 parts per thousand, respectively. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) in surface and bottom water varied between 7.8 - 8.4 and 8.1 8.6, the bottom water showed slightly more alkaline condition (Fig. 4). The concentration varied in accordance with the change in tidal amplitude. Variations in hydrogen ion concentration (pH) were between 7.81 and 8.6 and followed the pattern of salinity variations with higher values during flood periods. Compared to surface waters, the pH values of bottom waters were invariably higher. There is no marked variation in the dissolved oxygen content in surface and bottom water layer but the content. Both have shown more or less uniform trend in the distribution of the dissolved oxygen. Slightly higher values were noticed during 11.15-19.15 hours sampling (Fig. 5). With respect to the tidal cycle, the dissolved oxygen varied from 3.42-4.93 ml/l at the surface and 3.05-4.59 ml/l near the bottom. Comparatively higher
oxygen concentrations were recorded during daytime than at night hours. Diurnal variation in nutrients: The concentration of all nutrient salts (Phosphate-P, Nitrate-N, Nitrite-N and SilicateSi) varied considerably with respect to the tidal amplitude (Fig. 6-9). On a whole, higher values were obtained during high tides than at low tides.Phosphate showed marked variation on time scale with higher concentration in bottom waters and both strata showed more or less uniform pattern in their concentration (Fig. 6). In bottom water, maximum concentration was recorded at 23.15, 05.15 and 15.15 hours (1.32, 1.45 and 1.48 g at/l, respectively). Similarly in surface water also but the quantum was comparatively lesser than the previous stratum (0.94, 1.26 and 1.15 g at/l, respectively). Nitrate exhibited marked variation in surface and bottom water layers but comparatively higher concentration was recorded in surface waters (Fig. 7). Relatively higher concentration was noticed during 05.15 and 09.15 hours in both layers. Minimum concentration was noticed during 23.15 and 01.15 hours in both surface and bottom water. Nitrite was found in high concentration during 05-15-07.15 hours and in 15.15-17.15 hours but quantum of nitrite in bottom water found in the late hours (15.15-17.15hours) was higher than samples collected in the early hours. But, the reverse case was noticed in the surface water samples (Fig. 8). Silicate content in both layers of surface and bottom showed uniform pattern of distribution of this nutrient salt but the quantity was found more in surface than bottom layer (Fig. 9). Minimum content of this nutrient was noticed during 21.15 - 01.15 hours in both layers, whereas, maximum content was noticed during 05.15 and 19.15 hours in both strata of aquatic biotope This shows inverse relationship between the tide and silicate nutrient salt during the period of investigation. When compared to phosphate and nitrite, the concentrations of
54
Fig.3.Diurnal variation in salinity profile at study station during the study period
Fig.4.Diurnal variation in the pH range at study station during the study period
Fig.5.Diurnal variation in the Dissolved Oxygen content at study station during the study period
Fig.6.Diurnal variation in the phosphate content at study station during the study period
Fig.7. Diurnal variation in the Nitrate-N content at study station during the study period
Fig.8. Diurnal variation in the nitrate-N content at study station during the study period
55
Fig.9. Diurnal variation in the silicate-Si content at study station during the study period
Fig.10. Diurnal variation in the chlorophyll a and carotene content with ratio factor.
silicate and nitrate were highly fluctuating during the study period. During 03.15 - 09.15 hours period, it was quite evident that there was well-marked difference between surface and bottom strata. In bottom waters, the phosphate (PO4-P) concentration was higher than the corresponding surface concentration values throughout the tidal cycle. Contrary to this, a reverse trend was seen in silicate (SiO4Si) while a different pattern in nitrate (N03-N) distribution was experienced (Fig. 7 & 9). Diurnal variation in phytoplankton. Totally 56 species of phytoplankton comprising 1-blue-green algae, 4- green algae, 41- diatoms and 10- dinoflagellates were recorded during the tidal cycle period (Table 1). Assemblages of the phytoplankton cells were comparatively richer in high tides than the low tides period. Among the diatoms, Coscinodiscus sp., Skeletonema costatum, Chaetoceros socialis, C. affinis, Guinardia, Gyrosigma, Nitzschia longissima, Navivula sp ., Rhizosolenia stolterfothii, R. styliformis, Talassionema sp., Eucampia sp., Bellorochea sp., and Hemidiscus hardmanensis were encountered in majority of collections between 13.15 and 15.15 hours and
thus were considered as common species for the estuary. Similarly, the blue-green algae Trichodesmium erythraeum and dinoflagellates Ceratium massiliensis, C. tripos, Peridinium depressum and Prorocentrum sp. occurred more frequently and abundantly than other species of the respective groups (Table 1). The green algae components namely, Zygnema and Spirogyra species were less frequent and occurred only during the ebb conditions. Maximum, 36 species and minimum, 14 species were recorded during 09.15 and 15.15 hours, respectively. Species diversity varied between 1.45 (15.15 hours) and 3.96 (11.15 hours) and exhibited well-marked tidal variations. Numerical abundance (cells x10 3/l -1) of phytoplankton showed significant diurnal variations. Maximum (25.47x103/l-1) and minimum (9.45x103/l-1) cell counts were obtained at 19.15 and 21.15 hours, respectively. Phytoplankton cells in general dwindled in number during ebb periods and with the rise of water level the cell counts also increased. About 14 per cent increase in total cell number was observed between the two high waters, highest being at 09.15 hours.
Table 1. Phytoplankton species recorded at Kali estuary Class Cyanophyceae Chlorophyceae Bacillariophyceae Species
Trichodesmium erythraeum Cosmarium sp., Miocroasterias sp., Spirogyra sp., and Zygnema sp. Coscinodiscus sp., Skeletonema costatum, Hemidiscus sp., Stephanophyxis sp, Triceratium sp., Biddulphia sp., B. mobiliensis, B. obtusa, B. sinensis, Guinardia sp , Bellorochea sp ., Melosira sp , Nitzschia sp , N.seriata, Ditylum sp., Chaetoceros socialis, C.decipens, C. lorenzianus, C. affinis, Grammatophora sp, Campylodiscus sp., Planktoniella sp, Bacteriastrum sp, Eucampia sp., Clamacodium sp., Streptotheca sp, Thallassiosira sp, T. gravida, Thallassionema sp, Rhizosolenia alata, R. stolterfothii, R. stlyiformis, R.hebata, R. robusta, R. castracanei, Thalassiothrix sp, Asterionella japonica, Pleurosigma sp, Gyrosigma sp, Navicula sp , Lithodesmium sp. Peridinium depressum, Noctiluca miliaris, Pyrocystis fusiformis, Prorocentrum sp ., Dinophysis sp ., Ornithocercus sp, Ceratium tripos, C. massiliensis, C. furca, C. fusus,
Dinophyceae
56
Floristic phytoplankton crop in the present study seems to be more or less similar to that of other estuaries of West coast of India (Rammirtham and Jayaraman, 1963; Qasim and Gopinathan, 1969; Qasim et al., 1969; Dehadri and Bhargava, 1972; Bhargava and Dwivedi, 1976; Bhattathiri et al., 1976; Qasim and Sengupta, 1981; Devassy, 1983; Devassy and Goes, 1989; Naik and Neelakantan, 1990; Redekar and Wagh, 2000; Tripathy et al., 2005) but diatoms were greatly dominated over other groups. Representation of lower density of blue-green and green algae can be a special feature to this habitat. Considerable differences (about 12%) were noticed between cell populations of day and night samples during high tide waters. This could be due to difference in heights of tidal amplitude and high rate of grazing pressures exerted by zooplankton community near the surface area during night hours. Such type of aggregation of zooplankton in the surface during night hours is a common incident in the Indian waters (Goswami et al., 1979; Madhupratap and Rao, 1979; Naik and Neelakantan, 1989 and Naik et al., 2005). In the present study, more or less a close and direct relationship was established between chlorophyll-a and phytoplankton population density. At 21.15 hours (25th April), the lowest chlorophyll-a value (0.51 mg/m3) was obtained. Whereas, during 07.15 - 09.15 hours, the chlorophyll-a increased and then gradually decreased till 15.15 hours and later once again increased during 17.15 hours. At 19.15 hours of 25th April, the carotene attained peak value of 1.83 m-SPU/m-3. The ratio between chlorophyll-a and carotene fluctuated between 0.46 and 4.56 (Fig. 10). As it is envisaged from the data that the distribution of chlorophyll-a closely followed the phytoplankton cell counts and the maximum values were obtained during peak density phase. Since the chlorophyll-a is the common pigment present in all groups of algae and its increase or decrease normally follows with increase or decrease of phytoplankton density. However, exceptions were found towards mid-day when bleaching of pigments could occur due to intense surface radiation (Yentsch and Scagel, 1958). In the present study, the pattern of distribution of chlorophyll- a was very much similar to previous works that have been carried out in different estuaries of India (Krishnamurthy, 1971; Bhargava, 1973; Vijaylakshmi and Venugopalan, 1973; Verlencar and DSilva, 1978). As carotenoid values did not follow phytoplankton density but variable ratios between chlorophyll-a and carotenoids were observed. Lower values (<1) of chlorophyll-a : carotenoid ratios were obtained at sampling hours of 13.15, 15.15, 19.15 and 21.15 indicating the occurrence of unhealthy and
REFERENCES
Bhargava, R.M.S. (1973) Diurnal variation in phytoplankton of Mandovi estuary, Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 2: 27-31. Bhargava,R.M.S. and Dwivedi, S.N. (1974) Diurnal variations of phytoplankton pigments of Zuari estuary. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 142-145. Bhargava, R.M.S. and Dwivedi, S.N. (1976) Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton pigments in the estuarine system of Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 87-90. Bhattathiri, P.M.A., Devassy, V.P. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1976) Production at different trophic levels in the estuarine system of Goa. Indian J. Marine Sciences 5: 83-86. Chandran, R. (1985) Mahasagar-Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 18: 37. Dehadri, P.V. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1972) Distribution of chlorophyll, carotenoids and phytoplankton in relation to certain environmental factors along the central west coast of India. Marine Biology 17: 30-37. Devassy, V.P. (1983) Plankton ecology of some estuarine and marine regions of the west coast of India. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kerala, Trivandrum. Devassy, V.P. and Goes, J.I. (1989) Seasonal patterns of phytoplankton biomass and productivity in a tropical estuarine complex (west coast of India). Indian Academy Sciences 99 (5): 485-501. Devassy, V.P. and Bhargava, R.M.S. (1978) Diel changes in phytoplankton in the Mandovi and Zuari estuaries of Goa. Mahasagar- Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography, Goa 11: 195-199.
57
Ramamirtham, C.P. and Jayaraman, R. (1963) Some aspects of the hydrographical conditions of the backwaters around Willingdon Island, Cochin. J. Marine Biological Association of India 5: 170. Rangarajan, K. (1959) Light penetration in the inshore waters of Porto Novo. Proceeding of Indian Sciences, Sect. B. 49: 271279. Redekar, P.D. and Wagh, A.B. (2000) Planktonic diatoms of the Zuari estuary, Goa (west coast of India). Seaweed Research Utilization 22(1 & 2): 107-112. Shannon, C.E. and Weiner, W. (1963) The Mathematical Theory of Communications. Urbana Univ. Illinois Press. 117: p.111. Singbal, S.Y.S. (1976) Diurnal variation of some physico-chemical factors in the Mandovi estuary of Goa. Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 9: 27-34. Strickland, J.D.H. and Parsons, T.R. (1975) A Manual of Seawater Analysis. Fisheries Research Board, Canada, Ottawa, 167: pp.310. Tripathy, S.C., Ray, A.K., Patra, S. and Sarma, V.V. (2005) Water quality assessment of Gautami-Godavari mangrove estuarine ecosystem of Andhra Pradesh, India during September 2001. J. Earth Systems Sciences 114 (2): 185-190. Utermohl, H. (1931) Verhint ver theor angew. Limnology. 5: 567 Verlencar, X.N. and DSilva, C. (1978) Mahasagar Bulletin of National Institute of Oceanography 11: 83. Yentsch, C. S. and Ryther, J.H. (1957) Short term variations in phytoplankton chlorophyll and their significance. Limnology and Oceanogr. 2: 140. Yentsch, C.S. and Scagel, R.F. (1958) Diurnal study of phytoplankton pigments. An in situ study in East Sound, Washington. J. Marine Research 17: 567-583.
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water in Sangrur District of Punjab
M.P.S. Khurana, Kuldip Singh* and Dhanwinder Singh
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana -141 004, India *E-mail: kuldip@pau.edu
Abstract: Soil and plant samples collected from different sites receiving sewage and tube-well irrigation in Sangrur District of Punjab were analyzed for heavy metals to ascertain pollution potential. The sewage irrigated soils accumulated relatively higher amounts of Diethydene triamine penta acitic acid (DTPA) extractable and total heavy metals in surface as well as at all the depths as compared to tubewell irrigated soils and their content generally decreased with depth. The mean total contents of Pb, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in sewage irrigated soils were 56.7, 26.7, 2.15, 88.6, 48.4, 10990 and 272.8 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in the surface samples which were 3.02, 4.24, 1.12, 1.26, 1.70, 1.30 and 2.10 times their respective content in tube well irrigated soil. All the soil samples, in terms of pollutant elements of sewage irrigated were found within permissible limits. All the crops had higher amount of micro-nutrients and heavy metals in their above ground parts when grown in sewage irrigated soils than in the same plant species grown in tube well irrigated soils. Spinach accumulated highest amount of micronutrients and heavy metal among all the crops. The extent of accumulation of different pollutant metals were maximum for Pb followed by Ni and Cd in all crops. In the sewage irrigated soils, the content of Pb, Ni and Cd were below the critical limit in all the crops except for Cd in spinach. Key Words: Heavy metals, Sewage irrigated soils, Vegetables, DTPA Extractable
Disposal of waste water as a source of irrigation to agricultural lands is an old practice and still followed in most of the developing countries. In the recent past, due to rapid industrialization and urbanization, a large volume of industrial waste water is produced every day. These industrial effluents are disposed-off as such in to sewer system, which is used for irrigation purposes either directly or through some water body. It is estimated that 15000 million liters of sewage water is produced every day in the country, which approximately contributes 3.2, 1.4 and 1.9 million tons of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, respectively per annum with an economic value of about Rs. 2600 million (Jurwarkar et al., 1991). However, one constraint with this approach is the contamination of soils and crops grown on these soils have bearing on the quality of the produce. It has been observed that the use of municipal waste water for irrigation purposes leads to substantial increase in the accumulation of heavy metals (Kansal, 1994), consequently crops grown in polluted soils may accumulate heavy metals to such an extent so as to cause health hazards in animals and human beings. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effects of irrigation with contaminated sewage water on the concentration of heavy metals in the soils and crops.
mill, biscuit and glucose factory) are situated along the Sunam road. The untreated polluted water released from these industries, together with domestic waste water find its way into open drain called Ganda Nallah situated in the out skirts of the city. The farmers of the villages namely Shibian, Uppali, Kanoi and Chotey Nacktey located along this open drain use this waste water for irrigation to their crops. In order to determine the depth wise distribution of metals in soils, the samples were collected from 0-15, 1530, 30-45 and 45-90 cm depth from the locations using sewage waters largely contaminated by industrial effluents for irrigation. Soil samples at the same depths were also collected from different far off sites receiving tube-well irrigation in the same villages. The available contents of these metals in the soils were determined by DTPA method (Lindsay and Norvell, 1978). Total contents of pollutant elements (Pb, Ni and Cd) and micro- nutrients (Zn, Cu Fe and Mn) were estimated only in the surface layer of both polluted and sewage irrigated soils after digesting the soil samples with hydrofloric and perchloric acids using platinum crucibles. Above ground parts of the crops namely cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea L.var botrytis), cabbage ( Brassica oleracea L.var capitata ), spinach ( Spinacia oleracea) and radish (Raphanus sativus) were sampled from three locations. The total content of the metals in dry plant material were determined after pooling the ground samples and digested in a di-acid mixture of nitric and perchloric acid in the ratio of 4:1. The contents of the metals in the digests were analysed by atomic absorption spectrophotometer.
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water
59
DTPA extractable Fe: The mean content of DTPA extractable Fe in sewage fed soils was 10.88, 9.57, 7.67 and 6.51 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-90 cm layer as against 6.27, 5.31, 4.58 and 3.89 mg kg-1 soil, respectively in tube well irrigated soil. Mean DTPA content of Fe in 0-15 cm layer of sewage irrigated soils comes out to be 1.74 times the mean value of DTPA content in normal soils. DTPA extractable Mn: The sewage irrigated soils at all the depths accumulated higher amount of DTPA extractable Mn as compared to tube-well irrigated soils at all the sites in all the villages. The increase in DTPA extractable Mn with sewage irrigation at 0-15, 15-30, 30-45 and 45-90 cm layer was found to be 55.30, 57.17, 76.39 and 80.3 per cent respectively. Mean DTPA extractable Mn in 0-15 cm layer in polluted soils was 8.34 mg kg-1 soil, which declined to 5.95 mg kg-1 soil in 45-90 cm layer.
Table 1. Range and mean content of DTPA extractable heavy metals (mg kg-1 soil) in sewage and tubewell irrigated soils of Sangrur (depth-wise distribution) Depth (cm) Range 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 1.00-3.10 0.62-1.32 0.42-0.82 0.30-0.68 0.65-1.15 0.50-0.72 0.30-0.50 0.12-0.40 Cu Mean SD 1.880.64 0.950.27 0.630.12 0.570.11 0.940.19 0.620.08 0.440.08 0.250.11 Range Sewage irrigated 7.35-15.40 7.00-13.80 6.10-11.00 5.3-8.20 Tubewell irrigated 4.98-7.20 4.32-6.20 3.08-5.94 3.04-4.50 6.270.96 5.310.70 4.58.95 3.890.51 4.70-6.10 3.90-5.90 3.14-5.00 2.45-4.30 5.370.55 4.880.66 4.110.69 3.300.76 10.882.50 9.572.26 7.671.53 6.511.03 6.00-10.70 5.10-11.30 5.00-10.10 4.50-8.00 8.341.85 7.672.02 7.252.03 5.951.23 Element (mg kg-1 soil) Fe MeanSD Range Mn MeanSD
Table 2. Range and mean content of DTPA extractable heavy metals (mg kg-1) in sewage and Tubewell irrigated soils of Sangrur (depth-wise distribution) Depth (cm) Range 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 0-15 15-30 30-45 45-90 1.46-3.10 0.80-2.60 0.78-1.06 0.60-0.96 1.00 -1.92 0.65 -1.02 0.42 -0.85 0.28 -0.72 Zn MeanSD 2.100.59 1.040.67 0.860.11 0.770.12 1.450.39 0.800.14 0.650.17 0.470.20 Range 0.12-0.30 0.09-0.16 ND ND 0.02 -0.09 ND ND ND Cd MeanSD 0.220.05 0.110.02 ND ND 0.060.02 ND ND ND Range 0.48-0.82 0.18-0.64 0.12-0.56 0.10-0.40 0.24 -0.48 0.12- 0.20 0.08 -0.15 0.02 -0.10 Sewage irrigated 0.650.10 0.410.15 0.310.14 0.160.09 0.380.09 0.150.04 0.120.03 0.050.04 1.09-4.40 1.26-4.02 0.68-3.10 0.60-2.50 0.88-1.68 0.50-0.94 0.36-0.60 0.36-0.48 2.760.73 2.050.82 1.700.73 1.100.52 1.320.31 0.700.16 0.510.08 0.420.05 Element (mg kg-1 soil) Ni MeanSD Range Pb MeanSD
Tubewell irrigated
ND-not detected
60
DTPA extractable Zn: DTPA extractable Zn also exhibited decreasing trend with depth. The mean values of DTPA extractable Zn in tube-well irrigated soils in 0-15 and 45-90 cm layer was 1.45 and 0.47 mg kg-1 soil respectively, which were 69 and 61 per cent of the corresponding values of polluted soils (Table 2).
The increase in micro nutrient content in soil with sewage irrigation has been reported by many workers (Adhikari et al., 1998; Kuhad et al., 1989). Kuhad et al. (1989) also observed higher concentration of metals such as Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe in the surface layer of the sewage irrigated soils in comparison to tubewell irrigated soils of Sonepat district of Haryana. Bosewell (1975) reported that the content of Cu and Zn in soil was remarkably higher after one year of sludge application.
DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni: Higher amounts of DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni were found at all the depths in sewage irrigated soils compared to tube well irrigated soils. Higher amounts of DTPA extractable Cd, Pb and Ni at surface layer indicated their low mobility and diminution with depth. Mean DTPA extractable content of Cd, Pb and Ni in sewage irrigated soils irrespective of sites were 4.4, 1.71 and 1.85 times their content in tube well irrigated soils (Table 2). The results also find support from the work of Dowdy et al. (1991) who found that massive sludge additions (765 Mg ha-1 on dry weight basis) over a period of 14 years resulted in an increased concentration of Cd, Zn and Cu in Ap1 genetic horizon. The movement of these metals was restricted and usually stay at tillage depth. The others workers like Sharma and Kansal (1986) also observed that around Ludhiana City, Punjab, the soils that received water of Budda Nallah (a rivulet contaminated with industrial and municipal wastes) were enriched with heavy metals. Accumulation was greater in surface soils but decreased with depth. The increase in heavy metals content of soils with continuous application of sewage water has been reported by Brar et al. (2002). Azad et al. (1986) found that
Vegetable Crops
Micronutrient content in various crops. Invariably, all the crops contained higher amount of micro-nutrient cations like Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in their above ground parts when grown in sewage irrigated soils than in the same plant species grown in tube well irrigated soils. The higher
Table 3. Total content of heavy metals (mg kg-1 soil) of sewage and tube well irrigated soils of Sangrur (0-15 cm) Element (mg kg-1 soil) Cu Mean SD 48.417.4 (16.5-68.4) Mean SD 11.42.45 (8.0-14.3) Permissible Limits Fe 109901134.6 (9580-13100) 9747316.7 (9358-10210) Mn 272.852.3 (200-352) 215.645.6 (176-286) Zn 88.624.1 (58.2-121.0) 28.388.4 (19.2-43.2) Pb 56.710.8 (39.9-72.4) 33.063.2 (29.8-37.2) 100-500 Ni 26.74.5 (20.4-32) 20.503.78 (15.4-25.4) 100 Cd 2.150.52 (1.50-2.72) 1.020.10 (0.80-1.25) 3-8
Heavy Metal Content in Soils and Crops Irrigated with Untreated Sewage Water
content of DTPA extractable metals in sewage irrigated soils has caused the growing plants in these soils to take up these elements in higher amounts. Different crops showed different pattern of accumulation of micronutrient content. The content of Zn in their above ground parts of cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish in sewage irrigated soils were 1.62, 1.92, 1.20 and 1.56 times their content in tube well irrigated soils. The increase in the content of Cu with sewage irrigation was found to be 23.5, 15.3, 31.5 and 78.1 per cent, respectively. The content of Fe in cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish were 180, 74, 560 and 452 g g-1 dry matter, respectively in sewage irrigated soils. Similarly, increase in the content of Mn in cauliflower, cabbage, spinach and radish in sewage irrigated soils emulated the same pattern. Singh and Sakal (2001) reported higher concentration of micronutrients in different crops than normal in sewage sludge treated soils. Adhikari et al. (1998) reported that the comparatively higher concentration of the micronutrients in vegetables in comparison to normal soils has resulted from the addition of these elements through the continuous application of sewage water in the outskirts of city of Calcutta. The micronutrient concentration for various crops in sewage irrigated sangrur soils can be arranged in the following order Zn : Spinach > cauliflower > cabbage > radish Fe : Spinach > radish > cauliflower > cabbage Cu : Spinach > radish> cauliflower > cabbage Mn : Radish > spinach > cauliflower > cabbage It may be concluded that spinach accumulated highest amount of Zn, Cu and Fe except Mn in its above ground parts indicating it to be the efficient accumulator among these crops. Although, micronutrient accumulation was more in sewage irrigated soils than normal soils, but none of the micronutrient approached the level of toxicity, in any of the plant species.
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Pollutant elements. Pollutant elements unlike those of micronutrients, become toxic to the plants and animal species at a very low concentration. Their presence above the critical limit in the plants may cause health hazards in animals and human beings. The three pollutant elements (Pb, Ni and Cd) were present in higher concentration in the above ground parts of all the plant species growing on sewage fed soils in comparison to their concentration in tube well irrigated soils. The amount of Pb, Ni and Cd in cauliflower irrigated with sewage water was 2.03, 1.82 and 4.8 times their respective content in tube well water irrigation. Other pollutant elements also followed the same pattern regardless of the crop species. The extent of accumulation of different metals was maximum for Pb followed by Ni and Cd in all the plant species. The content of Pb, Ni and Cd were found below the critical limit of 10, 5 and 0.8 g g-1 (Allaway, 1968) respectively for Pb, Ni and Cd in all the crops except for spinach in the sewage irrigated soils where concentration of Cd was 1.98 g g-1 (Table 4). More recently, Aulakh et al. (2009) found that the mean concentrations of Pb, Cr, Cd, and Ni in crops grown on sewage-irrigated soils were 4.88, 4.20, 0.29, and 3.99 mg kg1, respectively, which were significantly higher than their concentrations in tubewell-irrigated soil. From this study, it is revealed that in most of the situations where soils of Sangrur district have been receiving sewage irrigation for the last many years, the plants growing on them has not yet crossed the threshold values of toxicity. It is advisable to monitor the build up of these elements on long term basis. It is desirable that the waste water particularly industrial effluent would be made to undergo suitable treatment in wastewater treatment plants before being discharged in to water bodies.
Table 4. Amount of micronutrient and pollutant elements (g g-1) in shoot (above ground parts) of various crops in sewage irrigated and tubewell irrigated soils Crop Cu Cauliflower Cabbage Spinach Radish Cauliflower Cabbage Spinach Radish 8.4 6.8 14.2 11.4 6.8 5.9 10.8 6.4 Micronutrient element (g g-1) Fe 180.0 74.0 560.0 452.0 84.3 45.0 402.0 270.0 Mn 48.0 30.0 57.4 60.27 30.0 21.8 32.8 23.5 Zn 53.6 38.4 50.2 45.0 32.8 20.0 41.8 29.5 Pb 2.10 2.75 5.02 1.45 1.03 1.46 2.40 0.98 Sewage irrigation 1.02 0.87 3.00 1.12 0.50 0.40 0.83 0.90 0.24 0.48 1.98 0.56 0.04 0.08 0.10 0.04 Pollutant elements (g g-1) Ni Cd
Tubewell irrigation
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REFERENCES
Adhikari, S., Mitra, A., Gupta, S.K. and Banerjee, S.K. (1998) Pollutant metal contents of vegetables irrigated with sewage water. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 46: 153-155. Allaway, W.H. (1968) Agronomic controls over the environmental cycling of trace elements. Adv. Agro. 20: 235-274. Aulakh, M.S., Khurana, M.P.S. and Dhanwinder Singh (2009) Water pollution related to agricultural, industrial, and urban activities, and its effects on the food chain: Case studies from Punjab. J. New Seeds 10:112-137. Azad, A.S., Sekhon, G.S. and Arora, B.R. (1986) Distribution of cadmium, nickel and cobalt in sewage water irrigated soils. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 34: 619-622. Bosewell, F.C. (1975) Municipal sewage sludge and selected elements application to soils. J. Envion. Qual. 4: 267-273. Brar, M.S., Khurana, M.P.S. and Kansal, B.D. (2002) Effect of irrigation by untreated sewage effluents on the micro and potentially toxic elements in soils and plants. In: Proc 17 the World Congress of Soil Science held at Bangkok, Thailand from August 14-21, 2002, Volume IV, Symposium no 24, pp 198(1) 198(10). Dowdy, R.H., Lattreell, J.J., Hinesly,T.D., Grassman, R.B. and Sullivan, D.L. (1991) Trace metal movement in an aeric ochraqualf following 14 years of annual sludge application J. Environ. Qual. 20: 119-123. Jurwarkar, A.S., Jurwarkar Asha, Deshbharatan, P.B. and Bal, A.S. (1991) Exploitation of nutrient potential of sewage and sludge through land application. In: Asian Experience in Integrated Plant Nutrition. RAPA-FAO, Bankok, pp. 178-201.
Kabata, P.A. and Pendias, H. (1984) Trace Elements in Soil and Plants. p 365. CRC Press Inc Boca Raton, Florida, U.S.A. Kansal, B.D. (1994). Efeect of domestic and industrial effulents on agricultural productivity. In: G.S. Dhaliwal and B.D. Kansal (Eds) Management of Agricultural Pollution in India. Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi, pp. 157-176. Kansal, B.D. and Khurana, M.P.S. (2000) Cadmium accumulation in alluvial soils from agricultural use of urban and industrial waste water. 8th International Congress on Soil Science, Islamabad, Pakisthan, Nov 13-16, 2000. Khurana, M.P.S. and Kansal, B.D. (2001) Lead contamination of alluvial soils as influenced by sewage irrigation. Paper presented at the 66th Annual Convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science held at Udipur from 29th Oct to 3 Nov 2001. Kuhad, M.S., Malik, R.S., Singh, R. and Singh, A. (1989) Studied on mobility and accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils receiving sewer water irrigation. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 37: 290-294. Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 42: 421-428. Sharma, V.K. and Kansal, B.D. (1986) Heavy metal contamination of soils and plants with sewage irrigation. Pollut. Res. 4: 8691. Singh, A.P and Sakal, R. (2001) Sewage sludge treated soils: Distribution and translocation of micronutrient cations in different plant species. Sust. Chemi. Agri. 2: 22-32.
Interactive Effect of Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum on Yield Attributes of Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
D. K. Singh*, P. Kumar1 and S.K. Singh
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, 1Department of Environmental Science, P.G. College, Ghazipur, U.P., India *E-mail: singhdk@rediffmail.com
Abstract: An experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2008-09 and 2009-2010 to study the interactive effect of cobalt, boron and molybdenum on yield attributes of pea (Pisum sativum L.) at fertility level of 30 mg P2O5+20 mg S+2.5 mg Zn, per kg soil and 60mg P2O5+40 mg S+5.0 mg Zn, per kg soil on number of pod per plant, no. of seeds per pod, grain yield and straw yield. The number of pod per plant and number of seeds per pod were significantly influenced with increasing levels of fertility in both the years. The macronutrients viz. Co, B and Mo have also shown significant impact on number of pod per plant and number of seeds per pod. The grain yield was affected significantly at higher fertility level. A significant increase in grain yield and straw yield was recorded by the use of Co, B and Mo but the combined effect of fertility did not show significant impact. Key Words: Interactive effect, Micronutrient, Yield, Pea
Majority of the Indian population is vegetarian and they depend for their protein requirement on pulses. Pulses are the cheapest source of protein and sustain the productivity of cropping system by their ability to use atmospheric nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation, which is ecologically most acceptable and economically viable. Availability of all the essential plant nutrients in adequate quantity and balanced proportion is essential to realize full potentiality of yield from newly developed high yielding improved varieties. Phosphorus is desirable for promoting nitrogen fixation by soil microorganisms. Thus, phosphorus requirement of leguminous crop, which is totally dependent for meeting out their nitrogen requirement on atmospheric nitrogen fixation by symbiotic Rhizobium are higher than cereals. Sulphur deficiency in soil affects the assimilation of nitrogen and synthesis of protein. Cobalt, Boron and Molybdenum are essential for the growth of Rhizobium and nitrogen fixation. These micronutrients are essential for synthesis of vitamin B12, translocation of materials, photosynthesis, absorption of nitrogen required for synthesis of amino acids and proteins, carbohydrate metabolism and proper nodulation. The studies on integrated effect of various micronutrients at varying soil fertility on yield attributes of leguminous plants are very scare. The present study was designed to study the interactive effect of nutrients on pea (Pisum sativum L.) by keeping the record of cropping history of the field from which soil was taken for pot experiment. Mostly the paddy-wheat and paddy-pea have been the main crop rotation. Paddy being transplanted and water logged crop witness high rate of protection of applied water resulting into leaching losses of many essential plant nutrients. Cobalt is one of
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applied as sodium borate in solution form. The average number of pods per plant and grains of pods were counted and the mean values were expressed as number of pod per plant and number of grain per pod, respectively. Harvesting was done manually at complete maturity. The grain yield and straw yield was measured in gram per pot. Soil samples were taken from each earthen pot for analysis before cropping from a depth of 0-15 cm. Collected soil samples were analysed for various physicochemical properties (Piper, 1966).
Procedure followed Chopra and Kanwar (1991) Chopra and Kanwar (1991) Jackson (1973) Walkley and Black (1934) Subbiah and Asija (1956) Olsens (1954) Jackson (1973) Chesnin and Yien (1951) Lindsay and Norvell (1978) Jackson (1973) Jackson (1973)
2008-09 7.5 0.26 12.65 0.36 230.0 18.00 22.00 18.00 0.1 0.2 0.08
2009-10 7.6 0.38 12.70 0.38 236.0 20.00 230.00 20.00 0.1 0.2 0.08
Table 2. Effect of Co, B and Mo at different fertility status on yield and yield contributing parameters
Number of seeds per pod 2008-09 F1 5 5.9 5.7 5.8 6 6.1 6 6.3 5.6 5 SEm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5 CD (5%) SEm CD (5%) 4.8 6.4 5.7 6.6 123 73 SEm 1.2 1.2 1.7 3.4 6.9 6.3 7 138 6.8 6 6.8 131 136 143 129 CD (5%) 3.4 3.4 4.8 9.5 6.4 6.2 6.9 135 141 6.7 6.1 6.9 134 139 6.4 5.9 6.7 129 135 139 145 146 141 149 132 79 SEm 1.8 1.8 2.5 5.1 6.6 5.8 6.7 128 133 138 6.5 6 6.8 132 138 142 5.9 5 6 89 93 92 113 163 159 159 166 165 161 167 153 CD (5%) 5.1 5.1 7.2 14 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 F1 F2 2009-10 2008-09 2009-10 Grain yield (g per pot) Straw yield (g per pot) 2008-09 F1 117 171 165 167 173 175 169 177 159 95 SEm 1.6 1.6 2.2 4.5 F2 121 179 173 176 181 183 177 186 167 CD (5%) 4.5 4.5 6.3 13 2009-10 F1 120 185 180 181 188 189 184 193 172 102 SEm 2.3 2.3 3.3 6.6 F2 146 212 207 207 216 214 209 217 199 CD (5%) 6.6 6.6 9.3 19
Treatments 2009-10 F1 23 25 25 24 26 26 24 25 24 21 SEm CD(5%) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.82 0.91 0.64 0.64 26 26 25 26 26 26 26 26 25 F2
F1
Control
21
Co 2ppm
23
B 0.3%
22
Mo 1ppm
22
Co 2ppm+ B 0.3%
23
Co 2ppm+ Mo 1ppm
24
B 0.3% + Mo 1ppm
21
Co 2ppm+ B 0.3% +
22
Mo 1ppm
Mean
22
Absolute control
19
Comparison between
SEm
CD(5%)
Means of Fertility
0.1
Interaction FxM
0.2
Treatment vs Control
0.4
65
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52.43 per cent during 2008-09 and 49.05, 45.01, 45.55, 51.30, 47.40. 44.02 and 53.86 per cent during 2009-10, respectively. Grain yield and straw yield significantly increased by the use of Co, B and Mo but the combined effect of fertility and micronutrient did not show significant impact on grain and straw yield of pea.
REFERENCES
ABO- Shetia A.M. and Soheir, A.M. (2001) Yield and yield component response of chickpea ( Cicer arietinum ) to phosphorus fertilization and micronutrients. Arab University. J. Agricultural Sci. 9(1): 235-248. Chesnis, L. and Yien, C.H. (1951) Turbidimetric determination of available sulphates, proceedings of the soil. Science Society of America 14:149-151. Chopra, S.L. and Kanwar, J.S. (1991) Analytical Agricultural Chemistry, Kalyani publishers New Delhi. Jackson, M.L. (1973) Soil Chemical Analysis, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Kanaujia, S.P., Sharma, S.K. and Rastogi, K.B. (1998) Effect of P.K. and Rhizobium inoculation on growth and yield of pea (Pisum sativum ). Annals of Agricultural Research 19(2): 219-221.
Jammu & Kashmir state is famous throughout the world not only for its scenic beauty of mountains, pastures, lakes, rivers, meadows, heritages, gardens, etc but also for the production of diverse type of fruits because of their adaptability owing to topography, parent material, vegetation, soils, besides climate. The state is by and large a mountainous area comprising of sub-tropical, intermediate, temperate and cold arid zone on the basis of altitude and climate. The temperate zone comprises of whole of Kashmir valley and higher reaches of Doda and Poonch districts. The altitude of the valley varied from 1500 to 2500 meters above mean sea level. The altitude has a considerable effect on the nutrient status of soil and plant growth as the variation in climate has resulted in significant differences in leaf composition of the plants. In India pear occupies third place in temperate fruits both in area and production and is cultivated largely in Jammu & Kashmir state and also in upper hills of Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhan. However, sand pear or oriental pear requires less chilling and is cultivated in semi-temperate regions of the states of Punjab, Haryana and Nilgiri regions. In Jammu and Kashmir, the pear ranks second among the pome fruits after apple in acreage and production. The area under pear was 12.10 thousand hectares with a production of 45.86 thousand metric tonnes. Among various factors of production, nutrition of pear fruits has received a considerable attention in recent years, because of importance of nutrients in quality production of fruits and also due to their relationship to physiological disorders and other effects particularly reducing respiration, delaying ripening and increasing fruit firmness thereby extending their storage and shelf life. Imbalance of nutrients causes several disorders which consequently affects the quality
and yield of pear. Besides major elements, micro-nutrient elements are also required in small quantities because of their role as activators, structural components, energy transfer and as regulator of cell constituents. Different micronutrient elements are required for carrying out various physiological processes in plants, and thereby maintaining their essentiality in growth and nourishment of plants leading to maximum production of quality fruits. Since the nutritional aspect of pear fruits have not received much attention so far and no attempt has been made to assess the status of micro-nutrients in pear orchards of Kashmir valley. Therefore keeping in view the importance of micronutrients in the production of pear, a study was undertaken to evaluate the status of micro-nutrients in pear orchards of Kashmir valley.
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Table 1. Critical concentration of micro-nutrients in pear Nutrient Deficient Zinc Copper Iron Manganese <10 <5 <20 Marginal 10-19 5-8 <60 20-59 Micro-nutrients (ppm) Adequate 20-50 9-20 60-200 60-120 High >50 21-50 >200 120-220 Excess >50 >220
100 ml volumetric flask. In order to ensure complete transfer of digested material, about six washings were given with double distilled water and final volume was made to 100 ml. The micro-nutrient cations like zinc, copper, manganese and iron were determined on atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The leaf micro-nutrient status was evaluated on the basis of critical concentrations reported by Vanden-Ende and Leece (1975) give in Table 1. Properties of the surface soils in orchards. The soils were clay loam to silly clay loam in texture with normal electrical conductivity and calcium carbonate content. The pH was slightly acidic to slightly alkaline and ranged from 6.10 to 7.76 (Table 2). The organic carbon was medium to high in soils analyzed and varied from 0.66 to 2.36 per cent. The DTPA extractable zinc was low to high and ranged from 0.54 to 1.82 mg kg-1 soil, while as, DTPA extractable copper was medium to high ranging from 1.14 to 2.80 mg kg-1 soil. The DTPA extractable iron and manganese were high in pear orchard soils and varied from 29.6 to 76.0 and 25.4 to 54.4 mg kg-1 soil. All available micro-nutrient cations were observed high in high altitude soils.
Table 2. Properties of surface layers in pear orchard soils of Kashmir Soil property pH EC (dSm-1) Calcium carbonate (%) Organic carbon (%) Available Zinc (ppm) Available Copper (ppm) Available Iron (ppm) Available Manganese (ppm) Range 6.10 - 7.76 0.10 - 0.44 6.40 - 9.80 0.66 - 2.36 0.54 - 1.82 1.14 - 2.80 29.6 - 76.0 25.4 - 54.4
The higher concentration of zinc in high altitude may be attributed to acidic pH which favours the uptake of zinc. The leaf zinc content was observed adequate in 76 per cent and high in 24 per cent orchards, which could be attributed to high content of organic matter and favourable pH for its uptake. The zinc content in the foliage also revealed significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes with highest amount in high altitude orchards and lowest amount in low altitude orchards. This is supported by the findings of Mamgain et al. (1988) and Najar (2002). The leaf copper content in high, mid and low altitude orchards varied from 14.3 to 19.7, 10.0 to 17.7 and 8.3 to 16.3 ppm with mean value of 17.04, 13.47 and 11.76 ppm, respectively. These values are nearly in same magnitude as reported by Chaplin and Westwood (1980) and Arora et al. (1992). The leaf copper exhibited significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes with higher amount in high altitude orchards. The leaf copper was adequate in 95 per cent samples and low in per cent samples and low content was observed in 5 per cent orchards located at low altitude. This could be due to higher amount of organic matter and available copper in soils and favourable soil pH for its uptake in high altitude orchards. Sharma and Bhandari (1992) and Mamgain et al. (1998) also reported similar range of copper in apple foliage. The concentration of iron in leaves ranged from 128.7 to 199.3, 86.0 to 138.0 and 84.0 to 122.7 ppm with mean value of 157.76, 118.06 and 104.71 ppm, respectively in high, mid and low altitude pear orchards. Similar range of iron concentration was reported in foliage of pear by Woodbridge (1973) and Arora et al. (1992). The leaf iron was observed adequate in 100 percent samples and it varied significantly among the orchards of three altitudes with high content observed in high altitude orchards, which may be due to high amount of organic matter as well as available iron and soil condition for its uptake. Mamgain et al. (1998) and Najar (2002) observed that high amount of iron in the foliage of apple at higher altitude was attributed to high amount of organic matter and available iron in the soil, besides suitable pH for its uptake. The leaf manganese content of pear ranged from 96.7 to 128.3, 81.3 to 122.0 and 72.0 to 118.3 ppm with
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mean value of 113.67, 97.43 and 96.29 ppm in high, mid and low altitude orchards, respectively. Arora et al. (1992) observed that the manganese content in foliage of pear in Punjab was in similar range of concentration. Eighty six percent samples were adequate and 14 per cent samples were high in leaf manganese content and exhibited significant variation among the orchards of three altitudes, which could be ascribed to the amount of available manganese and organic matter content together with favourable pH for its uptake. Mushki (1994) and Mamgain et al. (1998) reported that higher content of manganese in foliage of apple in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh at higher altitude was due to high organic matter content with favourable pH for uptake of manganese than at lower altitudes.
The leaf zinc, iron and manganese were adequate to high in all locations of three altitudes. Leaf copper was low at Pohru location of low altitude and rest of locations of three altitudes were adequate in copper. The low content of leaf copper at low altitude is in agreement with the findings of Arora et al. (1992) for pear and Najar (2002) for apple in Punjab and Kashmir, respectively. Significant differences were also reported by Mamgain et al. (1998) for all micronutrients under study at various locations. In general, concentration of micro-nutrients was found maximum in orchards of high altitude followed by mid altitude and low altitude. Similar results were also reported by Najar (2002) and Farida (2005). Therefore, nutrient concentration in a plant seems to be the result of interaction between its genetic inheritance and the environment in which it grows.
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Interrelationship among the leaf micro-nutrients. The concentration of micro-nutrients in pear leaves indicated positive and significant relationship with each other. Zinc showed significant and positive correlation co-efficient with copper (r = 0.908), iron (r = 0.844) and manganese (r = 0.734), whereas, copper revealed r value of 0.852 and 0.898 with iron and manganese, respectively. The leaf iron indicated similar relationship with manganese (r = 0.795). Similar relationship between zinc and copper was also reported by Arora et al. (1992). Thus it can be concluded that micro-nutrients are by and large in adequate concentrations except copper. Therefore package of practices should include application of copper to pear orchards in order to encourage proper growth of plants leading to maximum production of quality pear.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. (2008) Area & production of horticultural crops in Jammu and Kashmir state. Department of Horticulture, J & K Government. Arora, C. L, Brar, M. S. and Dhatt, A. S. (1992) Secondary and micro-nutrient status of pear orchards in Punjab. Indian J. Hort. 49(2): 150-154. Bhandari, A. R. and Randhawa, N. S. (1978) Micro-nutrient status of apple orchards of Shimla hills. Indian J. Hort. 35(4): 321327. Chaplin, M. H. and Westwood, M. N. (1980) Nutritional status of Bartlett pear on Cydonia and Pyrus species rootstocks. J. American Soc. Hort. Sci. 105(1): 60-63. Chapman, H. D. (1964) Suggested foliar sampling and handling techniques for determining the nutrient status of some field,
A typical rice-wheat sequence that yields 7t ha-1 of rice (unmilled) and 5t ha-1 of wheat consumes 300kg of N, 30kg P, and 300kg ha-1 of potassium (Bijay-Singh et al., 2004). Besides, it leads to concomitant depletion of various secondary and micronutrients. The rice-wheat system has started showing fatigue signs and lack of response to increasing levels of fertilizers has been attributed among many factors to macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances resulting from exhaustive feeding and imbalanced replenishment of nutrients through inappropriate fertilizer applications. Application of many fertilizer sources resulting from soil-test based recommendations during one agronomic operation (at the time of sowing), is constrained by high labour costs and uneven application (if mixed) owing to segregation. These hurdles to site-specific soil testbased fertilizer applications can be overcome by producing crop-specific and site-specific mixed fertilizer grades, called customized fertilizers. Wheat is the predominant rabi season crop of northwestern and central India. Due to its prolonged association with rice, the rice-wheat cropping sequence has started exhibiting deficiency of various secondary and micronutrients, namely, sulphur, manganese, and zinc. As a result, the northwest region has been witnessing increased sale of various nutrient cocktails. These cocktails do not provide site-specific, need-based, and economical solutions to various plant nutrition related problems. There is a need for fertilizers that can provide for application of micronutrients like Zn (Ramkala et al., 2008). Keeping this in view, this experiment was laid during rabi 2010-11 to evaluate the performance of a customized
fertilizer grade (CF-18) prepared specifically for Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Kapurthala, Rupnagar, and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts of Punjab for wheat crop by a fertilizer manufacturer.
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Table 2. Various treatments of customized fertilizer used in wheat crop Treatment CF Level Basal CF to basal N(kg ha-1) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Control 50%MRDCF* 75%MRDCF 100%MRDCF 125%MRDCF 150%MRDCF 67% MRDCF (Standard) 250 40 20 60 0 120 60 23 12.5 1.8 *MRDCF: Manufacturer-recommended dose of customized fertilizer 0 188 281 375 469 563 0 30 45 60 75 90 Urea to basal 0 0 0 0 0 0 First top Second top Total N added Total P added Total K added Total S added Total Zn (kg ha-1) 0 86 128 171 214 257 0 45 68 90 113 135 0 17 25 34 42 51 0.0 9.4 14.1 18.8 23.4 28.1 0.0 1.3 2.0 2.6 3.3 3.9
dressed dressed (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) added 0 30 45 60 75 90 0 26 38 51 64 77
Keeping in view the protocol given by the manufacturer, the treatment with a CF dose providing a basal dose of 60kg N ha -1, 90kg ha -1 P 2O 5 , and 35kg K 2O ha -1 was considered as the basic treatment (T4, Table 2). Hence, this CF dose level was considered as 100% of the manufacturer-recommended dose of CF (100% MRDCF). The other treatments were designed around it by varying this basal CF dose by a level of 25%, starting from 50% (T2) through 75% (T3), 100%(T4), 125% (T5) to 150% (T6). Two other treatments were control (T1) and application of basal CF dose as per the state university basal N (60kg N ha-1) and P (60kg P2O5 ha-1) fertilizer recommendations (67% of standard CF dose). T7 incidentally provided 23kg K2O ha-1. Each treatment had three replicates. Besides basal application, treatments involving graded doses of CF (T2 through T6) involved top-dressing N through two equated instalments of urea with first and second irrigations. Amount of top-dressed N was calculated by maintaining a basal N to top-dressed N ratio of 0.54. However, in the treatment involving agreement with state recommended dose of N and P through CF N was top-dressed once @ 60kg N ha-1 (basal N: top-dressed N ratio 1:1) through urea a day before first irrigation in keeping with the State university recommendation. Wheat crop (variety PBW 550), was sown on 14 November 2010 at Rupnagar site and on 30 November 2010 at Gurdaspur. All recommended agronomic practices were followed to raise the crop. Below normal temperatures prevalent during April 2011 delayed the maturity considerably at Gurdaspur site. Straw and grain yield parameters were recorded at maturity. Other observations included number of tillers and effective tillers per plant or per meter row, plant height at maturity, spike length, number of grains per spike, spike weight, grain test weight, etc. For
plant height, plants selected at random were tagged and height was measured in centimeters from ground level to the base of the ear head. Effective tillers in one meter row length were counted from randomly selected rows in each plot. Grains per spike were assessed by randomly selecting ten ear heads from each plot. The experimental data was examined statistically using analysis of variance by employing CS-11 programme (Cheema, 1990).
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CF application resulted in increased number of tillers but increasing CF levels beyond 75% level did not add to the number of effective tillers considerably. Further, using CF as per state recommendations (T7) for N and P produced same number of effective tillers as did the 75% MRDCF application. Spike length. Customized fertilizer application led to increase in spike length (Table 4). However, increasing rates of CF beyond 50% of MRDCF in Gurdaspur and beyond 75% in Rupnagar did not increase the head length significantly. Furthermore, Rupnagar site, in general, showed higher response of spike length than did Gurdaspur site. Gurdaspur site produced longer spikes than Rupnagar site. This varied response can be ascribed to the difference in fertility status of the two sites and consequent response to CF. Spike weight. Customized fertilizer application increased spike weight over unfertilized soil (Table 4 ). However, in line with other yield attributes, increasing rates of CF application beyond state-recommended levels (67% MRDCF) did not add to the spike weight significantly. At both sites, under normally fertilized conditions, spike weight hovered around a mean of 2.46g. No. of grains/spike. Customized fertilizer application added to the grain count (Table 4) but increasing CF levels did not increase grain count accordingly. On an average, at both sites under fertilizer levels beyond 67%, CF maintained a 50-grain/spike level. 1000-grain test weight. Thousand-grain test weight yield attribute behaved the way other yield attributes did (Table 4). CF applications beyond state-recommended dose did not help to increase 1000-grain weight. Rupnagar site, in comparison to Gurdaspur site, showed more response to CF application in terms of this parameter. Grain yield. Grain yield is a composite and interactive effect of above-discussed yield attributes. Accordingly,
increasing CF level beyond state recommended dose (T7, 67% MRDCF) did not lead to a significant increase in grain yield at Gurdaspur site (Table 5 ). In contrast, however, at Rupnagar site increasing CF levels went on adding significantly to grain yield. Straw yield. Effect of CF application on straw yield resembles its effect on grain yield (Table 5). However, increasing CF dose went on adding to straw yield significantly till 125% MRDCF level in Rupnagar site and till 100% MRDCF in Gurdaspur site. Past 100% MRDCF, Gurdaspur site showed sudden decline in straw yield. This decline, though inexplicable, was in line with decline in number of effective tillers witnessed at this level (Table 3). However, the extended response of straw yield to increasing CF dose at Rupnagar site can be attributed to comparatively lower organic carbon and available K levels. Harvest index. Ratio of grain yield to total biomass yield decreased with increasing CF level from 0 to 100% through 50 and 75% at Gurdaspur site (Table 5). However, in accordance with the straw yield pattern, harvest index at this site increased with increasing CF levels beyond 100%. CF application as per state recommendations for N and P gave harvest index similar to that in 75% CF level. At Rupnagar site, in general, values of harvest index were higher than obtained at Gurdaspur site. Also, increasing CF levels did not significantly affect the average harvest index of 0.474 achieved in all the treatments.
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Table 4. Spike length, spike weight, number of grains/spike, and grain weight as affected by various CF levels Treatment T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD (0.05) CF Level 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Spike length (cm) Rupnagar 4.6 7.1 8.8 9.0 9.3 9.3 8.7 0.7 9.3 11.1 10.9 11.3 11.1 11.5 11.2 0.6 Spike wt. (g) Gurdaspur 0.79 1.27 2.42 2.46 2.43 2.53 2.42 0.17 0.81 1.28 2.44 2.47 2.49 2.53 2.43 0.16 No. of grains/spike 12 35 48 49 51 51 48 3 13 36 49 51 51 53 49 3 1000-grain test wt. (g) 36.29 37.93 37.62 36.61 37.83 36.19 36.39 0.81 13.21 23.57 36.22 36.72 36.96 36.97 35.44 1.55
(% of MRDCF) Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur
Table 5. Wheat grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen efficiency, and economic parameters as affected by various CF levels Treatment T1 (control) T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 LSD(0.05) CF Level 0 50 75 100 125 150 67 Grain yield (q ha -1) Rupnagar 12.3 29.3 49.9 50.6 51.1 51.4 49.5 0.30 16.4 41.4 45.7 50.3 47.9 45.9 46.7 2.4 Straw yield (q ha-1) Gurdaspur 23.8 61.3 72.2 84.2 69.7 72.9 75.1 4.9 13.6 32.5 55.4 56.7 57 56.9 55 0.28 Harvest index 0.417 0.402 0.389 0.375 0.409 0.382 0.389 0.018 0.475 0.473 0.474 0.472 0.473 0.474 0.474 NS AEN(kg grain kg-1 N) 29.2 22.9 19.8 14.7 11.5 25.3 3.1 19.9 29.3 22.4 18.2 15.3 31.0 0.21
(% of MRDCF) Gurdaspur
Rupnagar Gurdaspur
Gurdaspur site 150% CF treatment gave the lowest AEN (15.3 kg grain kg-1N). In general, use of CF resulted in better AEN at Rupnagar site. This can be ascribed to comparatively lower organic carbon level (Table 1). The grain yield response to fertilizer can also vary with the environment at the time of fertilizer application (Otteson et al., 2008).
Beyond 75 per cent MRDCF level, Rupnagar site gave higher net returns. This trend can be associated with higher straw yields at Gurdaspur site. CF levels beyond 67 per cent (state recommended dose) did not add significantly to the net returns.
A comparison among the two sites shows that Gurdaspur site gave better B:C ratio than Rupnagar site below 67 per cent MRDCF level (Table 6). This difference did not result from grain yield difference but from higher
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(2004) Potassium nutrition of the rice-wheat cropping system. Adv. Agron. 81: 203-259. Cheema, H.S. (1990). A Computer Programming Package for Statistical Analysis Manual. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean L.A. (1954) Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. United States Department of Agriculture circular 939. Oscarson, P., Lundborg, T., Larsson, M. and Larson, C. M. (1995) Fate and effects on yield components of extra applications of nitrogen on spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) grown in solution culture. Plant Soil 175:179188. Otteson, B. N., Mergoum, M., Ransom, J. K. and Schatz, B. (2008) Tiller contribution to spring wheat yield under varying seeding and nitrogen management. Agron J. 100:406413. Pratt, P F. (1982) Potassium In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part II. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. In: A.L. Page, R.H. Miller and D.R. Keeney (eds) American Society of Agronomy, Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 225-246. Ramkala, Dahiya, R.R., Dahiya, S.S. and Dalel-Singh (2008) Evaluation of N:P:Zn (10:50:1.5) complex fertilizer in rice-wheat cropping sequence. Indian J. Agric. Res. 42: 288-292. Walkley, A. and Black, J.A. (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method of determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37: 29-38.
REFERENCES
Bhardwaj, V., Yadav, V. and Chauhan, B.S. (2010) Effect of nitrogen application timings and varieties on growth and yield of wheat grown on raised beds. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 56: 211-222. Bijay-Singh, Yadvinder-Singh, Patricia-Imas and Xie Jian-Chang
Effect of Organic Nitrogen Management on Yield and Quality of Produce in RiceVegetable Based Cropping System
R. N. Meena* and Kalan Singh
Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi - 221 005 (U.P.), India *E-mail: ramnarayanbhu@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted during 2003-04 and 2004-05 at Research Farm, BHU, Varanasi, U.P. to study the effect of various sources (farm yard manure, vermicompost and poultry manure) and rates of organic manures (100%, 125% and 150% RND) on yield, quality of produce, soil quality and economics of rice-table pea-onion cropping sequence. Poultry manure @ 150% RND gave higher grain (57.96q ha-1) and straw yield (91.27q ha-1) in rice, green pod yield (70.72q ha-1) and straw yield (70.03q ha-1) of table pea and bulb (270.84q/ha) and haulm yield (35.13q ha-1) of onion. On an average, application of poultry manure resulted improved values regarding soil organic carbon, uptake of available NPK and soil biological properties compared to varying doses of vermicompost, FYM and over the control treatment. Physical properties of soil viz. bulk density and water stable aggregates were not affected due to nitrogen management through organic sources. Economic analysis revealed that the highest rice-grain equivalent yield and maximum net profit (Rs.1,30,799 ha-1) from rice-table pea-onion sequence were recorded with the application of 150% RND through poultry manure. Key Words: Rice, Table pea, Onion, Cropping sequence, Organic farming, System productivity, Economics
Green revolution of India has undoubtedly changed the scenario of food grain production which has been more than doubled during post green revolution period without any change in the cultivated area. This has resulted not only self-sufficiency in food grains production but also made the country food surplus. This increased level of production could be achieved only due to increased use of external agro-inputs mainly fertilizers. Use of these high analysis chemical fertilizers in imbalanced and indiscriminate manner had developed many problems like decline of soil organic matter, increase in salinity, sodicity, soil pollutant and hazards of pests and diseases (Chakraborti and Singh, 2004). Continuous use of inorganic fertilizers has not only brought loss of vital soil fauna and flora but also resulted in loss of secondary and micronutrients. In organic production systems, the soil health is maintained and improved through stimulating the activity of soil organisms and organic manures are also helpful in alleviating the increasing incidence or deficiency of secondary and micronutrients and is capable of sustaining crop productivity. Organic manures modifies the soil physical behaviour and increases the efficiency of applied nutrients (Pandey et al., 2007). Regular application of organics in amounts sufficient to meet the requirements of crops not only results in increasing crop yield but also improve soil fertility and organic matter content (Ramesh et al., 2008). Use of organic manures to meet the nutrient requirement of crops would be an inevitable practice in the years to come for sustainable agriculture hence, organic matter should be replenished
by adding organic manures. Therefore, the present study was conducted to find out the effect of various organic manures on yield, quality and nutrient uptake by ricevegetable based cropping system and to explore the possibility of improving the productivity, profitability and sustainability of the above sequence by supply of nutrients through organic source.
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best in enhancing straw yield and had 33.1 per cent higher straw yield compared with control in pooled analysis. Bulb and haulm yield of onion were affected significantly (Table 1). Use of FYM, VM and PM gave better bulb yield than the control. Increased application of organic manure alone, from 100 to 150% of the recommended dose of N, also increased bulb and haulm yield. Application of PM and VM brought significant improvement in bulb and haulm yield of onion over 100% RND through urea (control) irrespective of levels of manures. Application of 150% RND as PM recorded the maximum bulb and haulm yield of onion. However, superior values of bulb and haulm yield were recorded in order of PM>VM>FYM>control. It may thus be inferred that sustainability of rice- table pea-onion sequence production was not influenced by organic nitrogen nutrition and poultry manure among all organic sources used was proved most effective. It might be due to the fact that mineralized nutrient from these sources could sufficiently meet the nutritional requirement of the crops. Thus, higher rates over recommended nitrogen dose favourably influenced plant growth and development characters which ultimately resulted in higher yields.
Quality of Produce
There were no significant differences in parameters judged for quality of rice grain due to different treatments during both the years (Table 2). Protein content, protein yield and carbohydrate content in tablepea grain differed significantly due to various treatments and the highest values of these were noticed with PM treatments followed by VC, FYM and 100% RND through urea, respectively. Poultry manure applied @ 150% RND produced maximum protein content which was significantly superior over control, 100% and 125% RND as FYM during first year and to the control and 100% RND as FYM during second year of study. Rest all the treatments were found at par. Protein yield (452.10 and 458.01 kg ha-1) and carbohydrate content (59.93 and 60.18%) during both years were observed significantly higher than other treatments when PM applied @ 150% RND which was at par with PM @ 125% RND. Pungency percentage in onion was significantly higher with PM application and followed the order of PM>VM>FYM>control. Each successive increase in the level of organic nitrogen nutrition through different sources showed significant improvement in pungency per cent. The superior performance exhibited by PM in comparison to other sources and also better results obtained at higher RND may be explained with the fact it might have helped in improving the nutrients availability for a prolonged period and improved
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Table 1. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on the productivity of rice-high value crop based cropping sequence (q ha-1) Rice Straw Pooled -04 43.83 44.47 46.8 47.49 50.8 52 52.19 54.04 57.96 41.27 3.63 25.4 16.92 14.74 4.79 11.19 61.48 64.94 63.21 39.44 34.62 37.03 5.88 76.12 106.41 91.27 67.09 74.36 70.72 74.68 99.42 87.05 64.54 68.59 66.56 66.75 68.91 57.44 NS 74.51 90.7 82.61 63.69 65.69 64.69 66.44 72.43 85.9 79.16 62.99 64.42 63.71 64.82 62.82 63.14 65.06 71.15 47.76 14.07 69.23 81.72 75.48 59.31 60.3 59.81 63.11 62.07 68.2 81.09 74.64 49.99 59.3 54.65 62.67 61.53 62.1 62.59 63.83 64.77 65.9 70.03 52.6 8.78 64.74 78.84 71.72 43.58 58.33 50.95 61.89 61.21 61.55 64.59 77.89 71.06 40.98 54.8 47.89 60.21 60.89 60.55 64.23 71.79 68.27 40.51 51.92 46.21 59.95 53.2 56.57 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 2003 2004Pooled 20032004Pooled 20032004Pooled 20032004Green pod Straw Bulb Pooled 200304 13.78 21.87 22.95 250.46 258.8 254.63 257.46 261.03 259.24 262.42 262.02 262.22 264.54 265.55 265.05 266.3 266.12 266.21 270.54 271.14 270.84 234.54 238.05 14 19.72 236.3 11.7 23.29 24.87 27.54 31.23 32.31 35.82 10.27 8.87 Table pea Onion Haulm 200405 13.74 14.68 16.24 17.47 24.44 26.12 26.44 29.35 34.43 12.26 8.18 13.76 18.27 19.6 20.36 24.65 26.83 28.83 30.83 35.13 11.27 5.81 Pooled
Treatment
2003
-04
46.79
40.86
47.44
41.51
48.72
44.89
100% RND as VM
49.56
45.43
125% RND as VM
50.32
50.96
150% RND as VM
50.64
51.12
100% RND as PM
52.88
54.07
125% RND as PM
53.52
54.55
150% RND as PM
57.37
58.55
38.62
C.D. (0.05)
5.80
RND, recommended nitrogen dose; FYM, farmyard manure; VM, vermicompost; PM, poultry manure Charges of input used (Rs kg-1): Urea 5.00, FYM 0.50, VM 3.00, PM 3.00 Selling price (Rs kg-1) of organic produce: Rice grain 6.50, table pea pod 8.00, onion bulb 4.00, rice and table pea straw 1.00 Selling price (Rs kg-1 ) of inorganic produce: Rice grain 5.00, table pea pod 5.00, onion bulb 3.00, rice and table pea straw 0.50
Table 2. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on quality of rice-high value crop based cropping sequence Rice Milling (%) (%) 200304 59.81 59.86 60.26 60.28 60.36 60.45 60.60 60.69 61.20 59.69 NS NS NS NS NS NS 2.44 2.92 20.88 8.45 59.77 57.37 57.45 5.89 5.84 15.30 16.05 247.40 296.93 61.28 58.82 58.91 6.54 6.74 19.10 19.22 452.10 458.01 60.77 58.59 58.67 6.48 6.57 18.66 19.02 432.35 451.67 59.25 59.93 56.26 1.15 60.68 58.25 58.33 6.44 6.54 18.11 19.01 406.03 429.06 58.69 60.53 58.10 58.14 6.21 6.31 17.81 18.52 368.13 415.22 58.25 58.50 58.94 59.50 60.18 56.51 1.12 60.44 58.03 58.08 6.15 6.24 17.75 18.11 360.86 384.84 57.90 58.15 60.36 57.94 58.01 6.06 6.16 17.29 18.08 335.77 372.09 57.60 57.85 60.34 57.92 57.99 5.99 5.99 17.20 18.00 329.55 365.94 57.30 57.55 59.94 57.54 57.60 5.96 5.89 16.33 17.94 302.11 351.27 56.60 56.90 59.89 57.44 57.48 5.90 5.87 16.20 16.27 270.86 315.96 56.50 56.75 0.0039 0.0021 0.0044 0.0035 0.0048 0.0039 0.0049 0.0045 0.0059 0.0058 0.0061 0.0066 0.0062 0.0072 0.0071 0.0076 0.0076 0.0078 0.0017 0.0014 NS NS 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 04 05 2004200320042003200420032004200320042003200420032004200304 10.37 10.57 10.83 10.90 10.97 11.03 11.07 11.60 11.80 10.20 NS 05 grain (%) (%) (kg ha-1) (%) 200405 10.30 10.33 10.50 10.80 10.87 10.93 11.03 11.20 11.97 10.10 NS recovery content in content yield content (%) content (%) Head rice Protein Protein Protein Carbohydrate Pungency Carbohydrate Table pea Onion
Treatment
Hulling
(%)
2003-
2004-
04
71.51
71.61
71.69
71.79
71.76
71.84
100% RND as VM
71.94
72.01
125% RND as VM
72.10
72.16
150% RND as VM
72.19
72.25
100% RND as PM
72.22
72.31
125% RND as PM
72.58
72.68
150% RND as PM NS
72.61
72.73
71.06
C.D. (0.05)
NS
Table 3. Parameters as influenced by organic nitrogen nutrition at the end of 2 years cycle of rice-high value crop based sequence Soil physical parameters Porosity (%) (%) 40.32 40.38 41.34 40.3 40.36 41.18 40.2 40.22 40.95 40.02 0.86 18.65 18.00 NS 18.32 18.04 18.5 18.2 0.48 0.49 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.4 0.12 18.01 0.47 18.2 0.46 18.18 0.45 18.01 0.44 (%) N 184.34 185.46 186.72 187.73 189.44 189.95 190.44 191.43 192.98 178.95 9.78 aggregates carbon P 24.43 24.61 25.44 26.52 27.82 28 28.42 28.84 29.43 22.44 0.56 K 154.41 154.87 155.44 157.42 158.84 160.42 161.72 162.43 164.12 152.44 8.94 62.82 63.63 66.92 72.34 77.94 78.65 79.54 80.44 82.45 41.85 22.5 23.03 24.00 25.31 27.94 28.63 29.45 32.11 37.82 11.49 33.73 34.74 35.43 36.25 37.44 43.18 46.94 54.46 58.23 33.44 Water stable Organic Soil chemical parameters Available nutrient (kg ha )
-1
Treatment
Bulk
density
(g cc-1 )
1.36
1.37
1.39
100% RND as VM
1.38
125% RND as VM
1.4
150% RND as VM
1.41
100% RND as PM
1.39
125% RND as PM
1.41
150% RND as PM
1.42
1.35
C.D. (0.05)
NS
79
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physical condition of soil allowed better utilization of nutrients and root penetration of crops.
Soil Quality
Soil physical parameters viz. bulk density and water stable aggregates did not showed any profound effect due to addition of organic materials (Table 3). The values of chemical properties of soil like organic carbon, available N, P and K increased significantly from initial stage and over control treatment on the completion of 2-years cycle of ricetablepea-onion sequence. The maximum organic carbon build up was accured (0.54%) when 150% RND was supplied through PM (T4) while the least value (0.40%) was noticed with the 100% RND through urea. The organic carbon of the soil increased over its initial status (0.38%) under nitrogen supply through organic sources. The nutrient status of the experimental site was also affected significantly by the application of different organic manures alongwith their varying rates. Results clearly indicated improved fertility status of soil due to increased values of available N, P and K in all organic treatments over its initial value as well as control. Application of organic manures with increased rate enhanced soil fertility over their lower doses. At the end of 2-year sequence, 150% RND applied as PM maintained higher values of organic carbon and available N, P and K. Next best treatments in this respect were also found when PM applied with reduced rates of 125% and 100% RND, respectively. Continuous application of organic manures in sufficient quantities have been reported to improve the soil organic carbon and available N, P and K in soil thereby sustaining the soil health (Tiwari et al., 2002). Soil biological properties showed improvement in the soil microbial counts over its initial values at the end
Table 4. Effect of organic nitrogen nutrition on rice grain equivalent yield (RGEY) and economics of ricehigh value crop based sequence (mean data of 2 years) Treatment Rice grain equivalent yield (RGEY) 100% RND as FYM 125% RND as FYM 150% RND as FYM 100% RND as VM 125% RND as VM 150% RND as VM 100% RND as PM 125% RND as PM 150% RND as PM 100% RND through urea 24797 25439 26375 27145 28394 29178 29492 29978 31167 22008 97749 96602 96846 114198 116451 116038 130517 128233 130799 49494 1.29 1.18 1.10 1.50 1.42 1.32 1.72 1.56 1.49 0.91 System Net return ( Rs ha )
-1
Net return (Rs ha-1) from component Benefit : cost ratio) Rice 4009 1704 284 7025 6260 4408 10877 9523 9493 3183 Table pea 29804 31046 33094 37108 40784 43530 45407 46515 49758 10109 Onion 63936 63852 63468 70065 69407 68100 74233 72195 71548 36202 crops in sequence
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Hati, K.M., Mandal, K.G., Mishra, A.K., Ghosh, P.K. and Acharya, C.L. (2001). Effect of irrigation regimes and nutrient management on soil water dynamics, evapo-transpiration and yield of wheat in vertisols. Indian J. Agricultural Sciences 71(9): 581-587. Hort, F.L. and Fisher, H.J. (1970). Determination of Pyruvic acid in dehydrated onion. In: Modern Food Analysis Springer Verlog, Berlin, Neidelberg, New York, pp. 433-434. Pandey, N., Verma, A.K., Anurag, and Tripathi, R.S. (2007). Integrated nutrient management in transplanted hybrid rice (Oryza sativa L.). Indian J. Agron. 52(1): 40-42. Ramesh, P., Panwar, N.R., Singh, A.B. and Ramana, S. (2008). Effect of organic manures on productivity, nutrient uptake and soil fertility of maize Linseed cropping system. Indian J. Agricultural Sciences 78(4): 351-354. Tiwari, A., Dwivedi, A.K. and Diskhit, P.R. 2002. Long term influence of organic and inorganic fertilization on soil fertility and productivity os soybean wheat system in a vertisols. J. Indian Society of Soil Science 50(4): 472-475.
REFERENCES
Chakarborti, Mandira and Singh, N.P. (2004). Bio-compost: a novel input to organic farming. Agrobios News Letter 2(8):14-15.
Effect of Biofertilizers on Yield and Quality Traits of Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.)
N.S. Gill, J. S. Bal and D. S. Khurana*
Department of Vegetable Crop, Punjab Agricultural Unviersity, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail:roopinder79@gmail.com
Abstract: The present investigation was carried out at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Moga during 2007-2009. The experimental material comprised of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitala L.) cv. Golden Acre, grown in randomized block design and replicated thrice. Maximum head weight during 2008 was found in plots were Phosphorus Solublizing Bacteria (PSB) with recommended dose of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium was applied, while in 2009, maximum head weight was observed where PSB + 75%P + recommended dose of N and K was applied. It was found that in cabbage maximum ratio of polar and equitorial diameter was obtained where Azotobactor with 75% recommended P and full dose of N and K was applied during 2008. But in 2009, maximum ratio was found in treatment where only recommended dose of N, P and K was applied. Maximum Ascorbic acid was obtained where PSB with 75% P and recommended dose of N and K was applied. Maximum chlorophyll content was obtained when Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrizae (VAM)+ 75% P + full dose of N and K was applied during 2008. But maximum chlorophyll content during 2009 was found where VAM with full doses of N, P and K was applied. Thus, it is concluded that all the treatments, which included biofertilizers gave better results than the treatments with only recommended dose of chemical fertilizers. Key Words: Biofertilizers, Quality traits, Cabbage, Yield
The consumption of chemical fertilizers was recorded more than 14.31 million tonnes during 2003-04. The green revolution with high use inorganic fertilizers has reached a plateau with falling dividends. The intensive use of inorganic fertilizers alone had polluted the soil, water and environment. The problem is further aggravated in most of the vegetable crops when the crop residues are seldom left in the fields for biological decomposition as a result organic matter is lost rapidly. The probable solution for the vegetable growers would be to follow the practices of integrated use of nutrients without compromising for production. It may not be possible to completely replace the chemical fertilizers. However, it seems to be possible to reduce the dose of inorganic fertilizers by substituting some part of nutrients from biofertilizers. For this, the dose of fertilizers need to be gradually reduced and be balanced by increasing the use of optimum quantity of organic manures and biofertilizers. Azotobacter and Azospirillium the strains of free living nitrogen bacteria can help to reduce the consumption of nitrogen. Likewise strains of Phosphorus Solublizing bacteria (PSB) can make available the phosphorus already present in the soil. The scientists have also advocated the inoculation of plants with Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrizae (VAM) which can help to proliferase tips of roots which can help to absorb phosphorus assimilates from the soil. Keeping in view these facts a study has been planned to compare the production potential of cabbage under the influence of various biofertilizers and farm yard manure (FYM) and to study the possibility of limiting the use of inorganic fertilizers by using biofertilizers and FYM.
The present investigation was carried out in randomized block design (RBD) replicated thrice. There were eleven treatments including control (Table 1). Recommended dosages of chemical fertilizers as per package of practices for vegetable crops by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana i.e., 125:60:60 kg ha-1 N, P and K, respectively were applied. The chemical fertilizers urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash were
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+ recommended P & K, Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P & K but was at par with VAM + 75% P+ recommended N & K, PSB + recommended N, P & K. The lowest head weight per plant 215.09 g and 251.53 g during 2008-2009 respectively was obtained from control where neither chemical fertilizer nor biofertilizer was supplied. Improvement in yield with PSB might be due to better solublization of insoluble fixed P and better uptake of soluble P by the plant. Present study finds the support of Bahadur et al. (2004 and 2006). During 2008, maximum ascorbic acid 40.57 mg/g (Table 2) was obtained in treatment where PSB + 75% P + recommended dose of N and K was applied which was significantly higher than Azosprillium + 75% N + recommended P and K. But during 2009, maximum ascorbic acid 45.13 mg g-1 was found where Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended P and K was applied, which was significantly higher than all treatments except recommended N, P and K, PSB + recommended N, P and K and FYM. In both the years, minimum ascorbic acid 29.43 mg g-1 and 30.87 mg g-1 was found in 2008 and 2009 respectively in control. It was observed from the data that biofertilizers like Azotobactor, Azosprillium and PSB tend to increase the ascorbic acid. The maximum and significantly higher ascorbic acid content over other treatments were obtained from Azotobactor, Azosprillium and PSB. Ascorbic acid was found higher in treatments with biofertilizers. This might be due to physiological influence of Azospirillium on a number of enzymes (Sendur et al., 1998). The data in Table 2, revealed that maximum chlorophyll content 92 ug/g was found where VAM + 75% P + recommended dose of N and K was applies which was at par with treatment VAM + recommended N, P and K and was significantly higher than all treatments in 2008. During 2009, maximum chlorophyll content was found in plots where VAM + recommended N, P and K was applied which was at par with treatments Azospirillium + 75% N + recommended P & K and VAM + 75% P+ recommended N & K but was significantly higher than recommended N, P and K, Azospirillium + recommended N, P& K, PSB + 75% P + recommended N & K and control. Effect of biofertilizers on head shape is also presented in Table 1. Maximum ratio (1.00) was found where Azotobactor + 75% N + recommended dose of P and K was applied in 2008. During both years, there was no significant difference in head shape. During in 2009, lowest ratio 1.01 was found in control where neither chemical fertilizer nor biofertilizers were applied.
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Table 1. Effect of biofertilizers on economic traits of cabbage Plant height (cm) 2008 19.33 24.38 22.29 24.52 23.80 24.33 21.40 23.28 24.87 17.32 16.18 2.31 2.37 2.34 N.S. N.S. N.S. 30.11 45.21 14.81 15.49 9.72 7.12 8.42 215.09 251.53 16.19 16.75 10.41 10.48 10.45 359.93 556.05 20.88 22.87 11.75 11.37 11.56 614.58 650.44 632.51 457.99 233.31 36.63 20.36 21.82 11.47 11.62 11.54 610.74 687.93 649.34 18.35 19.87 10.79 11.35 11.07 591.15 665.75 628.45 20.69 22.51 10.78 10.78 10.78 593.47 668.74 631.10 0.99 0.99 1.00 0.96 0.96 0.97 N.S. 19.37 21.59 12.34 12.40 12.37 522.92 437.15 480.03 0.98 19.84 22.18 13.17 13.13 13.15 515.49 621.09 568.29 1.00 20.27 21.28 11.71 12.21 11.96 516.17 633.43 574.80 0.98 1.04 1.12 1.04 1.02 1.04 1.04 1.02 1.09 1.02 N.S. 20.18 22.28 10.73 10.51 10.62 514.85 619.87 567.36 1.00 1.04 17.24 18.29 10.51 11.50 11.01 515.33 624.27 569.80 0.99 1.05 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 2008 2009 Mean 1.02 1.02 1.01 1.06 1.01 1.01 1.02 1.02 0.99 1.03 1.00 N.S. Non-wrapper leaves Head weight (g) Head shape
Treatments
Recommended N, P, K
Azospirillium+Recommended N, P, K
Azotobactor+75%N+Recommended P and K
Azotobactor+Recommended N, P and K
VAM+75%P+Recommeded N and K
VAM+Recommended N, P and K
PSB+75%P+Recommended N and K
PSB+Recommended N, P and K
FYM
Control
LSD(0.05)
Table 2. Effect of biofertilizers on quality traits of cabbage Ascorbic acid (mg 100g-1) 2008 35.43 38.86 37.66 38.56 38.46 37.77 38.22 40.57 36.18 33.58 29.43 1.78 41.22 36.34 34.08 30.78 4.11 43.50 44.47 44.36 45.35 44.22 40.94 41.95 41.41 41.12 40.86 40.89 36.26 33.83 30.11 1.92 45.13 42.00 40.18 37.81 2009 Mean 2008 55.67 71.33 73.33 71.00 70.67 77.67 78.67 74.33 72.67 41.33 37.33 3.98 Chlorophyll content (u g-1) 2009 57.00 71.00 74.33 71.67 70.67 78.67 79.00 75.00 75.00 42.67 37.67 3.87 Mean 56.34 71.17 73.83 71.34 70.67 78.17 78.84 74.67 73.84 42.00 37.50 3.92 2008 189.72 183.45 190.03 185.28 195.69 202.12 209.24 214.85 210.12 176.43 93.87 16.07 Yield (q ha-1) 2009 198.79 195.23 204.15 200.07 203.95 208.43 217.88 220.71 208.88 184.15 98.19 13.24 Mean 194.26 189.34 197.09 192.67 199.82 205.27 213.56 217.78 209.50 180.29 96.003 14.49
Treatments
Recommended N, P, K
Azospirillium+Recommended N, P, K
Azotobactor+75%N+Recommended P and K
Azotobactor+Recommended N, P and K
VAM+75%P+Recommeded N and K
VAM+Recommended N, P and K
PSB+75%P+Recommended N and K
PSB+Recommended N, P and K
FYM
Control
LSD(0.05)
85
REFERENCES
Bahadur, A., Singh, J. and Singh, K.P. (2004) Response of cabbage to organic manures and biofertilizers. Indian J. Hort. 61(3) : 278-279. Bahadur, A., Singh, J., Singh, K.P., Upadhaya, A.K. and Rai, M. (2006) Effect of organic amendments and biofertilizers on growth, yield and quality attributes of Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis). Indian J. Agric.Sci. 76(10): 596-598. Rather, S.A, Ahmed, M. and Chatto, M.A. (2003) Response of onion to microbial inoculation and chemical nitrogen. Haryana J. Hort. Sci. 32(3-4) : 270-271. Sendur, K.S., Natarjan, S. and Thamburj, S. (1998) Effect of organic and inorganic fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of tomato. S. Indian Hort. 46(3,4) : 203-205. Verma, T.S., Thakur, P.C. and Singh, A. (1997) Effect of biofertilizers on vegetable and seed yield of cabbage. Veg. Sci. 24(1) : 1-3.
Effect of Nitrogen Levels, Cultivars and Weed Control Treatments on Smothering Potential of Canola Gobhi Sarson (Brassica napus L.)
Lovreet Singh Shergill*, B. S. Gill and P. S. Chahal
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana- 141 004, India *E-mail: lovreet.shergill@yahoo.co.in
Abstract: The field experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2008-09 to study the effect of various nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments on smothering potential of canola gobhi sarson (Brassica napus L.). The crop registered significantly higher value of seed yield (19.29 q ha-1) with the application of 125 kg N ha-1, with further increase in nitrogen up to 150 and 175 kg N ha-1, the increase was non-significant. The weed population and dry matter accumulation data revealed decreasing trend with increasing level of nitrogen. Among the cultivars, the differences in weed population and dry matter accumulation were non-significant. There was no difference in competitive ability of both cultivars. Hyola PAC 401 yielded higher (20.21 q ha-1) because of its higher yield potential than GSC 6 (18.87 q ha-1). Hand weeding registered higher values of yield attributes viz. plant height, dry matter, LAI, primary and secondary branches plant-1, number of siliquae plant-1 which resulted in higher seed yield (20.67 q ha-1) as compared to unweeded control. Key Words: Smothering potential, Brassica napus, Canola, Gobhi sarson, Weed, Nitrogen
Canola (Brassica napus L.) is a genetically improved version of rapeseed and is low in both erucic acid and glucosinolates, which distinguish it from ordinary rapeseed. It is also called double zero (00) crop and swede rape. In irrigated agro-ecosystem, liberal use of irrigation and nitrogen application offer congenial environment for growth and development of weeds. Application of nitrogen may shift the competition in favor of crops against weeds. Increased crop vigour as a result of increased nutrient uptake may suppress the weeds due to shading (Mishra and Kurchania, 1999). Canola seed yield respond to nitrogen fertilizer applied at either sowing or bud stage, generally increasing with increased nitrogen upto 200 Kg ha-1 (Ramsey and Callinan, 1994). Per cent yield loss due to weeds decreases as we go for higher and higher doses of nitrogen. It was reported that per cent yield loss due to weeds was 14.3 per cent at 100 kg ha-1 nitrogen application, which was significantly lower as compared to no nitrogen application (Anon., 2001). Increasing costs of herbicide inputs in intensive crop production systems and incidence of herbicide resistance in weeds have renewed interest in exploiting crop competitiveness to reduce herbicide use. Variation in competitive ability against weeds exist not only among crop species, but among cultivars within species. So in this investigation, it is to be studied that how nitrogen levels would help in shifting the advantage of competition toward crop for different varieties of canola gobhi sarson. Hence, the current research is planned to explore the competitive potential of canola gobhi sarson against weeds and also whether it could be increased with nitrogen application.
87
population was reduced. Among cultivars, the difference in weed population was non-significant for all the species. However, weed population in GSC 6 was higher than Hyola PAC 401, this maybe due to spreading and comparatively quick growth habit of Hyola cultivar. At 120 days after sowing (DAS), the weeded treatments recorded significantly lower values of weed count (3.3, 4.2, 2.0, 3.7 and 2.7 m-2) for all the weeds viz., C. album, L. sativa, R. dentatus, P. minor and other respectively, as compared to that of unweeded control. All other interaction effects were found to be nonsignificant. Similar results were also reported by Singh (2006) in P. minor in varieties and weed control methods.
Effect on Crop
Increase in nitrogen application from 100 to 175 Kg ha-1 resulted in increase in plant height Maximum plant height (152.1 cm) was recorded with 175 Kg N ha-1, which was significantly higher as compared to 100 and 125 Kg N ha-1 but it was statistically at par with of 150 Kg N ha-1 (149.6 cm). The results are in conformity with Kumar et al. (2002). Application of 175 Kg N ha-1 gave significantly higher dry matter accumulation (819.4 g m-2) over 100 Kg N ha -1 application but was statistically at par with 150 Kg N ha-1 and 125 Kg N ha-1 at harvest. Similar results have been reported by Gill and Narang (1993) and Chauhan et al. (1992). Significantly higher LAI was recorded with 175 kg N
88
Table 1. Effect of different nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments on weed population and dry matter accumulation* Weed population m-1 at 120 DAS Weed dry matter accumulation (g m-2) at 120 DAS Other species
Treatment
Chenopodium album
6.21 (55.29) 6.06 (49.77) 5.69 (48.20) 5.17 (45.88) NS 6.53 (64.74) 5.04 (34.84) NS 4.16 (25.62) 7.39 (73.97) 2.64 1.07 1.22 (20.62) (52.98) 3.99 7.11 4.46 (25.19) 1.40 (4.87) (16.8) (8.34) 2.05 3.66 2.66 NS NS NS NS 2.11 (7.03) 8.46 (87.99) 1.92 (12.51) (28.96) (13.67) (41.21) 2.98 4.95 3.31 5.01 (12.97) (40.80) (19.87) (53.81) 3.06 5.82 3.81 5.55 3.64 (22.71) 3.20 (12.41) NS 2.37 (7.00) 4.47 (28.12) 1.47 NS NS NS NS NS (8.39) (26.33) (11.58) (40.28) (9.44) 2.42 4.57 3.11 4.66 2.81 1.37 (1.40) NS 1.74 (3.13) 1.71 (2.75) NS 1.31 (0.90) 2.14 (4.98) 0.54 (12.51) (30.28) (14.25) (42.37) (11.64) (2.82) 2.99 5.03 3.12 5.26 3.08 1.76 (12.05) (40.80) (17.61) (47.77) (15.81) (3.34) 3.15 5.91 3.73 5.57 3.45 1.81 2.42 (6.14) 2.35 (5.36) 2.30 (5.50) NS 2.55 (7.04) 2.22 (5.59) NS 1.59 (1.93) 3.18 (10.70) 0.57 (18.07) (42.13) (23.63) (59.62) (33.35) (4.19) (8.25) 3.53 6.02 4.27 5.63 4.35 1.96 2.47 2.81 (7.11) 2.24 (4.87) 1.91 (3.09) 1.82 (2.72) NS 2.23 (5.01) 2.16 (4.40) NS 1.85 (3.44) 2.55 (6.07) 0.59
Lepidium sativa
Rumex dentatus
Phalaris minor
Chenopodium album
Lepidium sativa
Rumex dentatus
Phalaris minor
Other species
Total dry matter accumulation 111.64 110.11 92.03 64.71 NS 110.84 78.41 NS 25.88 163.37 46.07
100
6.76
(62.09)
125
5.86
(65.33)
150
6.29
(54.2)
175
5.66
(34.75)
CD (0.05)
NS
Cultivar
GSC 6
6.61
(63.48)
5.68
(44.71)
CD (0.05)
NS
Weed control
Weeded
3.29
(15.75)
Unweeded
9.99
(92.44)
CD (0.05)
1.93
89
Table 2. Seed yield and yield contributing characters of canola gobhi sarson as influenced by different nitrogen levels, cultivars and weed control treatments
3.71 3.75 NS 211.3 219.4 7.57 7.4 8.8 0.39 4.8 5.2 0.15 88.5 94.7 3.70 2.27 3.31 0.14 704.8 779.9 38.20 142.6 153.3 3.33
Siliqua/ plant
Secondary branches/plant
Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) 100 125 150 175 CD (0.05) Cultivar GSC 6 Hyola PAC 401 CD (0.05) Weed control Weeded Unweeded CD (0.05)
Treatment
3.76 3.71 NS
90
PAC 401. Both cultivars differed significantly in leaf area. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher LAI as compared to GSC 6 at 120 DAS. Siddiqui and Mohammad (2004) also reported that Hyola PAC 401 produced the highest LAI. The PARI of Hyola PAC 401 was significantly higher over GSC 6 at 90 DAS. Hyola PAC 401 registered higher PARI because of greater plant height and LAI. This provided advantage to Hyola PAC 401 as compared to GSC 6 in suppressing weeds. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher number of primary branches plant-1 (5.20) as compared to GSC 6 cultivar (4.80). Thakur et al. (2005) also reported similar trend with increase in nitrogen levels and among varieties. Hyola PAC 401 recorded significantly higher number of secondary branches plant-1(8.81) and siliquae plant-1 as compared to GSC 6 (7.44). Kumar et al. (2002) also reported similar trend. The differences in test weight were found to be non-significant among both the varieties. Hyola PAC 401 proved more competent cultivar which produced seed yield of 20.21 q ha -1 and it was significantly superior over GSC 6, yielding 18.87 q ha-1. Hyola cultivar recorded 7.1 per cent higher seed yield over GSC 6. Higher seed yield recorded in Hyola PAC 401 was due to higher LAI, more number of branches, siliqua plant-1 and there was no difference in competitive ability of both cultivars.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2001) Proceedings of the Australian Agronomy Conference. Australian Society of Agron. Chauhan, A. K., Singh, M. and Dadhwal, K. S. (1992) Effect of nitrogen level and row spacing on performance of rape (Brassica napus). Indian J. Agron. 37(4): 851-853. Chauhan, Y. S., Bhargava, M. K. and Jain, V. K. (2005) Weed management in Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.). Indian J. Agron. 50(2): 149-151. Deol, K. S. and Mahey, R. K. (2005) Response of gobhi sarson (Brassica napus subsp. oleifera var annua) to transplanting methods and nitrogen. Environ. Ecol. 23(4): 723-725. Depar, M. S., Soomro, N. A., Usmanikhail, M. U., Memon, G. R. and Baloch, F. M. (2005) Comparative study of Brassica species under different fertility levels. Indus J. Plant Sci. 4(4): 467473. Fathi, G. (2005) Integrated weed management in canola (Brassica napus L). Turkish J. Field Crops 10(2): 57-63. Gill, M. S. and Narang, R. S. (1993) Yield analysis in gobhi sarson (Brassica napus subsp. oleifera var. annua) to irrigation and nitrogen. Indian J. Agron. 38(2): 257-265. Hosseini, N. M., Alizadeh, H. M. and Ahmadi, H. M. (2006) Effects of plant density and nitrogen rates on the competitive ability of canola ( Brassica napus L.) against weeds. J. Agric. Sci. Tech. 8: 281-291. Kumar, R., Singh, D. and Singh, H. (2002) Effect of nitrogen and sowing dates on productivity of Brassica species. Indian J. Agron. 47(3): 411-417. Minhas, K. S., Rajinderpal and Brar, R. S. (2007) Effect of nitrogen application on transplanted hybrid gobhi sarson (Brassica napus L.) in relation to age of seedlings. Envrion. Ecol. 25: 291-294. Mishra, J. S. and Kurchania, S. P. (1999) Effect of nitrogen levels, planting geometry and herbicides on weed growth and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L) Czern. and Coss.). Indian J. Weed Sci. 31: 187-190.
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sowing. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Thakur, K. S., Kumar, A. and Manuja, S. (2003) Effect of nitrogen fertilization on productivity and nitrogen balance in soil in gobhi sarson (Brassica napus ) based crop sequences. Indian J. Agron. 48(3): 162-163. Thakur, K. S., Kumar, A. and Manuja, S. (2005) Performance of promising varieties of gobhi sarson ( Brassica napus) at different nitrogen levels. Indian J. Agron. 50(1): 67-69.
Vertical Distribution of Readily and Slowly Available Potassium in a Typic Haplustept under Different Cropping Sequences
H.S. Jassal*, Raj Kumar, Kuldip Singh and N.S. Dhillon
Department of Soils Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: hsjassal@pau.edu
Abstract: Vertical distribution of different forms of potassium in a soil under long-term (34 years) field experiment of paddy-wheat, maizewheat and arhar-wheat cropping sequences were studied. The soils of experimental site were found to be low to medium in available K and and high in non-exchangeable K. The exchangeable K and non-exchangeable K followed almost similar pattern as followed by available K and HNO3 extractable K respectively with depth suggesting their close association. The fertilizer treated plots were found to be relatively higher in different K fractions compared to the control plots in all the cropping sequences. The control and fertilized plots under paddy-wheat, maize-wheat and arhar-wheat sequences showed increase in non-exchangeable K within a half-meter depth. The water soluble K significantly and positively correlated with organic matter (r = 0.48**) whereas the exchangeable K had positive but nonsignificant relationship with clay due to its low content. The exchangeable and non-exchaneable K has shown their affinity with two different sources, the former more with clay fraction whereas later more with silt fraction. As compared to paddy-wheat and maizewheat sequences, relatively higher depletion of potential K reserve from the surface horizon (0-24 cm) in arhar-wheat may be due to lower root biomass addition in the latter. Key Words: Soil properties, Potassium fractions, Correlation, Cropping sequences
The intensive cropping and adoption of high yielding varieites in the past several decades has caused imbalance of several primary nutrients in the alluvial soils of Punjab (Singh and Singh, 2001). Although, the soils of Punjab are rich in potassium because of dominance of K bearing minerals, but show overall negative input-output balance with respect to K. Potassium uptake and removal by crops is usually of the order of or greater than N removal, and depends on crops and cropping sequence, K reserves and clay mineralogy of soils (Kaur and Benipal, 2006). It has been reported that continuous cropping without potassium applicaiton appreciably decreases the available K content whereas regular incorporation of potassium influences its availability to varying extent (Brar et al. , 2008). The replenishment of K nutrient removed by crops, thus, must be to the extent that it makes the system sustainable for intensive cropping. The present investigation is aimed to study the readily and slowly available forms of K and their distribution pattern in the soils under the different cropping sequences.
arhar-wheat. The field under each cropping sequence was differentiated into two plots one representng absolute control and other fertilized one. No fertilizers were applied to the control plots whereas fertilized plots received nitrogen and phosphorus at the rate of 125 per cent and potassium at the rate of 100 per cent of recommended doses of respective crops. A total of six representative profiles (P1 to P6), two profiles from a cropping sequence (one from absolute control and one from fertilized plot), were exposed for the present sudy. The soil samples were collected from different horizons of the representative profiles from the control and fertilized plots of three cropping sequences, i.e. paddy-wheat, maize-wheat and arhar-wheat. The soil samples were dried and ground for subsequent analyzed for physical and chemical properties such as particle size distribution, organic carbon content, pH, electrical conductance and CaCO 3 content following standard procedures (Soil Conservation Service, 1972) Water-soluble and 1N ammonium acetate extractable K (1:5 soil extracted ratio) were estimated as per the method given by Jackson (1967). Exchangebale K content was calculated by subtracting water soluble K from 1N ammonium acetate extractable K (avalable K). Potassium extractable in 1N boiling HNO3 was estimated according to the method of Pratt (1965). Non-exchangeable K was obtained by subtracting available K from 1N boiling HNO3 extractable K. Total K in soil samples was determined in HF-HCIO4 digest. The amount of K in mineral lattice was estimated by subtracting 1N boiling HNO3 extractable K from
93
horizons and 0.05 to 0.16 per cent in subsurface horizons. The soils are almost free of -calcium carbonate except for minor presence at surface horizons of P3 soil. The uninterrupted irrigation of the field for long period resulted in leaching calcium carbonate to lower depths. The soils of the experimental farm were classified as coarse loamy, mixed hyperthermic family of Typic Haplustepts following the criteria of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999).
Table 1. Important physico-chemical properties* of the soils of different cropping sequence Sand(%) 74.5 (71.7-76.6) 70.7 (61.2-75.5) 70.7 (67.1-77.5) 67.8 (62.6-73.2) 73.1 (70.4-74.5) 75.3 (74.6-77.3) SIlt (%) 22.5 (20.0-244.9) 24.9 (19.3-34.0) 26.2 (20.3-39.5) 28.6 (24.4-32.8) 22.2 (20.0-25.2) 21.2 (18.5-22.6) Clay (%) 3.0 (2.8-3.4) 4.4 (3.0-5.6) 3.1 (1.8-4.6) 3.6 (2.4-4.8) 4.7 (4.0 (4.0-5.8) 3.5 (2.8-4.4) pH (1:2) 7.6 (7.2-8.5) 7.2 (6.7-7.4) 7.9 (7.8-8.3) 6.9 (6.5-7.0) 7.8 (7.4-8.3) 7.5 (7.0-7.9) EC (dS/m) 0.06 (0.05-0.07) 0.05 (0.04-.06) 0.07 (0.05-0.10) 0.06 (0.05-0.08) 0.06 (0.05-0.08) 0.05 (0.04-0.07) O C (%) 0.14 (0.05-0.41) 0.12 (0.05-0.32) 0.15 (0.09-0.32) 0.15 (0.10-0.31) 0.14 (0.08-0.34) 0.14 (0.08-0.33)
Profile 1, Paddy-Wheat (control) Profile 2, Paddy-Wheat (fertilized) Profile 3, Maize-Wheat (control) Profile 4, Maize-Wheat (fertilized) Profile 5, Arhar-Wheat (control) Profile 6, Arhar-Wheat (fertilized) * Weighted mean (figures in parentheses indicate range)
94
Table 2. Vertical distribution of K fractions in the soils under different cropping sequences Available - K (mg kg-1) - K (mg kg-1) Control Profile 1, Paddy-Wheat 29.5 61.0 30.5 12.5 26.0 26.5 Profile 3, Maize-Wheat 13.5 7.0 5.5 21.5 22.5 14.7 Profile 5, Arhar-Wheat 17.0 46.5 36.0 37.5 35.0 35.5 43.4 1879.8 40.0 1880.0 42.5 2277.5 45.0 2155.0 55.0 1465.0 1520 2200 2320 1920 1923 30.0 1130-0 1160 16.5 17.0 19.5 14.5 16.5 17.1 51.8 38.5 15.3 21.3 33.3 31.1 26.4 1871.2 1898 30.0 1850.0 1880 32.5 2687.5 2720 15.5 11.0 16.3 17.5 1862.5 1880 12.0 20.0 1300.0 1320 24.5 30.0 1210.0 1240 22.0 19.5 7.0 17.5 24.0 29.0 20.2 35.7 1542.3 1578 10.8 20.4 32.5 1807.5 1840 10.0 20.3 2.0 1620.0 1640 10.0 19.3 37.5 1282.5 1320 11.5 14.3 70.0 1610.0 1680 13.5 28.0 41.5 25.8 29.3 30.3 31.2 Profile 4, Maize-Wheat 41.5 31.5 29.5 39.5 40.0 36.5 Profile 6, Arhar-Wheat 68.3 55.5 34.8 35.8 49.8 48.2 1531.7 2224.5 2605.2 2684.2 2510.2 2414.5 1600 2280 2640 2720 2560 2463 1238.5 1768.5 200.5 2000.5 3400.0 2146.6 1280 1800 2040 2040 3440 2183 52.5 1347.5 1400 11.0 29.3 40.3 Fertilized Profile 2, Paddy-Wheat 1679.7 1638.5 1854.2 1650.7 1529.7 1677.8 1720 1680 1880 1680 1560 17.09 - K (mg kg-1) exchangeable K (mg kg-1) soluble - K (mg kg-1) - K (mg kg-1) Non HNO3 Water Exchangeable Available Non exchangeable - K (mg kg-1) HNO3- K (mg kg-1)
- K (mg kg-1)
0-18
23.0
18-33
9.0
33-69
7.0
69-119
7.5
119-149
6.5
Wt. mean
9.2
0-22
16.5
22-45
13.0
45-73
12.0
73-108
11.0
108-138
7.5
Wt. mean
11.6
0-24
13.0
24-49
8.5
49-81
9.0
81-116
5.0
116-146
5.0
Wt. mean
7.9
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compared to subsurface horizon in the soils of all cropping sequence except in fertilized plot of paddy-wheat. The soil of all the cropping sequences (control and fertilized) showed increase in non-exchangeable K to a depth of 50 cm indicating the depletion of soil reserves. Relative to the immediate sub-surface horizon, the surface horizon of the control plot of arhar-wheat showed maximum depletion (335 K mg kg-1), followed by paddy-wheat (262.5 K mg kg-1) and maize-wheat (90 K mg kg-1). The boiling 1N HNO3 extractale K ranged from 1160 to 3440 mg kg-1 (Table 2) with an average weighted mean of 1855 mg kg-1. Almost similar depth distribution pattern of non-exchangeable K and HNO3 extractable K indicated major contribution of former in the make up of later. According to critical limit of K availability as 655 mg kg-1 of HNO3 K (Brar and Sekhon, 1976), the soils under study have been rated as high for in HNO3 extractable K. The surface horizon of the soils (except profile P2) showed relatively lower content of HNO3 K than the subsurface horizons. The lower content of HNO3 K in surface horizon might be due to the continuous leachign of K and uptake by crops released from non-exchangeable part to compensate the loss of water soluble and exchangeable K (Brar et al., 2008)
Table 3. Correlation coefficient among soil properties and K fractions Sand Water soluble Exch.-K Avail.-K Non-exch.-K HNO3-K 0.0114 0.1044 0.1105 -0.2678 -0.2651 SIlt 0.0269 -0.1795 -0.1719 0.2995* 0.2954* Clay pH EC 0.0967 0.0635 0.0268 OC 0.4799** 0.0900 0.2785 -0.2318 0.1544 -0.0801 -0.0765 0.9253** 0.0401 0.0611 0.0095 0.0323 0.9997** WS-K Exch-K Avail-K Non-ExchK -0.2235 -0.4880** 0.1306 0.0455 0.2105 0.2115 0.1271 -0.0611 0.0743 0.0729
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(r=0.30*) and non-significant (r=0.21) with clay fraction suggesting appreciable amounts of potash rich minerals such as muscovite, biotite and feldspars in silt and illite in clay fractions. The correlation coefficient determined amongst different forms of K recorded significant positive correlation (r=0.92**) between exchangeable K and available K and (r=0.99**) between non-exchangeable K and HN0 3 extractable K. Non-significant positive correlation between exchangeable and non-exchangeable K (r=0.04) suggested their association with different sources i.e., exchangeable K associated more with illite in clay fraction whereas nonexchangeable K more with muscovite, biotite and feldspars in silt fraction.
REFERENCES
Blaise, D., Bonde, A.N. and Chaudhary, R.S. (2005) Nutrient uptake and balance of cotton+pigeonpea strip intercropping on rainfed Vertisols of central India. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosyst. 73: 135145. Brar, M.S. and Sekhon, G.S. (1976) Potassium fixation and response of wheat to applied potassium in Punjab soils. J. Res., Punjab Agric. Univ. 13: 136-139. Brar, N.K., Benipal, D.S. and Brar, B.S. (2008) Potassium release kinetics in soils of a long-term fertilizer experiment. Indian J. Ecol. 35: 9-15. Dhaliwal, A.K., Gupta, R.K., Yadvinder-Singh, Sharma, B.D. and Bijay-Singh (2004) Distribution of different forms of potassium in benchmark soil series under rice-wheat cropping system in Punjab. J. Potassium Res. 20: 12-21. Gomez, K.A. and Gomez, A.A. (1984) Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research, 2nd Edition. John Wile and Sons, New York. Jackson, M.L. (1967) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, Bombay. Kaur, N. and Benipal, D.S. (2006) Effect of crop residue and farmyard manure on forms on soils of long term fertility experiment. Indian J. Crop Sci. 1: 161-164. Kumar, R. Hundal, H.S. and Benbi, D.K. (2006) Mineral sources of Punjab and its estimation in soils of Punjab, India. In: S.S. Mukhopadhyay, M.S. Brar and P. Sharma (Eds.) Balanced Fertilization for Sustaining Crop Productivity. Proceeding of International Symposium held at PAU, Ludhiana, India, 22-25 November, 2006. Prakash, N.B. and Siddaramappa, R. (2001) Distribution and availability of potassium in red soils of India. In: N.S. Pasricha and S.K. Bansal (Eds.) Potassium in Indian Agriculture. Potash Research Institute of India, Gurgaon (Haryana), pp. 89-107.
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and Procedurs for Colelcting Soil Samples. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Soil Survey Staff (1999) Soil Taxonomy- A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Survey. Agricultrue Handbook No 436, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Talukdar, M.C., Khera, M.S. and Barua, T.C. (1992) Kinetics of nonexchangeable potassium release from K depleted Ustochrepts. J. Potassium Res. 8: 38-43.
Forms and Quantity-Intensity Parameters of Potassium Applied to Wheat under Temperate Conditions of Kashmir
J.A Wani, M.A. Malik, M.A. Dar, Farida Akhter and M.A. Bhat
Division of Science Science, S.K.University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Shalimar-191 121,India *E-mail: javaidwani@rediffmail.com.
Abstract A field trial was conducted to study the influence of potassium on forms and quantity-intensity parameters of potassium of soil under wheat. The treatments consisted of 5 levels of potassium (0,20,40,60,80 Kg K2O ha-1) and two methods of application viz single basal and split (1/2 basal+1/2 at tiller initiation stage). All forms of potassium viz water-soluble, exchangeable and boiling HNO3 extractable and lattice potassium increased with increasing levels of potassium and were found to be maximum when potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in two equal splits except lattice K, which was maximum in treatment where potassium was applied @ 60 kg ha-1. The quantity as well as intensity factors recorded higher values with increasing potassium levels indicating a greater K-release into soil solution resulting in large pool of labile potassium. Higher potential buffering capacity of potassium (PBCk) was found at lower levels of potassium. A significant and positive correlation was found among Q/I parameters whereas a negative and significant relation existed between Q/I and PBCk. Key Words: Potassium, Quantityintensity relations, Wheat, Temperate region
Potassium in soils is known to occur in various forms viz ,water soluble, exchangeable ,non- exchangeable and lattice potassium. However, in the order of their availability to plants the K forms are solution, exchangeable, nonexchangeable and mineral potassium (Martin and Sparks,1983).The different forms of potassium are known to exist in dynamic equilibrium with each other (Maclean,1978).The study of different forms of potassium will serve to work out rational fertilizer dose of this nutrient to crops especially for high yielding varieties of cereals. Potassium when added to soils, gets fixed, and under intensive cropping it is released. Thus any decrease in soil potassium would be made up by the release of non exchangeable to exchangeable form. Since the characterization of dynamics as well as quantification of potassium are necessary for planning long term potassium need of crops (Goswami and Bandopadhyay,1978), the thermodynamic concept is generally advocated for characterizing and assessing the availability of K to the growing plants. In this approach, the quantity (Q) parameters such as labile K(KL), K on specific sites (KO) and K on nonspecific sites (Kx) and intensity (I) parameter such as activity ratio of K(ARo k) are worked out for a greater understanding of the fertility status of any soil. The activity ratio, energy replacement and other thermodynamic functions of the soil have been used to describe the K-availability to plants in modern approach. The Q/I measures the ability of soil to maintain the intensity of soil solution K and is proportional to cation exchange capacity (CEC) of soils. A high value signifies good K supplying power, whereas low suggests need for K fertilization. When Q/I values are low small
changes in exchangeable K produce large differences in soil solution K. By virtue of its higher potentiality, wheat crop is emerging as a potential field crop under valley conditions. Therefore, different forms of K and various thermodynamic parameters of soil K with respect to K nutrition of wheat is required to be worked out so as to rationale K fertilizer management. in general and potassium fertilizer management in general. A research programme was thus undertaken to elucidate the magnitude of changes in different K forms and quantity intensity parameters of K in wheat under temperate conditions of Kashmir valley.
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initial) when potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in two splits. This signifies that the application of potassium in splits improves the retention of this element (Mishra et al., 1993). The available potassium increased with increase in the K-levels (Table 2). The highest amount of 66 ppm was observed in treatment, where the Potassium was applied @ 80 kg K2O ha-1 in splits and was higher than the initial value. However, it may be attributed to the higher CEC ,organic matter content and illitic nature of soil (Talib and Verma,1990). The exchangeable potassium increased with increase in K levels (Table 2). The highest amount of Potassium 62.80 ppm was observed in treatment, where potassium was applied @ 80 kg ha-1 in split doses .The increase in retention of exchangeable-K may be attributed to the cation exchange reaction of soil (Esakkimuthu et al., 1975). The data in Table 2 reveals that extractable potassium also increased with increase in level of potassium and was found highest (0.723 %) in treatment, where potassium was given @ 80 kg ha-1 in two splits. This may be attributed due to shifting of equilibrium solution phase to nonexchangeable as well as illtic nature of the clay mineral (Talib and Verma,1990). Thet lattice potassium increased with increasing levels of of potassium upto 60 kg ha-1 after which there was no increase (Table 2 ). The highest content of 1.44 per cent was observed when potassium was applied @ 60 kg ha-1 both as basal and in two splits. This signifies that the mode of application had no significant effect on the content of lattice potassium. The higher content of potassium may be attributed to the higher fixing capacity of soil due to presence of illitic type of clay minerals (Talib and Verma, 1990).
of 25 x 10 cm. After harvest of wheat, composite surface soil samples were collected from each plot separately, analysed for different forms of potassium (Black, 1965) and quantityintensity parameters determined as per the equilibrium method (Beckett,1964) The relationships among different physico chemical-characteristics, forms of potassium and quantity- intensity parameters were worked out following the procedures outlined by Panse and Sukhatme (1978).
Table 2. Effect of potassium application on forms of potassium at harvest K2O applied (Kg ha-1) 0 (Control) 20 (Basal) 40 (Basal) 60 (Basal) 80 (Basal) 20 (Split) 40 (split) 60 (Split) 80 (split) LSD at 5% WS-K(ppm) 2.85 2.94 3.05 3.15 3.22 3.00 3.07 3.15 3.25 0.086 Exch-K(ppm) 47.15 52.06 56.45 60.35 62.28 53.00 56.93 61.35 62.80 0.568 Avail-K(ppm) 50.00 55.00 59.50 63.50 65.50 56.00 60.00 64.50 66.00 0.048 I N HNO3-K(%) 0.716 0.718 0.719 0.721 0.723 0.719 0.720 0.722 0.723 2.640 Lattice-K(%) 1.438 1.439 1.439 1.440 1.440 1.438 1.439 1.440 1.440 0.001 Total-K(%) 2.154 2.156 2.159 2.161 2.162 2.157 2.159 2.162 2.163 0.002
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Table 3.Q/I parameters of potassium in soil as influenced by potassium application K2O applied before sowing (Kg ha-1) 0 (Control) 20 (Basal) 40 (Basal) 60 (Basal) 80 (Basal) 20 (Split) 40 (Split) 60 (Split) 80 (Split) 5.68 5.20 6.71 8.85 8.95 5.10 6.77 7.95 8.97 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.21 0.25 0.26 0.29 ARoK(mol L-1) 1/2 x 10
3
KL
KO Meq 100 g-1 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.13
KX
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between physico-chemical characteristics and forms of potassium pH Ws-K Exch-K Avail-k An HNO3-K Lattice K Total-K -0.200 -0.127 -0.128 -0.230 -0.141 -0.096 Ec -0.268 -0.215 -0.216 0.017 -0.253 -0.223 OC 0.671** 0.661** 0.662** 0.210 0.636** 0.633 Ca2+ 0.901 0.934 0.933 0.007 0.860** 0.949** Mg2+ 0.944** 0.942** 0.943** 0.016 0.906** 0.946**
* Significant at 5 % ; ** Significant at 1 % Table 5. Correlation coefficient between physico-chemical characteristics and Q/I parameters of potassium pH AR KL Ko KX PBCk
k e
* Significant at 5 %; **Significant at 1 %
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of potassium on yield and nutrient uptakein rice. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci .23 :452-457. Jackson,M.L.(1973) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India (P) Ltd, New Delhi. Maclean,E.O. (1978) Influence of clay content and clay composition on potassium availability. In: Potassium in soils and crops. Potash research Institute of India,New Delhi, pp. 1-19. Martin,H.W and Sparks,D.L.(1983) Kinetics of non-exchangeable potassium release from two coastal plain soils. Soil Sci Am.J. 7 :883-887. Mishra,M.K; Srivastava,P.C. and Gosh, D. (1993) Forms of potassium in relation tosoil properties and clay mineralogy in some profiles of Chambal command area of Rajasthan. J. Potash Res.. 9(2):87-94. Niranjana,K., Srinivasamurthy, C.A., Ramegowda, M. and Srikantha, K. (2000) Q/I relationship of potassium in selected soil series of southern Karnataka. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 48(2): 228233. Panse, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. (1978) Statistical Methods for Agricultural Workers.Indian council of agricultural Research, New Delhi. Patiram (1991) O/I relationship and K availability in acid soils . J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 39 :178-180 Roy, H.K., Kumar, A. and Sarkar A.K. (1991) Q/I relation of K in a representative acid sedentary soil of Ranchi. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 39: 175-177 Talib, A.R. and Verma,S.D. (1990) Relationship between different forms of potassium and particle size in benchmark soils of Kashmir. Indian J. Agric Sci. 60(9): 643-644.
* Significant at 5 % ; ** Significant at 1 %
REFERENCES
Amrutsagar,V.M. and Sonar, K.R. (2000)Quantityintensity parameters of potassium as influenced by potash application to sorghum in an inceptisol.J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 48(1): 196199. Black,C.A. (1965) Methods of Soil Analysis.Part 2. American Soc. of Agron. Madison, Wisconsin, p.770. Beckett, P.H.T. (1972) Critical cation ratio.Advances in Agronomy 24: 379-411 Esakkimuthu, Krishnamoorthy, K.K. and Longanathan. (1975) Influence of nitrogen and potassium and methods of application
Evaluating Impact of Watershed Development Programme on Land Resources in Shiwalik Hills of J&K
Narinder Deep Singh
Faculty of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar - 143 001, India E-mail: ndsingh241074@yahoo.com
Abstract: The present study was undertaken for estimating the impact of Chenani watershed development programme in Udhampur district of Jammu and Kashmir state, in terms of resource availability during 2005-08. A combination of both the conventional and advanced techniques like field visits and satellite images were used for data collection to estimate parameters like change in land use/cover pattern, production capacity of land resources and soil erosion level, for impact assessment of watershed developed programme (WDP). The study showed no significant improvement in the quality of land resources production capacity and soil erosion level in the project area than non project area. Hence, the analysis showed poor ecological viability of WDP due to poor implementation of the programme. Key Words: Watershed, Carrying capacity, Quantitative/Qualitative approach, Discount rate
Since early 1950s India has invested more than Rs. 170 billions (US $ 3.5 billions) on watershed development programmes (WSP) covering more than 45 million ha area, and in the recent years the annual expenditure on these programmes have exceeded Rs. 10 billion which reflects the priority and faith of Indian Government on WDPs for improvement of natural resources (Reddy et al., 2007). Although these WDPs have resulted in increasing cropping intensity, changing cropping patterns, increasing productivity of crops, augmenting underground recharge of water and increasing family incomes and employment opportunities in some areas but these improvements were short lived and WDPs failed to generate sustainability of these improvements. Further more, despite the long history of WDPs, there are no systematic and large scale impact assessment studies on their performance as there is lack of proper indicators and evaluation methods to assess the overall impact of these programmes (Anon., 2001). However, the National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) in collaboration with National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (NRSA) identified 147 different districts spread over different agro-climatic zones of the country, having more than 17 per cent area under wastelands. Such wastelands possess great potential of mitigating the biomass requirement of the people living in these areas, if put to optimal and judicious use. The Udhampur District of J&K was one of such district and therefore a WDP for Chenani watershed (Udhampur District) was formulated by Forest Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir during the year 1990 and was started as a centrally sponsored scheme with the help of NWDB, in 1992. The Chenani WDP was executed in 3300 ha, with financial
implication of Rs. 22.95 millions from the year 1992 to 1997, with the objectives to arrest the problem of soil erosion of the catchment area, rehabilitate the natural forests, afforest/ reforest the agricultural, forestry and other cultivable areas with the green cover to provide fuelwood, fodder, grasses and fiber and update the local ecology and environment of the catchments area of Chenani by adopting various corrective and development measures. The WDP was claimed to be quite successful by the project implementing agency, as it has helped in improving the condition and availability of natural resources considerably in the study area (Anon., 1997). The present study was undertaken for assessing the impact of this particular WDP in terms of resource conditions and availability. As some other WDPs are ongoing in Udhampur district, therefore lessons learnt from this study could be very helpful in making ongoing WDPs more effective, efficient and sustainable. The present study was undertaken during the year 2005-08 with following specific objectives to develop indicators for estimation of impact of WDP on resource condition and availability in the study area and evaluate the impact of watershed development programme on natural resources.
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ii) iii)
Agricultural lands: These lands were categorized into cultivable and uncultivable lands. Scrub lands: Areas under wasteland, pasture lands, open lands etc. come under scrub lands. It was categorized into three sub classes on the basis of Green Biomass Density (GBD) i.e. dense scrub (with GBD>40 per cent), thin scrub (with GBD between 10 to 40 per cent) and degraded scrub (GBD<10 per cent).
Production Capacities
Production capacities in terms of fuelwood, fodder and food grain production from forest lands, agricultural lands and scrub lands were estimated, so as to assess the qualitative change in these resources (if any) due to WDP. In the first phase productivity level of various categories of forests and scrub lands were estimated by using sampling techniques. Five sample plots measuring 20 m x 20 m were laid in each category of forests (dense, moderate and open forests) and scrub lands (dense, thin and degraded scrub) in PA and NPA so as to estimate the annual production of fuelwood and fodder from these land resources. The productivity of crops from the agricultural lands were evaluated from the primary data collected from PA and NPA.
Closure Formation
For natural and artificial regeneration, closures were formed in forest areas so as to stop all kinds of biotic interferences. During the project period nearly 3270 ha of area were converted into enclosures, with fencing of 69,9731 running foot, to check infiltration of humans and animals so as to save forestlands from encroachment and misuse (Table 1). Every enclosure in PA had been fenced
i)
Forest lands : These lands were categorized on the basis of Crown Density (CD) of trees into dense forests (with CD>40 per cent), moderate forests (CD between 10 to 40 per cent) and open/degraded forests (CD<10 per cent).
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Narinder Deep Singh i) Plantation of trees: To rehabilitate and regenerate the degraded forests in the PA, various species of fast growing trees were planted. A total of 12, 42,188 trees were planted which were raised in nurseries spread over 2.5 ha of area (Anon., 1997). Patches grown : To improve the percolation and permeability of rain water so as to protect the soil from splashing and dashing effects of rain, and conserve moisture in soil, various patches of red clovers, grasses and deodar tree were planted. Seeds of red clover were sown, fodder grasses have been propagated by slips whereas saplings (tree) were raised in the nurseries in polythene bags which were used for growing patches (Table 1).
with pre-stressed cement concrete (PCC) poles with four strands of barbed wire. In all 61,635 PCC poles and 591 quintals of barbed wire were used for this work.
ii)
i)
Formation of DRSM: In order to absorb and slow down the flow of run off water to reduce soil erosion, 14248 cubic meters of works under dry rubble stone masonry (DRSM) were undertaken. Construction of stone crates: In order to check the rapid flow of water, about 106 crates measuring seven hundred and seventy three (773) cubic metre had been constructed (Table 1).
ii)
iii) Tending of trees: Nearly 72,000 trees were tended to improve their growth and development.
Vegetative measures . Due to high initial cost, continuous maintenance and high level of skill required for the construction of mechanical structures, vegetative measures are considered to be best option for conservation of natural resources. Vegetative measures like planting trees, grasses, strip cropping, mixed cropping etc, not only provide protection to land from soil erosion but also help in increased and continuous production of fodder, fuelwood and foodgrains throughout the year. Various vegetative measures adopted under WDP in the PA during the project periods are discussed below:
Table 1. Physical works undertaken during project period Items of work Area closed (ha) Fencing in rft. (four strands) DRSM (cu.m) Plantation of trees (Nos) Patches Grown a) Red clover b) Grasses c) Deodar Total Tending of Trees Crates laid a) Number b) Area (cum) Fuel saving devices (no.) 200 200 15,000 72,000 20,000 15000 20,000 1992-93 510 92450 3098 2,59,600 1993-94 525 92097 3501 1,65,288
1,00,000
26,000
400
800
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quite significant. It includes expenses incurred on purchase of vehicles (one jeep and two pickup vans), construction of residential quarters for forest officials, construction of stores, purchase of implements, etc. (Table 2).
Table 2. Comparison of physical and financial (Rs. in million) approved and achieved targets of WDP Components of work Approved Targets of WDP Phy. Afforestation in forest area Horticulturalplantations. Pasture land development Soil and moistureconservation Promoting fuel saving devices Overhead expenses G. Total 2000 ha 200 1100 3000 m3 1000 0 3300 ha + 3000 m 3 + 1000 Source: Forest Department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir, 1997 Phy. - Physical; Fin. - Financial Fin. 10.20 1.45 5.70 1.95 0.25 3.40 22.95 Achievements of WDP Phy. 1840 ha 200 ha 1068 ha 16521m3 800 3108 ha+ 16521 + 800 units Fin. 9.35 1.29 5.29 1.58 0.20 2.91 20.63 Difference Phy. 160ha 0 32 ha 13521m3 200 unit 192 ha+ 13521+ 200units Fin. 0.85 0.16 0.41 0.37 0.05 0.49 2.32
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Table 3. Change in land use/ land cover in the project area Particulars Forest area a) Dense forests b) Moderate/open forests c) Degraded forests Agricultural area a) Cultivated area b) Uncultivated area Scrub area a) Dense scrub b) Moderate scrub c) Thin scrub Drainage system Residential/commercial areas Total (1+2+3+4+5) 1991 3155 1027 1412 716 2658 2189 69 2460 1385 948 357 489 136 8898 2001 3020 962 1279 779 2824 2454 370 2508 1223 853 432 390 155 8898 Change -135 (4.3) -65 (6.3) -133 (9.4) 63 (8.8) 166 (6.2) 265 (12.1) - 99 (21.1) - 48 (2.0) - 162 (11.7) - 95 (10.0) 75 (21.0) - 99 (20.2) 19 (13.9) -
Source: Satellite Images NRSA; Figures in parentheses show %age change from the base year
for redemption of soil, so that it could be saved from future deterioration and ultimate loss. The soil under E.I classes I and II were having erosion at minimum levels. Nearly 3.8 per cent of the total area in PA and 2.5 per cent in NPA were under E.I category VI. The maximum area in both PA as well as NPA were under E.I category III, IV and V, with 36.2, 25.3 and 14 per cent area in PA and 39, 28.2 and 11.4 per cent in NPA, respectively (Table 4). From comparison of areas of PA and NPA facing various levels of soil erosion problem small difference was observed within the same E.I level of the respective areas. This signifies limited or no significant improvement in soil erosion status of PA due to WDP, as due to high level of siltation in river tawi (because of soil erosion), the Chenani hydel project still faces many problems resulting in reduction in its production capacity. Moreover regular landslides and landslips were reported during monsoon seasons especially in Samroli area of PA, resulting in closure of NH-1A, which highlights the ineffectiveness of measures undertaken during WDP for controlling erosion problem in the area.
Table 4. Soil erosion level E.I class I I III IV V VI Nallahs Total PA 658 (7.4) 975 (11) 3222 (36.2) 2252 (25.3) 1246 (14) 338 (3.8) 207 (2.3) 8898 (100) NPA 761 (9.3)* 630 (7.7) 3192 (39) 2309 (28.2) 933 (11.4) 204 (2.5) 158 (1.9) 8187 (100)
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B) Fodder production
(nearly 42 %). Moreover, problems such as regular closure of NH-IA due to landslides after rainfalls specially in Samroli area and siltation problems in Chenani hydel power station clearly highlights the ineffectiveness of WDP activities in controlling erosion problem of PA. The study highlighted decrease in area and tree density in forests, conversion of dense forests into degraded forests, increase in agricultural area and aggravated soil erosion problem in the area which means WDP has been ineffective in fulfilling its objectives.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (1997) Integrated wasteland development project Chenani watershed Udhampur, Annual report, Forest department, Government of Jammu and Kashmir. Anonymous (2001) Mid-term Appraisal of Ninth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Reddy, V.R., Shiferaw, B., Bantilan, M.C.S., Wani, S.P. and Sreedevi, T.K. (2007) Collective action for integrated watershed management in semi arid India: Strategic policy and institutional options, policy brief No. 11, ICRISAT, Hyderabad.
Nitrogen and Spacing Requirements of Promising Hybrids of Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss)
Parminder Singh Sandhu*, S.S. Mahal and Virender Sardana
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, India *E-mail: parminder1.sandhu1@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted to evalute nitrogen and spacing requirements of promising hybrids of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss). Two hybrids (PMH 128 and PMH 145) and variety RLC1 (check) were laid in main plots and in sub-plot combination of nitrogen and row spacing were tested in a split plot design. Among the three nitrogen doses (100 kg ha-1, 125 kg ha-1 and 150 kg ha-1),150 kg ha-1 produced highest seed yield (17.09 q ha-1) and among row spacing, 30 cm produced significantly higher yield of 17.01 q as compared to 40 cm row spacing. There was increase in plant height, dry matter, PAR interception and chlorophyll content while harvest index showed non-significant results, with various nitrogen doses. Key Words: Chlorophyll, Indian mustard, Nitrogen, PAR, Row spacing
In India, rapeseed-mustard is cultivated in about 28 states with a production of 7314.5 thousand tons and productivity of 1190 kg ha-1 (Anonymous, 2010). India is the second largest producer of rapeseed-mustard after China in the world (Kumar, 2008). Among these Brassica species, Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss) occupies a prominent position and is cultivated under diverse climatic and agro-ecological conditions in the country. Better ability of Indian mustard to withstand drought and perform well under low moisture conditions has led to increase in area in UK, Canada, USA and Australia by bringing additional area or replacing area under oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). There is limited scope for further expansion of area under oilseeds in the India because of lack of market infrastructure, mechanization and low yield potential of oilseed crops but a big leap in productivity of oilseeds is required to fulfill the minimum daily dietary requirements of edible oils. The increased production will come from high yielding hybrids/varieties and improved agronomic practices. Nitrogen is the most important nutrient required by plants to perform multiple roles in several metabolic processes that influence growth, yield and quality of crop. There is, thus, need to find out optimum nitrogen and row spacing requirements of promising hybrids of Indian mustard.
organic carbon, low in available nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and potassium. The study was conducted in three replications in split plot design with 2 hybrids (PMH 128 and PMH 145) and 1 variety (RLC 1) as check in main plot and doses of nitrogen (N100, N125 and N150 kg ha-1) and row spacing (30 and 45 cm) as sub plot treatments. Nitrogen was applied in two equal splits first at the time of sowing and second after first irrigation.The sowing was done on October 28 with plot size of 5 x 4.5 m. Optimum plant population was maintained by thinning and gap filling at about 3 weeks after sowing by keeping plant to plant spacing of about 15 cm within rows. Two hoeing were given first alongwith thinning and second was done at about 40 DAS. Two irrigations, 30 and 50 DAS, whereas, the last irrigation was applied at 75 DAS. For plant protection measures, package of practices for rabi crops was followed from time to time Periodical observations were recorded for plant height, dry matter accumulation, interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at 35, 70, 105 DAS and at maturity. Leaf chlorophyll content was recorded before flower initiation, peak flowering and at peak siliquae formation. For plant height ten plants were selected at random and height of each plant was measured from the base to the tip of the plant. For dry matter accumulation, three plants were harvested from 0.5 metre length of the outer row in each treatment. Chlorophyll content in leaves was determined using the procedure of Anderson and Boardmen (1964). A line quantum sensor (Model LI-191-SA) was used to measure the amount transmitted PAR in the wavelength of 400-700 nm. The incoming and reflected radiation measurements were made 1 m above the canopy while
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The data regarding days taken to flowering initiation, 50 per cent flowering and completion of flowering were observed when at least one fully opened flower appeared in each row, 50 per cent of the total plants in each row had at least one fully opened flower and at least one fully opened flower appeared on all the plants, respectively. Harvest index was calculated as the ratio of seed yield to biomass yield.
per cent flowering but days to initiation of senescence and maturity showed non-significant results. Kumar and Kumar (2004) reported that different cultivars of Brassica juncea took different number of days for 50 per cent flowering which depend upon their genetic constitution. The highest harvest index was registered in RLC 1 (check) followed by PMH 128, and both these registered significantly higher harvest index than PMH 145 (Table 4). Doses of nitrogen. Nitrogen doses did not significantly affect the plant height except at 70 DAS where application of 150 kg ha-1 of N produced highest plant height and it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N but significantly better than 100 kg ha-1 of N. the similar trend was observed for dry matter accumulation. Dry matter accumulation by plant at 35 DAS was highest with the application of 150 kg ha-1 of N and it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N application significantly higher than 100 kg ha -1 of N application. Similarly, Kumar et al. (1997) reported increase in dry matter with 150 kg ha-1 of N at all the growth stages compared to 100 and 125 kg ha-1 of N doses Chlorophyll content before flowering stage showed non-significant differences, whereas, at peak flowering and peak siliquae formation stage significantly higher chlorophyll content was obtained with 150 kg ha-1 of N application (Table 3). Nitrogen doses showed nonsignificant results for PAR interception at 35 and 105 DAS and at maturity stages except at 70 DAS, where highest interception was obtained in 150 kg ha-1 of N and it was significantly better than 100 kg ha-1 of N but it was statistically at par with 125 kg ha-1 of N application. Application of different N doses failed to influence 50 per cent and 100 per cent
Table 1. Plant height of Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment 35 DAS Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1 (check) CD (0.05) Doses of nitrogen kg ha-1 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) DAS = Days after sowing 17.0 16.9 NS 89.4 87.6 NS 197.4 196.4 NS 202.2 202.1 NS 16.5 17.3 17.2 NS 85.6 88.7 91.1 4.0 192.2 197.5 200.9 NS 200.9 203.3 202.3 NS 16.8 16.9 17.2 NS 90.1 87.2 88.1 NS 196.7 196.2 197.7 NS 200.9 201.2 204.4 NS 70 DAS Plant height (cm) 105 DAS At maturity
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Table 2. Dry matter accumulation of Indian mustard as influenced of hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing at different growth stages Treatment Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1(check) CD (0.05) 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) 0.93 0.62 0.10 9.40 6.56 0.85 12.25 8.26 1.47 21.62 14.82 2.67 10.55 7.87 0.94 48.77 35.73 4.66 5.00 3.33 0.77 64.55 47.15 4.85 92.88 75.90 15.84 0.76 0.72 0.84 NS 0.66 0.82 0.84 0.13 7.91 7.73 8.29 NS 7.55 7.86 8.53 NS 10.52 9.68 10.57 NS 9.26 10.34 11.16 NS 18.43 17.35 18.87 NS 16.81 18.15 19.68 NS 9.15 9.11 9.38 NS 9.01 9.25 9.38 NS 41.38 40.67 44.70 NS 40.42 41.56 44.78 NS 3.77 3.58 5.15 1.20 3.88 4.10 4.52 NS 54.29 53.82 59.46 NS 53.64 54.84 59.07 NS 85.37 80.41 87.38 NS 81.91 82.67 88.59 NS 35 DAS Plant Leaves 70 DAS Stem Total Leaves 105 DAS Stem Pod Total At maturity Plant
flowering, initiation of senescence and days to maturity of crop except to initiation of flowering. Row spacing. Row spacing had non-significant effect on the plant height, harvest index and chlorophyll content (Table 3). Among the row spacing significantly higher dry matter accumulation was obtained with 30 cm row spacing as compared to 45 cm row spacing at different growth stages of crop because of more number of plants per unit area. Dahiya (2005) reported higher dry matter accumulation at
closer row spacing as compared to wider row spacing. Interception of PAR was significantly influenced by row spacing at different growth stages except at maturity. At 35, 70 and 105 DAS, crop intercepted significantly more PAR at 30 cm as compared to 45 cm row spacing because of more plants per unit area. Days taken to 50 per cent flowering, 100 per cent flowering and maturity was significantly higher more in 45 cm row spacing as compared to 30 cm row spacing (Table 4) but days taken to initiation of flowering
Table 3. Leaf chlorophyll content and interception of photosynthetically active radiation by Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment Leaf chlorophyll content (mg g -1 of tissue weight) Before flower initiation Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1 (check) CD (0.05) 100 125 150 CD (0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD (0.05) 7.7 7.4 NS 9.9 9.2 NS 11.2 11.1 NS 29.4 24.3 3.0 82.6 78.1 3.9 93.2 91.5 1.7 57.3 56.8 NS 7.4 7.1 7.6 NS
-1
Peak siliquae formation 11.1 10.5 11.8 NS 10.4 11.4 11.6 1.0
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Table 4. Days taken for different phenological observations and harvest index of Indian mustard as influenced by hybrids, doses of nitrogen and row spacing Treatment Flowering initiation Hybrids PMH 128 PMH 145 RLC 1(check) CD(0.05) 100 125 150 CD(0.05) Row spacing (cm) 30 45 CD(0.05) 57.1 57.6 NS 71.0 73.5 1.5 85.1 87.6 1.3 120.4 121.0 NS 146.1 146.5 0.3 20.8 20.7 NS 56.2 58.6 57.3 1.4 56.8 57.6 57.8 0.8 69.4 74.7 72.6 2.5 72.0 72.2 72.6 NS 83.4 88.5 87.1 3.3 85.3 86.3 87.3 NS 118.9 121.6 121.6 NS 119.9 120.9 121.2 NS 146.0 146.7 146.2 NS 146.2 146.3 146.4 NS 21.0 18.9 22.3 2.1 20.7 20.8 20.8 NS 50% flowering Days taken to 100% flowering Initiation of senescence Maturity Harvest index (%)
and initiation of senescence at different row spacing showed non-significant results. The study revealed that hybrids PMH 128 and PMH 145 and variety RLC 1(check) did not differ significantly regarding plant height, dry matter, leaf chlorophyll content and harvest index while RLC 1 (check) intercepted more PAR as compared to hybrids. Nitrogen dose of 125 kg ha -1 was found optimum for hybrids and RLC 1 (check) variety.
Dahiya R (2005) Effect of time of transplanting and inter-row spacing on nitrogen and phosphorous in Canola (Brassica napus L.). M.Sc Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Kumar, A. (2008) Rapeseed-mustard in India: Current status and future prospects. In: Kumar, A., Chauhan, J.S. and Chattopadhayay, C. (Eds.) Sustainable production of oilseeds: Rapeseed-Mustard technology. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur, pp: 39-52. Kumar, A. and Kumar, S. (2008) Crop growth rate and developmental characteristics of Indian mustard var Vardan to varying levels of nitrogen and sulphur. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 42: 112-115. Kumar, S., Singh, J. and Dhingra, K.K. (1997) Leaf area in relationship with solar radiation interception and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea ) as influenced by plant population and nitrogen. Indian J. Agron 42: 348-351
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2010) http: www.indiastat.com Anderson, J.M. and Boardman, N.K. (1964) Studies on greening of dark brown bean plants VI. Development of photochemical activity. Aust. J. Bot. 17: 93-144
Studies on Growth, Yield and Yield Attributes of Wheat-Mentha Intercropping System in Relation to Planting Methods and Nitrogen Levels
Sumedh Chopra*, Jaspal Singh1 and Satpal Singh
FASS, PAU, Gurdaspur, 1Khalsa College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Amritsar *E-mail: sumeshagron.pau@gmail.com
Abstract: A field experiment was conducted during winter to summer seasons of 2006-07 and 2007-08 at Gurdaspur (Punjab) on silty clay loam soil to assess the response of intercropping of wheat and mentha to planting methods and nitrogen levels. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design having two planting methods viz. two rows of wheat (November sown) with 20 cm row spacing and two rows of mentha (February sown) on outer side of wheat rows under flat and bed (37.5 cm top + 30 cm furrow) method covering a total width of 67.5 cm and five levels of nitrogen i.e., 0+0, 90+75, 120+75, 150+75 and 180+75 kg N ha-1 to wheat and mentha, respectively. Bed was significantly higher over flat in yield attributes and grain yield of wheat. Interaction on grain yield of wheat showed the response of flat and bed to 150 and 120 Kg N ha-1, respectively. Both the planting methods were on par in growth, herbage and essential oil yield of mentha during 2006-07 but bed was significantly higher over flat during 2007-08 due to higher rainfall. Bed planting gave significantly higher wheat grain equivalent yield of intercropping system over flat and it increased significantly upto 120 + 75 Kg N ha-1 for wheat and mentha. Key Words: Wheat-mentha intercropping, Planting method, Flat bed, Nitrogen
Intercropping is an important way of increasing production without much increase in the use of inputs. It gives greater stability in yield during aberrant weather conditions and epidemics of disease and pest, which is of considerable importance to subsistent farmers (Tomar et al., 1997). Many reports have clearly advocated the possibility of growing potato, gram, mustard, sunflower, peas, linseed, etc. as intercrop in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Mentha (Mentha arvensis Linn.) is also one such crop, which needs to be tested as intercrop with wheat for higher returns and crop diversification. Method of planting plays an important role in the emergence and establishment of crop seedlings besides affecting soil aeration, temperature, root development, water use and solar radiation. Flat planting is the common practice of raising wheat but bed planting is also gaining popularity due to water saving and higher water use efficiency (Pal, 2003). In an intercropping situation where two or more crops are associated, their fertilizer requirement may vary widely and hence, fertilization becomes more complex (Singh et al., 1996). In wheat-mentha intercropping system, whole of nitrogen to wheat is applied within one month of sowing and to mentha, half nitrogen is applied at the time of planting in the mid season of wheat, and remaining half nitrogen is top dressed after harvesting of wheat crop. So, there is a possibility that mentha crop may use the residual nitrogen applied to wheat and suitable dose for intercropping system are to be evaluated through this study. Considering these
facts, a two year study was conducted to assess the response of intercropping of wheat and mentha in the flat and bed planting methods with various rates of nitrogen application.
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herbage was calculated on v/w basis. Essential oil yield was computed by multiplying herbage yield (q ha-1) at harvest with essential oil content (%) and expressed in litres per hectare (l ha-1). Leaves and stems of 200 g fresh herbage sample from each plot were separated and weighed after drying first in sun and then in oven. The leaf to stem ratio was calculated by dividing leaf weight with stem weight. Wheat grain equivalent yield (q ha-1) of the system was calculated by summing actual grain yield of wheat and essential oil yield of mentha after converting into wheatequivalent on the basis of prevailing prices. The price of wheat grain and mentha oil was Rs. 850 q -1 and Rs. 490 l-1 during 2006-07 and Rs. 1000 q-1 and Rs. 650 l-1 during 2007-08, respectively.
Table 1. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on growth, yield attributes and straw yield of wheat at harvest (pooled average of two years) Treatments Plant height (cm) 81.5 81.0 NS 65.2 81.0 85.0 86.9 88.0 2.11 Dry matter (q ha -1) 102.1 117.7 3.19 58.4 110.7 123.4 129.9 127.0 5.04 Effective tillers (m-2) 272.7 294.2 5.03 184.3 294.7 309.0 314.3 314.9 7.96 Ear length (cm) 9.38 9.76 0.071 8.43 9.45 9.87 10.05 10.06 0.112 No. of grains ear -1 45.7 48.2 0.89 39.8 46.8 49.1 49.5 49.5 1.41 Test weight (g) 38.37 39.30 0.384 38.22 38.99 39.39 39.12 38.45 0.607 Straw yield (q ha-1) 56.1 63.5 1.59 31.5 59.1 66.5 71.0 70.8 2.51
Planting method FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm CD (5%) Nitrogen (kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%)
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have hampered the movement of assimilates to the plants and thereby resulted into less dry matter accumulation. Yield attributes. On pooled average basis, the bed planted wheat + mentha was significantly higher in number of effective tillers m-2, ear length, number of grains ear-1 and test weight over flat planting (Table 1). A significant increase was also recorded in the number of effective tillers and grains per ear up to WN120+MN75, and further increase in nitrogen to WN 150/180 +MN 75 recorded a marginal enhancement. Increasing levels of nitrogen increased the ear length up to WN150+MN75 significantly but further increase in N did not cause significant difference. The application of nitrogen at WN120+MN75 recorded maximum test weight (39.39 g) of wheat which was significantly higher over WN0+MN0 and WN180+MN75. The differences in test weight at WN 90+MN 75, WN120 +MN75 and WN150+MN 75 were not significant. It was also observed that the application of N at WN180+MN75 recorded significantly lower test weight over WN120+MN75 and WN150+MN75 and at par with WN0+MN0 and WN90+MN75. The possible reason for lower test weight at highest rate of N application in WN180+MN75 was possibly due to lodging of the crop which restricted the movement of assimilates to the grain. Grain and straw yield. The bed planted wheat + mentha recorded significantly higher grain yield of wheat over flat planting (Table 2). During both the years, by increasing the level of nitrogen, a significant increase in the grain yield of wheat was recorded upto the application of 120 kg N ha-1 but further increase in nitrogen to 150 and 180 kg ha-1 did not enhance the grain yield significantly. In fact, during both the years, a reduction in grain yield was observed at highest level of 180 kg N ha-1. Decline in grain yield during first year was due to lodging of the crop at WN180+MN75. The lodging of crop might have restricted the movement of assimilates
Table 2. Interactive impact of planting methods and nitrogen levels on grain yield (q ha-1) of wheat during 2006-07 and 2007-08 Treatment WN0+ MN0 FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm Mean 19.4 22.7 21.1 WN90+MN75 39.5 48.3 43.9 Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN120+MN75 2006-07 45.2 54.0 49.6 2007-08 FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm Mean 21.6 25.0 23.3 37.9 48.5 43.2 42.2 52.1 47.2 45.8 52.1 49.0 45.7 51.5 48.6 38.6 45.8 49.1 51.5 50.3 43.6 48.1 45.8 39.3 44.9 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 Mean
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higher values of growth parameters under bed sown situation during 2007-08 were due to high rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to harvest stage in this year. Higher rainfall between 120 DAS to harvest stage had a negative effect on growth of mentha due to submergence of the crop under the flat bed while it benefited the bed sown treatments possibly due to availability of optimum soil moisture content. During both the years, all the levels of N application at N90/N120/N150/N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha were on par in the plant height, dry matter accumulation and number of stools m-2 of mentha but these levels were significantly higher over the control (WN0+MN0). But, leaf: stem ratio was higher under the control possibly due to less shedding of leaves whereas N fertilized treatments recorded vigorous growth which caused mutual shading of lower leaves causing early senescence and shedding. Kothari et al. (1996) also reported higher leaf: stem ratio of Japanese mint with no application of N. So, it is very clear that nitrogen application to wheat crop did not show any carry over response to all the growth parameters of mentha. Herbage and essential oil yield and essential oil content. During 2006-07, the flat planted wheat + mentha recorded higher herbage and essential oil yield of mentha than the bed planted wheat + mentha, but the differences were not significant (Table 4). Reversely, during 2007-08, bed planted wheat + mentha gave significantly higher herbage and essential oil yield over flat planted wheat + mentha. Better response on herbage yield under bed was due to more plant height, dry matter accumulation and number of stools m -2 (Table 3), which consequently enhanced the essential oil yield. Moreover, the higher herbage yield of mentha during 2007-08 was due to more rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to
Effect on Mentha
Growth. During 2006-07, higher plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of stools m-2 and leaf: stem ratio of mentha were recorded under flat planted wheat + mentha over bed planted wheat + mentha, but the differences were not significant (Table 3). The higher values of growth parameters were possibly due to availability of proper soil moisture under the flat and moisture stress on the beds. During 2007-08 at harvest stage, the plant height, dry matter accumulation, number of stools m-2 and leaf: stem ratio under the bed planted wheat + mentha were significantly higher over flat planted wheat + mentha. The significantly
Table 3. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on growth parameters of mentha at harvest Treatment Plant height (cm) 2006-07 Planting Method (P) FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm CD (5%) Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%) 65.1 77.3 76.4 76.1 76.9 5.16 75.9 89.4 88.4 88.7 89.3 6.94 36.1 53.1 52.0 52.2 52.5 4.81 40.9 59.8 59.1 60.0 59.5 4.06 73.9 96.7 96.8 94.8 97.4 4.81 81.6 103.7 103.7 101.4 100.9 5.83 0.88 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.79 0.030 1.11 0.98 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.027 75.1 73.6 NS 83.8 88.9 4.39 50.3 48.1 NS 54.2 57.5 2.57 93.1 90.7 NS 94.4 102.1 3.69 0.82 0.80 NS 0.98 1.01 0.017 2007-08 DMA (q ha-1) 2006-07 2007-08 No. of stools m-2 2006-07 2007-08 Leaf: Stem ratio 2006-07 2007-08
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Table 4. Effect of planting methods and nitrogen levels on the herbage yield, essential oil yield, essential oil content of mentha and wheat grain equivalent yield Treatment Herbage yield (q ha-1) 2006-07 Planting method FP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm 237.3 BP-W+M (2:2) 67.5cm 233.4 CD (5%) Nitrogen (Kg ha-1) WN0+MN0 WN90+MN75 WN120+MN75 WN150+MN75 WN180+MN75 CD (5%) 171.3 252.1 250.8 251.6 250.8 14.62 196.2 280.7 282.5 281.8 281.9 17.11 110.5 153.8 155.4 152.6 153.8 9.24 100.9 131.9 133.7 131.5 130.7 8.01 0.64 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.021 0.51 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.017 84.8 132.6 139.2 138.3 134.5 5.80 91.4 132.2 137.4 137.7 136.9 7.09 88.1 132.4 138.3 138.0 135.7 4.31 NS 257.4 271.8 10.82 147.1 143.4 NS 120.6 130.9 5.06 0.62 0.62 NS 0.47 0.48 0.011 124.1 127.6 NS 120.1 134.2 4.48 122.1 130.9 2.73 2007-08 Essential oil yield (l ha-1) 2006-07 2007-08 Essential oil content (%) 2006-07 2007-08 2006-07 Wheat grain equivalent yield (q ha-1) 2007-08 Pooled
harvest stage than 70.4 mm during 2006-07. Besides, the prolonged growth period of 12 days during 2007-08 might have resulted into more accumulation of assimilates and consequently the higher herbage yield. But, the growth of mentha under flat planting was adversely affected due to stagnation of water resulting into lower herb yield than bed. Kewalanand et al. (2008) also reported that paired row planting of menthol mint on ridges + onion in furrow (2:2 rows) caused significant enhancement in menthol mint yield. During both the years, all the levels of N application at N90/N120/N150/N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha were at par in herbage and essential oil yield of mentha but these levels were significantly higher over the control (Table 4). Therefore, it may be concluded that application of nitrogen to wheat crop did not influence any parameter of mentha. As application of N to wheat was done as basal and top dressing before the planting of mentha, and possibly used by the wheat crop and N being a very mobile nutrient might have lost by leaching and volatilization. During 2006-07, the essential oil content did not differ significantly due to planting methods (Table 4). However, in the subsequent year, bed planted wheat + mentha recorded significantly higher essential oil content over flat planted wheat + mentha. In general, the essential oil content during 2007-08 was less than 2006-07, which might be due to higher rainfall of 353.7 mm between 120 days after planting to harvest stage during second year as compared to 70.4 mm in the first year. The higher rainfall might have promoted more succulent foliage and possibly diluted the oil preserved in the glands lying in the sub-cuticular region of leaves. Application of nitrogen did not influence the essential
oil content during the both years of experimentation. It was observed that no application of N (Wheat N0+Mentha N0) resulted into higher essential oil content during both the years probably due to higher leaf: stem ratio recorded at harvest stage (Table 3). Effect on wheat grain equivalent yield. During 200607, 2007-08 and on pooled average basis, the bed planted wheat + mentha recorded higher wheat grain equivalent yield of the system over flat planted wheat + mentha (Table 4). The differences were significant during 2007-08 and on pooled average basis. Nitrogen application at N90/N120/N150/ N180 to wheat + N75 to mentha recorded significantly higher wheat grain equivalent yield of the system over control. On two year pooled average basis, increasing levels of N application enhanced the wheat grain equivalent yield upto 120 + 75 kg N ha-1 for wheat and mentha, respectively.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2006) Package of practices for crops of Punjab: Rabi 2006-07 pp 1-20. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Anonymous (2007) Package of practices for crops of Punjab: Kharif 2007. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, pp. 118-121. Kewalanand, Chilana, K. and Anand, M. (2008) Feasibility of intercropping onion in menthol mint with different planting methods. J. Medicinal Aromatic Pl. Sci. 30: 126-131. Khan, M.B., Gill, M.A. and Zia, M.S. (1987) Cultural and fertilizer management practices for wheat production in Pakistan. Rachis: Barley and Wheat Newsletter 6: 40-42. Kothari, S.K., Singh, V.P. and Singh, U.B. (1996) The effect of row spacing and nitrogen fertilization on the growth and oil yield composition of Japanese mint. J. Medicinal Aromatic Pl. Sci. 18: 17-21.
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Singh, R., Gangasaran, K. and Bandyyopadhay, S.K. (1996) Studies on spatial arrangement and N levels in wheat-gram intercropping system under dry land situation. Ann. Agric. Res. 17: 74-79. Tomar, S.K., Singh, H.P. and Ahlawat, I.P.S. (1997) Dry matter accumulation and nitrogen uptake in wheat based intercropping systems as affected by N fertilizer. Indian J. Agron. 42: 3337.
Cotton is an attractive host for several pests and 162 insect pests have been found to be associated with Indian cotton ecosystem from sowing to harvesting (Dhawan, 2004). Of these, nine are considered as key pests in different zones. The bollworm complex {american bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hbner), spotted bollworms Earias insulana (Boisduval) and E. vitella (Fabricius), pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders)} may lead to complete failure of non Bt cotton crop. For the management of these pests, research over the last 25 years has generated various modules of IPM in different regions of the country. IPM technology has been successfully implemented in rainfed cotton at Astha village in Maharashtra (Singh et al., 2002). In the present era, Bt cotton has proved quite beneficial for managing these bollworms and reducing the use of insecticides. Since the introduction of Bt cotton, its performance was studied for insect pest incidence and economics in comparison to non-Bt cotton cultivars. It has been quite clear from the early studies that Bt cotton is quite effective against bollworms. However, Fitt (2000) stated that Bt cotton technology must not be considered as silver bullets, but should be viewed as a foundation of IPM systems, including biological and cultural control tactics, for sustainable crop production. Therefore, taking these factors in view, the studies were undertaken to evaluate the performance Bt cotton as an integral component of integrated pest management module against farmers practice.
Kharif 2005-06 to 2007-08. During 2005-06, the Bt hybrid viz., RCH134 with IPM module was compared with Bt hybrid with farmers practice (FP), conventional variety (CV) F1861 with IPM module and F1861 with farmers practice (FP). Later in 2006-2007 and 2007-2008, IPM module with Bt (RCH134) was compared with non Bt version of same hybrid, RCH134 non Bt, with farmers practice. The crop was grown in plots measuring 30 x 60 m 2 following PAU recommended practices. The IPM module followed includes first spray of neem based insecticides against sucking pests, use of pheromone traps for bollworms, erecting bird perches and economic threshold level based spray of insecticides, however, in farmers practice only regular sprays at 7-10 days intervals were given. The observations on incidence of sucking pests, bollworms and fruiting bodies damage due to bollworms were recorded from 45 randomly selected plants from each plot at 15 days interval. The sucking pests viz., thrips (nymph and adult), whitefly (adult), jassid (nymph) and aphid (young one and adult) were recorded from 3 top fully opened leaves. The intact fruiting bodies damage and predators population was recorded on per plant basis. The boll and locule damage was observed in bolls collected from 15 randomly selected plants from the field. The yield from each plot was noted and the economics of IPM and farmers practice was worked out. The data were subjected to ANOVA test and the means were compared using Least Significant Differences (P=0.05).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Comparison of Bt and non-Bt Hybrid with IPM and Farmer Practice (FP)
The population of sucking pests viz. jassid, whitefly and
Evaluation of Bt Cotton
thrips differ non significantly among the three modules tested. The maximum population of thrips, jassid and whitefly were recorded in IPM-Bt, IPM-CV and FP-Bt, respectively (Table 1). The population of aphid was significantly higher on FP-CV than other three modules, but aphid is considered as minor pest in Punjab and occur sporadically, therefore we did not rank modules with respect to aphids. Patil et al. (2004) also recorded the population of sucking pests more or less same in Bt and non Bt cotton hybrids. However, Bambawale et al. (2004) recorded the incidence of all sucking pests, whiteflies, jassids, thrips and aphids were statistically higher in non IPM with conventional cotton as compared to IPM with Bt Mech162, non Bt Mech162 and conventional variety. These variations in results may be due to differences in susceptibility of different hybrids to sucking pests and different location specific modules being followed. The infestation due to bollworms was significantly different in all the modules. The maximum intact fruiting bodies damage was in IPM-CC followed by FP-CC and it was minimum in FP-Bt (Table 2). Similar trend was observed in open boll and locule damage in all the four modules. The results indicated that Bt hybrids with IPM and FP effectively manage the bollworm complex. The findings corroborates with those of Patil et al. (2004) who found significant effect of Bt toxin in Bt cotton (Mech 184 Bt) on bollworms. Bambawale et al. (2004) recorded the minimum damage in IPM plots with Mech 162Bt followed by IPM with conventional cotton, IPM with non Bt and non IPM with conventional cotton. The economic threshold level for sucking pests crossed once in all the four modules and that for bollworms once in BT plot four times in IPM-
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conventional variety and 2 times in FP-conventional variety (Table3). Similarly, the quantity of insecticides used was higher in FP-conventional variety. The FP-CV required highest plant protection cost as compared to other modules with minimum in IPM-Bt and consequently the yield was significantly higher (34.07 and 33.84 q ha-1) in IPM-Bt and FP-Bt plot compared to IPM and FP with conventional variety (Table 4). Taking into consideration the maximum gross income, cost of cultivation and net profit, the cost benefit ratio was highest (2.63) in IPM-Bt plot, followed by FP-Bt, IPM-CV abd FP-CV. The results clearly indicated that Bt as a component of IPM and with FP recorded highest yield and net returns than conventional variety. The present studies have been supported by Bhosle et al. (2004), Patil et al. (2004) and Prasad et al. (2008). Bambawale et al. (2004) also recorded significantly higher yield in IPM with Mech162 Bt followed by IPM with non Bt Mech162, IPM-CC and on IPM-CC.
Table1. Population of sucking pests in Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Insect pests Thrips / 3 leaves Aphid / 3 leaves Jassid / 3 leaves Whitefly / 3 leaves IPM-Bt (RCH134) 1.66 1.97 0.96 4.79
a a a a
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice Table 2. Bollworm incidence in Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameters IPM-Bt (RCH134) 0.00 7.78 0.3
a
0.00
a a
25.36 24.38
0.11 a
0.36 a
11.13 c
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice
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Table 3. Economic threshold levels and number of sprays in RCH Bt and F1861 under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameter No. of times ETL crossed for sucking pests No. of times ETL (larva or % damage) crossed for bollworms No of sprays Quantity of insecticides used (g a.i. ha-1) 3 1382.50 4 2395.00 5 3257.50 8 5090.00 1 1 4 2 IPM-Bt (RCH134) 1 FP-Bt(RCH134) 1 IPM-F 1861 1 FP-F1861 1
Table 4. Economics of Bt and conventional variety (F1861) under IPM and non-IPM practice during 2005-06 Parameter *Plant protection cost (Rs ha )
-1
Yield (q ha-1) **Gross income (Rs ha-1) ***Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost benefit ratio
**Rates of different pesticides based on the rate contract by the Store Purchase Organisation, PAU Ludhiana with Pesticides Dealers *Based on MSP fixed for the medium staple cotton by the Agricultural Costs and Prices Commission, Government of India for 2005-06; *** Source: Department of Economics, PAU, Ludhiana Table 5. Population of sucking pests in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Insect pests Thrips / 3 leaves Aphid / 3 leaves Jassid / 3 leaves Whitefly / 3 leaves 0.71 0.00
a a
1.76 a 3.00 a
1.64 a 3.42 a
1.46 a 5.12 a
1.45 a 5.66 a
1.61 a 4.06 a
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice
et al. (2004) in their studies indicated that IPM module with three different Bt cotton hybrids (Mech 12Bt, Mech 162 Bt and Mech 182Bt) have variable population of jassid as compared to that on FP-non Bt. It was significantly lower in FP-CV than in all the hybrids with IPM after 45DAS and then only Mech12 Bt after 60DAS. Similarly, variable results were reported with different hybrids for thrips. Prasad et al. (2008) reported that sucking insect pest was slightly higher except thrips in Bt hybrids (RCH134) as compared to non Bt version with IPM.
Significantly lower intact fruiting bodies, boll and locule damage was recorded in IPM-Bt as compared to FP-non Bt Table 6. The mean fruiting bodies, boll and locule damage was in IPM-BT cotton than in FP-non Bt. The study clearly indicated the positive effect of Bt as an component of IPM module on bollworm infestation. Bhosle et al . (2004) reported comparatively higher damage of bollworms in FPCV (NHH44) and lower yield than three Bt hybrids with IPM module. Bambawale et al. (2004) reported the per cent
damage to bolls was statistically lowest in Bt Mech-IPM as compared to Non IPM-CC. The square and locule damage was higher in non Bt and Bt (RCH134) under IPM (Prasad et al., 2008) The mean number of times when sucking pests crossed economic threshold level is same (0.50) in both the years of study in both IPM-BT and FP-non Bt module (Table 7). Bollworm infestation did not crossed ETL in IPMBt plots during both the years, while it crossed 2 and 4 times in FP-non Bt plot during 2006-07 and 2007-08, respectively. The mean number of sprays and total quantity of insecticides used was 1.00 and 737.50 g a.i. ha-1 in IPMBt as compared to 7.50 and 3538.25 g a.i. ha-1 in FP-non Bt, respectively (Table 7). Accordingly, the mean plant protection cost in IPM-Bt plot is quite low (575.48 Rs ha-1) as compared to FP-non Bt (5105.45 Rs ha-1). Using Bt hybrid and adopting IPM practices resulted in higher yield (6.61 q ha-1) than using non Bt hybrids with farmers practice. The cost of cultivation was higher in IPM-Bt mainly due to the cost of seed. The net
Evaluation of Bt Cotton
Table 6. Bollworm incidence in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Parameter 2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0.00 a 0.00 9.08 6.38
a b b
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15.73
Means followed by same letter are not significant at P=0.05 level by LSD; FP - Farmers Practice Table 7. Economic threshold levels and number of sprays in Bt-IPM and non-Bt farmers plots Parameter No. of times ETL crossed for sucking pests 0 2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0 2 8 3040.75 1 0 1 600 2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 1 4 7 4035.75 0.50 0.00 1.00 737.50 Mean IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 0.50 3.00 7.50 3538.25
No. of times ETL (larva or 0 % damage) crossed for bollworms No of sprays Quantity of insecticides used (g a.i. ha-1) 1 875.00
Table 8. Economics of Bt-IPM and non-BT farmers Parameter *Plant protection cost (Rs ha )
-1
2006-07 IPM-Bt(RCH134) 625.95 21.03 38585.27 19238.50 18720.82 1.94 FP-Non Bt 5008.40 12.19 22371.92 13728.50 3635.02 1.19 525 21.19
2007-08 IPM-Bt(RCH134) FP-Non Bt 5202.50 16.80 32760.00 13078.50 14479.00 1.79 575.48 21.11 39952.89 18913.50 20463.91 2.05
Yield (q/ha) **Gross income (Rs ha-1) ***Cost of cultivation (Rs ha-1) Net profit (Rs ha-1) Cost benefit ratio
**Rates of different pesticides based on the rate contract by the Store Purchase Organisation, PAU Ludhiana with Pesticides Dealers *Based on MSP fixed for the medium staple cotton by the Agricultural Costs and Prices Commission, Government of India for 2006-07 and 2007-08; *** Source: Department of Economics, PAU, Ludhiana
profit was higher (Rs 20463.91 ha-1) in IPM-Bt plot as compared to FP-non Bt (Rs 9057.01 ha-1). The cost benefit ratio also follow similar trend, higher 2.05 in IPM-Bt as compared to 1.49 in FP-non Bt. Bambawale et al. (2004) also recorded higher seed cotton yield, net returns and B: C ratio in IPM-Bt block as compared to non IPM-non Bt. Bhosle et al. (2004) also recorded higher returns in IPM block. Various studies also showed that Bt cotton hybrids as superior to non Bt hybrid with respect to yield, net return (Patel et al., 2004). The experiment during 2005-06 showed that the IPM practices and Bt cotton hybrids gave better returns than conventional variety and farmers practice. The further studies indicated that Bt must be used as component of IPM for harvesting maximum returns. Rao et al. (2007) found no significant reduction in plant protection expenditure on
adoption of Bt hybrids without IPM practices, however, adoption of IPM practices has lead to reduced use of insecticides and increased profitability. Therefore it can be concluded that rather than using Bt hybrids as silver bullets only these must be used as an component of IPM to harvest maximum economic benefit to growers and society.
REFERENCES
Bambawale, O. M., Singh, A., Sharma, O. P., Bhosle, B. B., Lavekar, R. C., Dhandapani, A., Kanwar, V., Tamhankar, R. K., Rathod, K. S. and Patange, N. R. (2004) Performance of Bt cotton MECH-162 Bt under Integrated Pest Management in farmers participatory field trial in Nanded District, Central India. Curr. Sci. 86 : 900-909. Bhosle, B.B., Rathod, K.S., Patange, N.R. and Adkine, S.J. (2004) Effectiveness of Bt cotton in pest management as an integral component of IPM. In: B.M. Kahdi, H.M. Vamadevaiah, I.S. Katageri, S.N. Chattannavar, S.S. Udikeri and S.B. Patil (Eds)
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Dhawan A K. (2004) Insect resistance in cotton : Achievements and challenges. In : Dhaliwal G S and Singh R (ed) Host Plant Resistance to Insects ; Concepts and Applications. Panima Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, pp 263-314. Fitt, G.P. (2000) An Australian approach to IPM in cotton: integrating new technologies to minimise insecticide dependence. Crop Prot. 19 : 793-800. Patil, B. V., Bheemanna, M., Hanchinal, S. G., and Kengegowda, N. (2004) Performance and economics of Bt cotton cultivation in irrigated ecosystem. In: B.M. Kahdi, H.M. Vamadevaiah, I.S. Katageri, S.N. Chattannavar, S.S. Udikeri and S.B. Patil (Eds)
Rogers (1983,1995 and 2003) recognized five attributes of a technology affecting the adoption, these are relative advantage, compatibility, observability, complexity and trialability, which in turn affect the rate of adoption by 49 to 87 per cent and. Many adoption studies have shown the importance of these aspects (Fliegel et al., 1967). The adoption of technology for natural resource management and conservation, such as soil conservation, integrated pest management (IPM), irrigation management, are considered apart, from the use of conventional green revolution inputs, such as high yielding varieties, fertilizers and pesticides (Caswell et al., 2000). In comparison with use of single measure such as pesticides, IPM appears, and often is, complex, its effect is rarely immediately observable (Dent, 1995). The constraints in the adoption have been in terms of appropriateness of technology, economic implications, availability of appropriate information, acquiring of knowledge and skills by farmers for applying the IPM in their fields, dissemination of IPM, vast network of chemical industry to lure farmers for using pesticides and appropriateness of technology in terms of it being less complex and compatible with the farming system. Due to complexities of carrying out IPM, it has been difficult for farmers in carrying out IPM practices like ETL (Godell, 1984, van de Fliert, 1993, Eslanda and Heong, 1994, Matterson et al., 1994, Malone et al., 2004). The compatibility of an IPM practice also plays role in its adoption. If IPM practice is not compatible like trash trap in maize (Bentley and Andrews,
1991), it is a limitation in its adoption. Economic returns/ implications of IPM need to be demonstrated to the farmer so that the farmer learns that even buying information and advice can be more profitable than buying chemicals (Lacewell, 1980). Growers perceived that IPM practices are more risky than conventional pest management (Norris et al., 2003), so the risk associated must be decreased to make farmers sure of its economic viability. Dissemination of IPM technology related information in top-down approach is also a constraint in many developing countries (Kenmore et al., 1995) and lack of proper knowledge about different aspects of IPM like agroecosystem analysis and not acquiring required skills for its use act as barriers (van de Fliert, 1993, Merchant and Teetas, 1994). Vast network of pesticide companies in the developed and developing world also lured back the IPM practioners. The pesticide company agents scouting the farmers field and assisting them in making pesticide use decisions act as a barrier for IPM adoption. Counteracting forces even in public extension services confuse the farmers and the lack of commitment of extension agencies to IPM limit the spread and adoption of IPM (van de Fliert, 1993) and lack of master trainers act as obstacle in the adoption of IPM (Matteson et al., 1994). The constraints for different agricultural systems can vary as in most of the Latin American countries there is no public service extension so the farmers are more dependent
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on agents of chemical industry for information. In the USA, the constraints are in terms of IPM adoption is often more expensive than conventional pesticide based management, due to increased need for population assessment and record keeping, and where it meets economic interest of growers adoption is high. In developing countries counteracting approaches, lack of proper dissemination of technology in a participatory mode are the barriers in the adoption of IPM. For different crops also the constraints differ. The lack of knowledge in terms of comprehension and its applications and lack of skills to use complex practices are the universal constrains reported in numerous studies. In this paper, the constraints in the adoption of selected IPM practices disseminated under the Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) programme implemented in the state of Punjab are reported. The study intended to analyse how the attributes of innovation effect the adoption of selected IPM practices like timely sowing of cotton crop, adoption of the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) recommended resistant varieties, seed treatment, use of ETL for insecticides application and IRM strategy for insecticide use, and what are the cotton growers perceived constraints in the adoption of IPM practices.
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Telephone connection (% farmers) Total operational land (ha) holding (i + ii - iii) I. II. III. Owned Leased-in Leased-out
Average operational landholding(ha) I. II. III. IV. 1-2ha (small) 2 4ha (Semi-medium) 4 10ha (Medium) >10ha (Large)
for land preparation and completes sowing in the month of April, even though his total land holding is 25 hectares and had cultivated cotton on 10.4 hectares. The constraints in the timely sowing are mainly the incompatibility of the technology and physical problem of the irrigation water. Thus, the farmer blame bias of the researchers and extension functionaries is proved to be incorrect. Constraints in the adoption of PAU recommended varieties other than Bt cotton. The introduction of Bt cotton in the state of Punjab has totally changed the cotton growing scenario. Before the introduction of Bt cotton in 2005, 79 per cent farmers had already cultivated the Bt cotton in 2004. The adoption of the other recommended but non-Bt varieties was not encouraging. The number of IRM farmers cultivating recommended resistant non- Bt varieties was very less. The respondent IRM farmers were asked in open ended question to rank in order, the three important characteristics of a variety, which influences their decision to adopt a variety. The results are given in Table 3. Rank one was given to higher yielding by 58 per cent, resistant varieties by 27 per cent and authentic seed/early maturity by five per cent of the IRM farmers. Rank two was given to higher yielding by 29 per cent, resistant varieties by 32 per cent, and good loculi
size/lint quality by 13 per cent of the IRM farmers. Rank three was given to higher yielding by eight per cent, resistant varieties seven per cent, and authentic seed and early maturity by five per cent of the IRM farmers. The constraints encountered by the farmers in timely sowing of the cotton crop were mainly the incompatibility attribute of the technology and problems of irrigation water. Thus, the farmer blame bias of the researcher and extension professionals is contradicted. But in case of Bt cotton, a hardware technology, the relative advantages were visible without any complexity involved as perceived by the farmers, the rate of adoption was fast. Farmers started getting aware about the existence of Bt-cotton in 2000 and by 2004 awareness-knowledge were 100 per cent and it formed S-shaped curve (Figure 1). The majority of the IRM farmers, 71 per cent had come to know about Bt-cotton in 2002 and 2003 . The sources of information was other farmers (76%), representatives of companies (19%), newspapers (11%), Arthias (5%). Interpersonal communication channels were the main source of diffusion of this innovation. This implies that farmer to farmer diffusion was effective , in case the technology is predominantly hardware and the economic benefits are visible.
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Table 2. Constraints in the adoption of timely sowing Constraint Shortage/non-availability of canal water Poor quality (No. 2/No. 3) of tube well water Late/incomplete harvesting of wheat crop Delayed land preparation More land holding/not possible to complete sowing in April Timely sowing Mustard + cotton crop rotation n= Multiple response Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers Some farmers apply pre-sowing irrigation in standing wheat crop Table 3. Important attributes for adoption of a particular cotton variety as ranked by the IRM farmers Attribute of variety Rank I Higher yield Resistant to pest Early maturing Good quality seed Good loculi size/lint quality Less water requiring 58 27 5 5 1 3 Ranking (% farmers) Rank II 29 32 9 3 13 3 Rank III 8 3 11 5 0 3 District wise % age of farmers Bathinda 88 25 25 18 8 0 40 Ferozepur 80 33 4 0 0 7 45 Mansa 71 56 10 2 7 0 41 Overall %age of 3 districts 79 38 13 6 5 2 126
The rate of adoption of Bt-cotton also formed S shaped curve (Fig. 1), which is in agreement with Rogers (1983) diffusion theory. The Bt cotton technology is similar to the green revolution technologies (high yielding varieties, fertilization, pesticides), so the rate of adoption was fast as cotton growers were rewarded with less bollworm problem and higher yields. Against four per cent adoption in 2002, rate of adoption multiplied four times in 2003 and during 2004 rate of adoption was 72 per cent before the official release and recommendation. The rate of adoption of Bt cotton increased to 95 in the subsequent years. The attributes of Bt-cotton as reported by IRM farmers were resistance to boll-worms, higher yielding, saving on pesticide expenditure, timely wheat sowing (relative advantages and observability); easy to adopt and compatible (compatibility); high cost of seed, more water requiring, higher fertilizer dosages, susceptible to CLCuV and tobacco caterpillar (non-compatibility), but no complexity was reported by the farmers. The majority of the IRM farmers (52%) had not procured Bt-cotton seed from authentic sources in 2004. Some farmers had even procured from Gujarat state, and were sure of the authencity of seed (43%). Role of public service extension does not count if the technologies are developed
by the private sector and are economically viable. Extension or no extension, the farmers adopt the technologies which have visible relative advantages. Constraints in the adoption of seed treatment. The major constraints reported by 93 IRM farmers, for not treating the seed were in terms of lack of knowledge (51%), no previous experience (29%), seed treating chemicals not available locally (5%), chemicals being poisonous and laborious practice (2%). The other reasons given by the IRM farmers (18%) were that there is no benefit of seed treatment (no observability), IRM programme started late and farmers gained knowledge about seed treatment when sowing was complete (10%). Table 4 gives an overview of the reasons and constraints for not treating seed. Constraints in the adoption of ETL. Waibel (1986) and Smith et al. (1988) showed that economic threshold level (ETL) based pesticide use had economic benefits but its uptake by the farmers was negligible. The Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India recommended an ETL for cotton jassid (Amrasca biguttula) in 1979 (PAU, 1979), and for whitefly ( Bemisiatabaci) and bollworm complex (Helicoverpa armigera, Earias vitella and Pectinophora gossypiella) in 1991 (PAU, 1991). The cotton farmers in Punjab had no knowledge about ETL, prior to the start of
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Table 4. Adoption of seed treatment/treated seed and reasons for its adoption Practice/Reason Seed treatment/treated seed i. ii. Seed treatment# Treated seed# 90 13 90 10 48 95 40 2 14 5 0 43 Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers District wise percentage of farmers Bathinda Ferozepur 45 10 35 55 49 77 23 0 0 9 4 22 Mansa 92 2 92 8 49 100 11 4 2 6 0 45 Overall percentage of 3 districts 75 8 72 25 146 94 25 3 6 6 1 110
As seed already treated Delayed attack of jassid Good germination Less disease infestation/CLCuV No termite damage Given by dept. of Agric. for trial n Multiple responses,
the insecticide resistance management based IPM programme in 2002. Though, it has relative advantage over prophylactic pesticide spray, its adoption was zero in cotton in Punjab (Peshin et al., 2009). During the implementation of the IRM programme 35,25 and 33 per cent farmers adopted the ETLs for Jassid, whitefly and American bollworm, respectively but once the IRM intervention was
withdrawn adoption rate showed a down ward slide. The constraints limiting the adoption of ETL were similar in terms of complexities. The constraints expressed by 88 IRM farmers, were that determining ETL is time consuming (26%), lack of proper knowledge, comprehension and skill (20%), laborious (22%), pest population never being below ETL in case of ABW and whitefly (8%) (Table 5).
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Table 5. Constraints/reasons in the adoption of economic threshold level (reasons other than constraints also included) Constraint/Reason District-wise percentage of farmers Bathinda (n=19) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Time consuming General observation enough to take decision Lack of knowledge/comprehension and skill Risk involved Laborious and difficult to calculate frequently Application of insecticides as a preventive major based on our past experience Use pheromone traps ABW and whitefly ix. x. Application of insecticides at egg stage of the pest No benefit of ETL 11 0 Decimals rounded up to nearest whole numbers 3 5 0 0 3 2 viii. Pest population never below ETL in case of 5 5 0 11 0 14 3 0 6 7 1 8 16 42 21 16 21 Ferozepur (n=36) 31 25 17 19 17 Mansa (n=33) 27 36 24 21 27 Overall percentage of 3 districts (n=88) 26 33 20 19 22
Multiple response,
One of the attributes of ETL expressed by farmers was risk which was not forming the part of semi-structured questions related to attributes of ETL, but in case of open ended questions related to constraints, risk was reported as a constraint by 19 per cent of IRM farmers (Table 5). The other reasons for not adopting ETL were: insecticides are applied as preventive measure (7%), their past experience and general observations were enough to take pesticide related decisions (33%). No benefit of ETL was reported by two per cent of the 88 IRM farmers. The ETL not being adopted puts a question mark on the applicability of this practice at farmers level in Punjab and taking it as indicator for determining the level of IPM adoption. Use of pesticides according to good agricultural practice. Pesticide based pest management in itself is a complex technology for farmers to efficiently adopt (Litsinger et al., 2009). It is a mix of software (consisting of knowledge base) and hardware (consisting of inputs) technology. Hardware in terms of the pesticides, and software in terms of selection of a right pesticide against a particular pest, right dosage, right dilution and right time of application. Hardware side of technology is dominant and its adoption is faster as compared to software side of a technology (Rogers, 2003). The pesticide based pest management requires higher levels of knowledge and greater skills on the part of farmers in terms of selecting a right pesticide, pesticide dosage and dilution (spray volume). Most pesticides are only toxic to a specific pests, can be washed away by rain, can drift with wind, require being placed on a specific part of the plant and must be diluted correctly. The State of Punjab being the Leader of the Green Revolution in India, the pesticide use is also the highest. But the use of pesticides
according to correct dosages, right timing and application technology is not upto the accepted norms. The farmers either under dose or overdosed the insecticides in cotton (Table 6). Under the IRM oprogramme endosufan insecticide was recommended as the recommended insecticide against Jassid. Farmers were reluctant to use it, as they felt intoxicated after its spraying. The Excel pesticide company was selling endosufan as IPM pesticide. The farmers were ahead of the scientists, because they have real life experiences and now there is a hue and cry for banning endosulfan in India.
Table 6. The adoption of correct and incorrect dosages of insecticides by the IRM farmers Insecticide Alphamethrin Cypermethrin Fenvalerate Acephate Chlorpyriphos Ethion Monocrotohos Profenophos Quinalphos Triazophos Acetamirid Indoxacarb Spinosad Incorrect dosage (% farmers) 71 92 90 24 49 33 22 25 25 36 89 5 67 Correct dosage (% farmers) 29 08 10 66 51 63 88 75 75 64 11 95 33
The reasons given by 117 IRM farmers, who had partially or completely adopted IRM strategy of insecticides use, are reported in Table 7. The cotton growers in Punjab have suffered heavily due to losses caused by insect-pests
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option and an equal number of farmers reported that the advice given by dealers/other farmers was followed for taking the pesticide decisions. Two per cent of the 86 IRM farmers reported that pesticide companies even lay the trials of using tank mixtures so experimentation and trial should be laid to make them observe the results of IRM-IPM strategy of insecticide use. The detail list of reasons and constraints are given in Table 7. In the green revolution era the emphasis was on enhancing the mutual linkages between research, extension and farmers (Roling, 1996) for dissemination and adoption of hardware technologies (high yielding varieties, fertilizers and pesticides) through top-down technology dissemination. The experiences with efforts to introduce IPM practices through transfer of technology (ToT) paradigm did not work. The research and extension beliefs and modes changed with the time (Chambers, 1991). In 1950s and 1960s, the farmers were categorized into adopters/laggards and explanation for non-adoption was ignorance. In 1970s and 1980s explanation for nonadoption of technologies was farm level constraints (incompatibility of technology with the farming system). The key prescriptions were extension/remove constraints and activities were training and input supply. In 1990s, the questions were being asked about the technology, whether
Table 7. Constraints in the adoption/partial adoption of insecticides as per IRM strategy* Constraint/Reason District wise percentage of farmers Bathinda (n=8) i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. Risk involved in following IRM strategy Decision of elders for tank mixing of insecticides Followed other farmers/dealers advice Tank mixing of insecticides gives better results In case of two pests present at the same time, tank mixing needed (eg. ABW+SBW) In case of severe infestation of ABW/TCP tank mixing of insecticides effective Tank mixed initially before developing confidence in IRM staff viii. Endosulfan 35EC intoxicating ix. Time interval between two pesticide application decreased and spraying cost increases without tank mixing x. xi. xii. Pesticide companies lay trails of tank mixing/using mixed insecticides Difficult to give up old habits Trial should be laid by IRM staff for seeing is believing 0 0 0 0 3 5 3 0 3 3 3 5 2 3 2 2 0 0 0 10 3 15 0 5 5 5 3 9 13 13 8 10 25 13 13 14 37 13 0 25 Ferozepur (n=40) 30 0 5 28 Mansa (n=38) 24 5 18 21 Overall percentage of 3 districts (n=86) 30 3 10 24
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it fits the farmer and emphasis was on farmer participation activities. Thus management of different factors namely farmers participation, farmers experimentation, choices, etc. are required for developing farmers compatible technologies. The results provide empirical evidence that the attributes of the IPM practices are the dominant variables affecting the adoption or rejection. Thus researchers must take into consideration the area specific farming system and also involve the active farmers in the refinement and validation of the technologies before their release. The recommendations in the Package of Practices, published by the PAU should be tested for its adoptability at the farmers level; otherwise such technologies should not be recommended where chances of adoption are bleak. Many agricultural researchers and policy makers have suggested to expand the definition of ecosystem further to include humans. Farmers are seen as part of their farming systems, interacting with their crops through their knowledge, skills and mutual cooperation.
REFERENCES
Benthley, J. and Andrews, K. (1996) Trough the road blocks: IPM and Central American small-holders. Sustainable Agricultural Programme Gatekeeper Series 56. International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Caswell, M., Fuuglie K., Ingram, C., Jam, S. and Kascak, C. (2000) Adoption of Agricultural Production Practices-Lesson Learned from the US Department of Agriculture Area Studies Project. Economic Research Services, USDA. http://www.usda.org. Chambers, R. (1991). Scientists or resource poor farmer-whose knowledge counts? In: Proceedings of a Seminar on Crop Protection for Resource Poor farmers. CTA/NRI, Isle of Thorn, UK, Nov.4-8, pp1-15. Dent, D. (1995) Integrated Pest Management. Chapman and Hall, London. Dhawan, A.K. (1999) Major insect pests of cotton and their integrated anagement. In: R.K. Upadhay, K.G. Mukerji and O.P. Dubey (Eds.) IPM Systems in Agriculture Vol 6 Cash Crops. Aditya Books Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, pp 165-225. Escalanda, M.M. and Heong, K.L. (1994) New developments and need for training IPM. Proc 16th session of FAO/UNEP Panel of Experts on Integrated Pest Control 25-29 April, FAO, Rome. Fliegel, F.C. (1967) Innovation in India: The Success or Failure of Agricultural Development Programmes in 108 Indian Villages. National Institute of Community Development, Research Report 9, Hyderabad. Godell, G.E. (1984) Challenges to integrated pest management
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is a major cause of skin cancer and accounts for 1.3 million new cases in the USA alone each year. It is classed as a complete carcinogen in that it has the capacity to induce carcinogenesis without the presence of any other stimuli (Shannon et al., 2004). Solar UV radiation is largely comprised of UVB (280-320 nm) and UVA (320-400 nm) wavelengths. UVB radiation has been associated with sunburn, immunosuppression, photoaging, skin cancers and DNA lesions. The latter include cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and 6,4 pyrimidine pyrimidone. UVA radiation, which represents 95 per cent of the total UV received at ground level, is less energetic than UVB. It has also been associated with immunosuppression, photoaging, and mutagenesis (Bernerd et al., 2003). According to the albino hairless mouse model, both UVB and UVA can be involved in the development of cutaneous cancers including squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) and basal cell carcinomas (BCC). However, the relative efficiency of UVA in inducing these carcinomas is approximately 10,000 times lower than UVB and much higher doses of UVA are required (Routaboul et al., 2002). Both UVA and UVB act by causing programmed cell death [apoptosis] which has been linked to carcinogenesis (Siddoo-Atwal, 2009)). Thus, ideally, sunscreen products should provide efficient protection against both UVB and UVA radiation. The natural human sunburn cycle (without the use of any sun lotions or sunscreens) is approximately one week in length (7 days) from start to finish. Macroscopically, it consists of three phases including inflammation, new tissue
formation, and apoptosis (visible peeling). The inflammatory phase consists of redness and inflammation commencing 20-30 minutes from the time of initial sun exposure. It spans grossly 2-3 days, but can last up to 5 or 6 days depending upon UV intensity. New tissue formation is stimulated some time after initial exposure and it is complete within one week. In the last apoptotic phase, the top layer of dead skin cells sloughs off to reveal a new tissue layer beneath. This process follows on from the inflammatory phase and is complete approximately 7 days following exposure. Previously, it has been shown that sunburn can also occur despite the use of sunscreen (15 SPF) during winter months in a temperate climate (Siddoo-Atwal, 2011a). In addition, sunburn may still occur while wearing stronger sunscreens (30 SPF). Although they may attenuate or even eliminate the first phase of redness and inflammation, the second and third phases may not be prevented. Since it is the last apoptotic phase that has been linked to carcinogenesis, this would appear to reflect an inherent weakness in the general composition of many sunscreens available to the consumer. It also brings into question the efficacy and safety of sunscreens which effectively block inflammation, but are unable to prevent peeling following sun exposure in providing protection against skin cancer (Siddoo-Atwal, 2011b).
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The first was a preparation of pure zinc oxide (7.5%) in a creme base rather than the microfine or nano form which is currently a popular ingredient of sunscreens (Pinnell et al., 2000). The second was a preparation of melanin (50 mg/ ml) extracted from black sesame in a creme base containing zinc oxide (7.5%). Zinc oxide has been used for centuries as a specialized skin ointment and it was known as pushpanjan in Ayurvedic medicine. It was chosen for its property as the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB reflector that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the FDA. It acts as a physical sunblock by scattering ultraviolet light more effectively than other substances. Moreover, it is photostable (Mitchnick et al., 1999). Zinc oxide has the added advantage of sitting on the surface of the skin without being absorbed into it which may not be the case with the microfine or nano form. Melanin was chosen because it is the natural sunscreen of the human body, which usually protects itself from solar radiation by increasing melanin production. It ranges in colour from red and yellow {pheomelanin} to brown and black {eumelanin} with the latter being the most effective (Chintala et al., 2005). It likely acts as a chromophore by absorbing light energy and undergoing a subsequent conformational change involving the excitation of electrons. The resulting energy may be converted into lower energy radiation and heat which can be dissipated. However, certain individuals are not able to produce enough melanin to fulfill this function and the result is sunburn. Thus, there is reason to suppose that it may be one of the most suitable ingredients for a commercial sunscreen. Previously, it has been shown that bacterial-derived melanin can provide photoprotection against UVA-induced cell death (Geng et al., 2008). Therefore, in this study, melanin derived from black sesame (Sesamum indicum ) was selected for its potential application as an active sunscreen (courtesy of Lingonberry Organic Foodstuffs, China). Various tests were carried out on the melanin to determine its chemical purity as it is not a common commercially available compound. There were no aerobic or anaerobic bacteria detected in the sample. It was also negative for mycobacterium and fungus. In addition, there was no contamination with any type of dead bacteria {courtesy of Professor Paul J. Hergenrother, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois}. Absorbance studies carried out on the zinc oxide and melanin confirmed their physical properties (courtesy of Matthew Brichacek and Professor PJ Hergenrothers Lab). The zinc oxide at 7.5% was found to be a good reflector in the UVB and UVA ranges (Fig. 1) . The melanin at 0.4 mg/ml
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60 minutes following the application of sunscreen, which was applied at least 15 minutes prior to exposure. The control experiment was performed under the same conditions without the application of any sunscreen or sun lotion. Photographs of the face were taken 48 to 72 hours from the time of commencement of initial sun exposure which was deemed as 0 hours at approximately noon on the day of trial. All experiments were conducted between the months of late May, June, August, and early October at Ambleside beach or on the mountainside in West Vancouver, British Columbia (Canada). These same results were repeatedly observed under comparable conditions.
three phases of inflammation, new tissue formation, and apoptosis. In addition, the dark flesh-pink coloration only occurred on the nose and slightly on the cheeks while there was no sunglass line on the cheeks with the zinc oxide sunscreen. This seems to follow a localized sunburn pattern in susceptible areas like the nose and cheeks rather than the usual diffuse suntan pattern suggesting another component to the reaction. In contrast, it is interesting to note that the suntan pattern is ordinarily uniform because pigment-producing melanocytes are evenly distributed throughout the basal epidermal layer of the human skin. Moreover, IPD is said to fade rapidly in 24 hours and PPD within several days, while this coloration persisted for up to a week. Therefore, there could be some overlap with the inflammatory phase of the sunburn cycle suggesting a combination of IPD, PPD, and redness caused by inflammation. There was also a slight stinging and burning sensation on the face up to 24 hours following sun exposure consistent with an inflammatory reaction. In the case of the melanin sunscreen, a sunglass line was visible after one hour of sun exposure on both nose and cheeks while no acute redness or inflammation was observed. Once again, the sunglass line was pinkish and there was some slight stinging during sun exposure possibly indicating a little sunburn. However, the coloration on the nose and cheeks was more uniform with this sunscreen suggesting a greater ratio of IPD/PPD to inflammation than with the first sunscreen. In addition, the colour faded within several days. This could potentially be an interesting observation because while UVA can cause erythema, which is unlikely to serve any supportive function, IPD, or, delayed UVA tanning may actually play a protective role against UVB exposure (Kaidbey and Kligman, 1978). Since there was no peeling even 96 hours after sun exposure with either sunscreen, this indicates that both these formulations may be somewhat effective in preventing the apoptotic phase, but not necessarily the inflammatory phase, of UVB-induced sunburn by uncoupling the two
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events (Fig.4A,B,&C). The inflammation may also represent some degree of UVA-induced erythema. As zinc oxide is a known UVAI blocker at 7.5% and since it is UVAI that causes IPD, it is unlikely to be the sole cause of the change in coloration observed in these trials. Although not an ideal result, these two sunscreen formulations are preferable to those which prevent the inflammatory but not the apoptotic phase of sunburn which has been linked to carcinogenesis. Currently, the sun protection factor (SPF) of a sunscreen is based on its ability to block erythema and immediate pigment darkening (IPD). However, neither of these biological parameters has been linked to skin cancer. Therefore, certain scientists have recommended using another criterion that is more representative of long term UV cutaneous damage such as apoptotic sunburn cells. The term tumour protection factor (TPF) has been proposed to describe it. Thus, it seems possible that a solution as simple as melanin could finally provide the protection required against this deadly disease.
REFERENCES
Bernerd, F., Vioux, C., Lejeune, F. and Asselineau, D. (2003) The sun protection factor (SPF) inadequately defines broad spectrum photoprotection: demonstration using skin reconstructed in vitro exposed to UVA, UVB, or UV-solar simulated radiatio Eur. J. Dermatol. 13(3): 242-249. Chintala, S., Li, W., Lamoreux, M.L., Ito, S., Wakamatsu, K., Sviderskaya, E.V., Bennett, D.C., Park, Y.M., Gahl, W.A., Huizing,
Melia dubia : A Potential Species for Agroforestry Under Different Agro-Climatic Conditions of Haryana State of India
Jagdish Chander
Research Circle, Haryana State Forest Department, Pinjore-134 102, Haryana, India E-mail: jchander845@gmail.com
Forests have been serving mankind since the beginning of this universe. It is not possible to sum up the importance of forests in just a few words. The world over the forests are considered as the repositories of biological diversity, they harbour the rare and endangered species of plants and animals. Leave the tangible benefits in terms of timber, fuel wood, fodder, fibre and medicinal herbs, the intangible benefits of the forests are incalculable. The air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat are the products of forests and its biological biodiversity. But in spite of the fact that the forests are vital for mankind, the forests are disappearing all over the world. Loss of forest is the major cause for global warming and need to be protected all over the world irrespective of whether it is underdeveloped or developing or the developed country. Though many alternatives of wood are available but nothing can replace wood. Therefore, it is important to meet the timber requirement of the people and industries though conserving the forests, biological diversity in-situ and extending the tree cover outside forests including on farm. Besides meeting the requirement of wood for timber and pulp, the agroforestry on farmland will ease pressure on forests and will help in conserving the flora and fauna of that area. Trees on the farm have been adopted due to their high economics in the north-western states of India. Farmers need quick returns, and poplar and eucalyptus have fitted well into the system of agroforestry of Haryana and adjoining states because they grow faster than any other indigenous tree species. They have brought prosperity to the people by giving quick returns. However, they too have limitations. Poplar grows only in a limited zone with well drained neutral soil and does not perform well in high temperature conditions (beyond 45OC) prevailing in the region during summer months. Eucalyptus Gall Wasp (Leptocybe invasa) is threatening Eucalyptus farming and this species too does not grow in semi-arid tracts. Further, there is a need to diversify species under agroforestry system and monoculture is always dangerous. Therefore, Melia dubia (syn. M. composita) is an another species that fits into the
Melia dubia belongs to Meliaceae and is a tall tree with smooth bark, which is reddish-brown when young, turning grey brown on maturity. It grows straight attaining a height of about 20 m in its natural habitat. The length of the straight bole is about 9m, which is a very good length for any broad leaved species. The beautiful serrated leaves and purple flowers make it an ornamental tree. It is deciduous in nature and sheds its leaves by end of December allowing much needed sunshine to reach the ground, which makes it a suitable species for agroforestry. The species is likely to be a viable option for adoption by the farmers with economic gains at short rotation. Research emphasis has been given on M. azedarach and M. volkensii but very little has been attempted on Melia dubia (Stewart and Blomley, 1994; Luna et al., 2006; Chauhan et al., 2008). Therefore, to facilitate the farmers, information has been generated on the important aspects of plantation management of this important species.
The study was conducted in Pinjore, Panchkula, Bithmarha, Sohna and Jhumpa areas of Haryana and Mohali of Punjab. To introduce M. dubia in Haryana, seeds of M. dubia were procured from plus trees selected by the Punjab State Forest Department located at Mohali in February 2005 and three thousand plants were raised in polybags in Rawalwas nursery in Hisar district. Plantation was done in July 2006 at a place called Khedar (semiarid zone) in Hisar district alongwith other species namely Albizia procera, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa and Cordia dichotoma. The annual rainfall here is around 300mm. It is stabilized sand dune and the texture of the soil is sandy loam (pH of the soil is 8.2). Four hectare area was allotted to each species.
M. dubia was introduced in Panchkula district of Haryana in 2007. The soil is clay loam and pH is around 7.5. The annual precipitation here is around 1000 mm. In the same year, its plantation was also raised in Jhumpa Forest Research Station of Haryana Forest Department. The soil and climatic conditions here are almost similar to
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Jagdish Chander
fact that they have narrow genetic base and are prone to attack by pests. Additionally, Eucalyptus and poplar have their limitations for adoption on semi-arid and arid conditions. Therefore, a species with wider adaptability was needed and M. dubia is a recent introduction in Haryana. The final results are not available but the initial results indicate that M. dubia can adapt in Haryana in clayey, loam and sandy loam soils in all bio-geographical regions of the state. As regards biomass production in semi-arid region, it is better than Ailanthus excelsa (local fast growing tree), whereas, the results are comparable with eucalyptus and poplar in Shiwalik foothills and the central plains. M. dubia has performed much better than the local M. azedarach in terms of growth, bole length and form. Out of all species i.e., Albizia procera, Azadirachta indica, Ailanthus excelsa and Cordia dichotoma planted in Khedar in 2006, M. dubia grew fastest and made the barren land green within a year. The plantation of M. dubia done in Panchkula in 2007, had high survival rate and has put on excellent growth. The results obtained from planting M. dubia in Panchkula and Khedar have proved that it can grow and adapt well in all parts of the state except the pure sand. The frost is of common occurrence throughout the state but it is more severe in Jhumpa and Khedar area but M. dubia was not affected either by frost or by high temperature. Species has also been tested positive on extreme temperature conditions. It thrived well under extreme temperature conditions of 48oC in summers and zero degree in winters in Haryana. In the western parts of Haryana, extremely harsh conditions are experienced during summer months. Onfarm raising of M. dubia may moderate the high temperature for better crop yield. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) was also grown with M. dubia at Panchkula and yield of wheat during three years of cultivation have been presented in table 1. It was noticed that yield of wheat during first year was 1.98 tons per hectare. The maximum yield without trees was 2 tons. So during first year, there was no significant effect in the yield of wheat, however, during second and third year, the yield of wheat was significantly less though the reduction in yield was not only due to competition but also due to reduced effective area for crop. Infact, M. dubia is a deciduous species and it
Table 1. Wheat yield under M. dubia canopy Year of plantation 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 Control Wheat yield (tha-1) 1.98 1.55 1.20 2.00
Khedar. The plantation in Panchkula and Jhumpa was done at a spacing of 4mx3m to facilitate the movement of tractor for ploughing. The plants were irrigated once in a month. The study trial for the selection of superior genotype was layed out at two places viz., Bithmarha and Sohna located in western and southern Haryana. Both of these sites are located in semi-arid tract and receive an annual rainfall of about 400mm. The tree-crop interface studies [M. dubia (dek)-Triticum aestivum (wheat)] were conducted at Jhumpa in semi-arid tract and Panchkula in Shiwalik foothills. The plantation at both the sites was done in July 2007. In Panchkula, wheat was grown upto three years starting from winters of 2007 and at Jhumpa, the crop was raised during third year of the plantation only. The study on the tolerance of M. dubia to high temperature and frost, plantations were established at Khedar, Bithmarha, Panchkula, Jhumpa and Sohna. The observations were recorded during peak winters and peak summer period. To study the end uses of wood of M. dubia, logs were arranged and converted to veneer, chairs and table at the Saw Mill of Forest Department, Haryana. The sawing properties, nail holding capacity, polish taking quality and wood turning capacity were studied. The views of the carpenters using M. dubia wood at timber market Mohali were also recorded as expert input. Paper making quality was got analyzed in the laboratory of Star Paper Mill at Saharanpur (Uttar Pradesh, India). Marketing of produce is an important aspect of interest for the adopters. The average current rates per cubic meter of popular agroforestry tree species namely poplar and Eucalyptus were collected from Haryana and Punjab timber market to compare the current prevailing rates of timber with M. dubia. The data were suitably analyzed to draw proper inferences. The adoption of the technologies/species depends upon the attitude and the perception of the stakeholders. The attitudes of foresters and farmers of Haryana for making M. dubia an integral component in regular planting programme were also recorded. The views of large number of farmers were taken in this regard including the views of frontline staff and officers. Haryana is an agrarian state, where the tree cover is much below (6.8%) than the minimum required percentage (20%) as envisaged in the National Forest Policy. The only option is to extend trees on the farmland but all tree species can not fit into the agro-ecosystem. The tree species should be fast growing and intercultivated cause minimum competition of resources with the crops. Eucalyptus since sixties and poplar since late seventies are being grown by the farmers of Haryana and adjoining states but it is also a
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Eucalyptus tereticornis
50 225 12.1 5000
Populus deltoides
50.20 207 13.1 4500
Melia dubia
49.8 194 14.9 4000
allows sunshine to reach on the ground during winters without any significant hindrance. The decrease in yield was because of the reason that significantly more space was left unploughed and uncultivated to avoid injury to the roots. It can be concluded that the crops can be grown with M. dubia atleast upto three years.
has wide adaptability. Therefore, growing M. dubia in Haryana on a large scale would boost economy equally in all parts of state. Out of 100 persons interviewed for its adoption, everyone was in favour of growing M. dubia in Haryana on a large scale. M. dubia grows much faster than the indigenous M. azedarach (Chauhan et al., 2008). Besides the bole of M. dubia is straighter and less branchy, thus facilitates intercultivation of crops underneath. The survival of M. dubia is also higher than other tree species because the leaves are not a good fodder and the animals eat it only in scarcity. The instant greening is the most important reason for the love of foresters towards M. dubia. People of Haryana have gone crazy after M. dubia and want to plant more and more of it on their farms. The wider adoption of this species in Haryana and adjoining states requires attention on low cost vegetative propagation technology and tree-crop interface research for economic and environmental benefits.
M. dubia wood was found to take the polish well and its nail holding capacity it self was good. The wood turns well, the carpenters love to work on it for furniture making. Pin hole borer (Dinoderus) and powder post beetle (Lyctus) cause heavy damage to furniture and plywood, etc. M. dubia furniture is being used in Forest Department office since 2008. Neither veneers nor the furniture has been attacked by powder post beetles. No termite attack has been noticed, hence, it can be concluded that M. dubia wood is not attacked by powder post beetles. M. dubia wood was got analyzed for paper making qualities and the results are presented in table 2. It is evident that pulp yield of M. dubia is comparable with eucalyptus and poplar. The bulk density is little lower and the kappa number little higher than eucalyptus and poplar, indicate that it is not bad to use for paper making. Though M. dubia is little on the lower side for paper quality but is comparable with eucalyptus and poplar, thus, selling of wood of M. dubia due to its diverse uses will not be a problem.
The average market rates of M. dubia are less than eucalyptus and poplar, yet the timber rates are comparable (Table 2). Grewal (2000) also suggested the on-farm profitability of M. azedarach. It is so because eucalyptus and poplar have limited zone of establishment and M. dubia
REFERENCES
Chauhan, R., Chauhan, S.K. and Saralch, H.S. (2008) Melia azedarach. Bulletin pubished by Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, PAU Ludhiana, 48p. Grewal, S.S. (2000) Evaluation of drake (Melia azedarach) raised in agroforestry systems by farmers of Punjab Shiwaliks. Ind. J. Soil Consv. 28: 253-255. Luna, R.K., Singh, B. and Sharma, S.K. (2006) Assessment of 51 progenies of Melia azedarach Linn.-A promising agroforestry tree. Ind. For. 132: 941-951. Stewart, M. and Blomley, T. (1994) Use of Melia volkensii in a semiarid agroforestry system in Kenya. Commonwealth Forestry Review 73: 128131.
Bougainvillea is one of the most useful plants for landscaping in almost all the parts of the World. Schoelhorn and Alavrez (2002) recorded that the bloom cycles of bougainvillea are typically from four to six weeks. The plant requires little water to flower. In India, Bougainvillea grows best in all the parts of the country but its cultivation is limited in temperate climate with heavy snowfall and severe frost. It generally fails to flower in shade and the color of the bract is never bright (Randhawa and Mukhopadhyay,1986). In north Indian plains, especially in Punjab, most varieties bear bracts from September to December and again from February to June. Plant growth in compost-based media containing peat or bark was equal to or better than that in two commercial media composed primarily of bark or peat. (Ticknoor et al.,1985). Increased land costs in urban areas resulted in less space for the plants and people prefer raising indoor plants in pots, thus, the environmental conditions like sunshine and temperature is not adequate. Therefore, the investigation was carried out to categorize the different cultivars of Bougainvillea according to their response to the different sunshine hours and potting media.
The present experiment was carried out at Landscape Nursery unit, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during the year (2008-10). Five different potting media i.e., soil, soil + leaf mould (1:1), soil + vermicompost (1:1), soil + FYM (1:1) and coco peat + vermicompost (1:1) were used for standardization of optimum potting media for quality pot production of Bougainvillea. Ten varieties (Torch glory, Zakeriana, Shubhra, Thimma, Mahara, Meera, Mohan, Lady Mary Baring, Mrs. H. C. Buck and Scarlet Queen) were exposed to variable sunlight treatments like 4 hours, 8 hours and full sunlight by constructing a temporary structures (Fig. 1) in the East- West direction being covered their top and sides with the black polythene sheet for providing the shade to the plants after exposing them to 4 hours and 8 hours sunlight. Dimensions of the temporary structure (shed) was 25 (L) x 22 (B) x 6 (H1) x 3 (H2).Each structure accommodates 450 pots of bougainvillea plants. The vertical hanging was also given to provide the shade to pot plants under different sunshine hours. The length of the vertical hanging was adjusted according to the varying angle of the
Fig.1. Side view of specially designed structure showing both the hangings (horizontal and vertical) in different
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Table 2. Influence of sunshine on bracts/plants in Bougainvillea Sunlight 4 hours 8 Hours Full sunlight C.D (0.05) Sept. 2.55 3.15 3.02 0.17 Oct. 4.10 4.87 4.51 0.32 Nov. 5.56 6.59 6.61 0.26 Dec. 2.71 3.61 3.23 0.78 Jan. 1.23 3.36 1.65 0.13 Feb. 0.48 1.04 0.75 0.78 Mar. 4.47 5.82 5.15 0.78 Apr. 5.12 6.36 6.03 0.44 May 5.32 7.01 6.89 0.17 June 5.61 7.59 7.48 0.22 July 5.85 8.39 8.26 0.21
sun in different months during the experiment. The ten experimental varieties selected were. The experiment was laid out in FCRD (Factorial Completely Randomized Block Design). The Bougainvillea plants about 1-1.5 years old was transplanted in 8 inches size earthen pots in three replications. Observation like number of bracts/plant in different potting media and colour of bracts during opening and senescence was recorded and was interpreted in different months. The data showed significant influence of potting media on number of bracts/plant in bougainvillea (Table1). Among various potting media, soil + leaf mould (1:1) recorded maximum number of bracts/plant from September (3.72) to July (15.22) followed by soil + vermicompost (1:1) except in the month of Feb, while minimum number of bracts/plant were recorded in cocopeat + vermicompost (1:1) during September (1.65) to July (5.66). More number of bracts/ plant in soil + leaf (1:1) mould may be attributed due to high (36.59) C:N ratio of the media as compared to 14.3 C:N
ratio of soil + vermicompost (1:1). Less number of bracts/ plant were found during the months of December- January in all the media. This might be due to the periodic flowering character of the different cultivars of Bougainvillea. Sunlight duration of 8 hours (8.39) resulted in maximum number of bracts/plant. Number of bracts (8.26) in full sunlight was found to be at par with 8 hours sunlight (Table 2). Hackett and Sachs (1965) recommended that flowering can be increased in bougainvillea by increasing light intensity through improved plant spacing. Further, it was confirmed by (Dol et al., 1992) that quality of potted flowering plants (generally placed in shaded area) is often greatly affected by poor environmental conditions, such as low light intensity, high or low temperature, variation and water stress. Wurr et al. (2000) found that light is an essential prerequisite factor for the plant growth and development. Criley (1977) reported that 8 hours day length was significantly more effective than 14.0 - 14.5 hours day length. Rate of progress to flowering increased linearly with temperature and with
Table 3. Number of bracts/plant in different varieties of Bougainvillea Varieties T. Glory Zakeriana Shubhra Thimma LadyMaryBaring Mrs.H.C. Buck Mohan Mahara Scarlet Queen Meera C.D (0.05) Sept. 5.44 4.69 5.44 3.88 0.24 2.44 3.72 1.93 0.31 Oct. 8.89 6.04 1.10 6.93 5.55 4.49 0.11 3.62 5.54 2.65 0.34 Nov. 9.54 6.47 2.27 6.88 12.80 9.18 1.30 4.57 5.63 3.90 0.34 Dec. 3.29 2.05 3.95 1.87 3.86 2.53 2.94 5.57 1.06 4.93 0.31 Jan. 5.05 0.16 3.99 6.15 5.47 0.14 Feb. 0.99 1.39 1.19 0.73 1.36 0.92 1.00 0.14 Mar. 6.19 9.26 5.12 4.13 1.93 6.71 5.01 6.00 8.11 6.33 0.16 Apr. 7.78 11.00 6.84 7.00 13.26 6.88 5.96 7.85 10.09 7.54 0.44 May 8.12 11.88 7.62 7.84 14.56 7.22 6.99 8.46 11.26 8.12 0.34 June 9.36 12.97 8.00 8.63 17.22 8.54 8.12 9.35 12.59 9.46 0.34 July 10.58 13.78 8.69 9.11 19.12 9.87 9.54 10.11 14.12 10.19 0.38
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increase in photoperiods (Adams et al., 1997). The maximum number of bracts (19.12) per plant was observed in variety Lady Mary Baring in the month of July. Numbers of bracts in different varieties were found to be minimum in months from December- February except Shubhra, Mohan, Mahara and Meera. This may be due to the frequent rains and fog, which reduced the solar radiation intensity and sunshine hours. No flowering was observed in varieties Torch Glory, Zakeriana, Lady Mary Baring, Scarlet Queen and Mrs. H. C Buck in the month of January and February. This may be due to resting period of these varieties. It was found that all varieties flowered profusely in soil + leaf mould (1:1) media under different sunshine conditions. Varieties like Shubhra (12.99), Mohan (10.98) and Mahara (13.09) showed maximum number of bracts/ plant in 4 hours sunshine duration. Golstev et al. (2003) recommended that extremely high irradiation destroys photosynthetic pigments. Chen et al. (1979) also reported that short day promotes flowering in Bougainvillea. Varieties like Zakeriana (12.26), Thimma (9.11), and Scarlet Queen (14.12) were found to have maximum number of bracts/ plant in 8 hours sunshine duration. Other varieties like Torch Glory (11.21) and Lady Mary Baring (19.1) showed maximum number of bracts/plant in full sunlight conditions. Munir et al. (2004) found that photoperiod and temperature are major influencing factors on time of flowering.
REFERENCES
Adams, S. R., Pearson, S. and Headly, P. (1997) Effect of temperature, photoperiod and light integral on the time to
Efficient In vitro Sterilization Technique for Micropropagation of Banana (Musa acuminata) cv. Grand Naine
Pooja Manchanda*, Ajinder Kaur and S. S. Gosal
School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: poojamanchanda5@gmail.com
Banana (Musa spp.) is the fourth most important food commodity that grows throughout in humid tropics and subtropics with an annual production of 97.5 million tonnes (Ganapathi et al., 2008). Application of micropropagation technique for large scale production of elite clones of banana is an effective and superior alternative to propagation through conventional cuttings of Musa spp. In vitro propagation technique for banana (Musa acuminata L.) cv. Grand Naine involves various steps, i.e., establishment of aseptic cultures, shoot multiplication, induction of rooting, hardening and transfer of plantlets to soil. The maintenance of aseptic (free from all microorganisms) or sterile conditions is essential for successful tissue culture procedures. To maintain an aseptic environment, all culture vessels, media and instruments used in handling tissues, as well as explant itself must be sterilized. Various sterilization agents are used to decontaminate the tissues. These sterilants are also toxic to the plant tissues, hence proper concentration of sterilants, duration of exposing the explant to the various sterilants, the sequences of using these sterilants has to be standardized to minimize explant injury and achieve better survival. Two different chemicals, 0.1% carbendazim (BavistinTM from BASF India Ltd, Mumbai) and mercuric chloride (HgCl2) were used for the present study to reduce the incidence of both fungal and bacterial contamination and to standardize the best sterilization protocol for in vitro culture of banana cv. Grand Naine. The suitable explants were prepared from young suckers (3-13 cm diameter), carefully removed from the field by digging a trench around the sucker to completely detach it from the banana mother plants and brought to the laboratory. All the soil was removed by washing them thoroughly under running tap water for 10-15 min. The roots and leaf sheaths of the suckers were removed with the help of a sharp knife. The shoot-tip explants were prepared by removing extraneous corm tissue from suckers. Shoottips, containing several sheathing bases enclosing axillary buds measuring about 4.5-5.5 cm in length were isolated. These shoot-tips were first washed with TeepolTM for 4-5
minutes and then in running tap water for 5-10 minutes to remove the detergent. The pale-white tissue-block of banana containing shoot-tips and rhizomatous bases were surface sterilized with 0.1% carbendazim on a rotary shaker for which appropriate duration (25, 35, 45 and 55 min.) was standardized to make the explants free from any fungal contamination. This treatment was followed by washing them in running tap water for 4-5 min contained in culture jars were taken in a laminar air flow cabinet (Klenzaides, Bombay) where these were further sterilized with mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for which optimum concentration out of 0.1 and 0.2 per cent, and duration of 5, 8, 10 and 12 minues were tested, to prevent bacterial contamination. This treatment was followed by rinsing the explants thrice in sterile distilled water. The surface sterilizing solution was prepared fresh every time. The exposed tissue from cut ends of each sterilized block was removed to obtain a 2-3 cm portion containing intact apex and one or more pairs of leaf primordia together with 3.5-4.0 cm of rhizomatous base. The explant in this form was used for inoculation. All glassware and instruments were thoroughly washed and dried at 80C. Distilled water and glassware used for explants were autoclaved at 15 psi for 45 min. Implantations of sterilized explants were done using Murashige and Skoog basal medium. The cultures were placed in culture growth room. The observations were recorded regularly till 30 days for the growing cultures. The experiment was repeated three times in completely randomized block design with twenty explants per replication. Statistical analysis was done using CPCS-1 software package developed at Punjab Agricultural University. The data on the effect of pre-treatment with fungicide and the duration of exposure on explant survival percentage are presented in Table 1. Cultured explants showed 100 per cent contamination and did not survive when no treatment of bavistin was given. There was significant reduction in per cent contamination with pre-treatment of explants with bavistin on a rotary shaker. Among the various
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durations of treatments, bavistin for 45 min was found best and significantly effective than the other treatments, in which 57.71 per cent uncontaminated explants were obtained and the per cent explant survival was 55.63. The survival per cent was significantly reduced at lower durations, which was 17.74 and 51.07 per cent at 25 and 35 minutes, respectively. Although percentage of contaminated explants could be reduced when treatment was given for 55 minutes but at the same time, explant survival rate was reduced to 47.11 per cent. The use of antifungal agents to minimize the contamination of in vitro cultures in Musa spp. has been demonstrated by Nandwani et al. (2000).
Table 1. Effect of pre-treatment of explants with bavistin 0.1% on per cent explant contamination and survival in banana cv. Grand Naine Duration of exposure (min.) 0 (Control) 25 35 45 55 CD (p = 0.05) Contamination* (%) 100*(89.96)** 82.55(65.28) 66.77(54.77) 57.71(49.42) 35.18(36.36) 1.02 Explant survival* (%) 0.00(0.00) 17.74(24.89) 51.07(45.59) 55.63(48.21) 47.11(43.32) 0.887
Among the various combinations and concentrations of HgCl2 tested, the HgCl2 @ 0.1 per cent for a duration of 10 minutes was found best and significantly effective than other treatments, where 55.7 per cent survival of uncontaminated explants was obtained (Table 2). The treatment with shorter durations (5 and 8 minutes) showed significantly less explant survival percentages of 21.86 and 47.03, respectively. An increase in the concentration of HgCl2 (0.2%) and increase in duration of sterilization resulted in drying out and death of explants. The reduction in explant survival percentage with increase in the duration of exposure might be due to phytotoxicity caused by mercuric ions (Hg2+) present in mercuric chloride. Thereafter, the explants were established in the medium after the removal of dead tissues. Effectiveness of mercuric chloride for sterilization of explants collected from field-grown suckers of banana has been reported by many workers (Shiragi et al., 2008; Kacar et al., 2010). However, the kind, concentration and duration of sterilization treatment required vary with the degree of contamination, type and hardiness of explants.
Thus, in the present study, an effective sterilization technique for suckers of banana cv. Grand Naine was worked out. It was established that treatment of field collected suckers first with 0.1% bavistin solution for 45 min and then with 0.1% HgCl2 for 10 min helps in achieving more than 50 per cent reduction in contamination due to fungus and bacteria, respectively and more than 55 per cent explant survival. This sterilization may be followed for other banana cultivars also.
REFERENCES
Ganapathi, T.R., Sidha, M., Suprasanna, P., Ujjappa, K.M., Bapat, V.A. and DSouza, S.F. (2008) Field performance and RAPD analysis of gamma-irradiated variants of banana cultivar Giant Cavendish (AAA). Intl. J. Fruit Sci. 8: 147-159. Kacar, Y.A., Bicen, B., Varol, I., Mendi, Y.Y., Serce, S. and Cetiner, S. (2010) Gelling agents and culture vessels affect in vitro multiplication of banana plantlets. Genet. Mol. Res. 9: 416424. Nandwani, D., Zehr, U., Zehr, B.E. and Barwale, R.B. (2000) Mass propagation and ex vitro survival of banana cv. Basrai through tissue culture. Garten Bauwissen Chaft 65: 237-240. Shiragi, M.H.K., Baque, M.A. and Nasiruddin, K.M. (2008) Eradication of banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) and banana mosaic virus (BMV) from infected plant of banana cv. Amritasagar through meristem culture. South Pacific Studies 29: 17-41.
Effect of Some Bio-pesticides and Chemical Pesticides on Survival of Larval Parasitoid Bracon hebetor Say (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
Lakshman Chandra Patel* and Anirudhya Pramanik1
Ramkrishna Ashram KVK, Nimpith Ashram, South 24 Parganas, W.B. 743 338, India 1 AICRP on Plant Parasitic Nematodes, BCKV, Kalyani, Nadia, W.B., India, India *E-mail: lakshman_patel@rediffmail.com Bracon hebetor Say is an effective bio-control agent as larval parasitoid of some lepidopteran insect-pests. It can be easily mass multiplied in the laboratory and released into the crop field for bio-control (Khan et al., 2009). In recent years, the adoption of bio-intensive pest management approach has been stressed but this strategy requires attention on the impact and selectivity of the bio-pesticides and insecticides either singly or in combination on natural enemies. The conservation of natural enemies like B. hebetor through effective integration of these pesticides would be a valuable bio-intensive pest management (BIPM) options for many crops. The selective insecticides, less toxic to natural enemies than to target pests, are helpful in integration of biological control and chemical applications (Hull and Beers, 1985). Croft (1990) concluded that most of the conventional insecticides have harmful effects on nontarget organisms including natural enemies. Apart from this, neem based botanicals have also shown toxicity to B. hebetor (Raguraman and Singh, 1998). Among the new chemistry insecticides spinosad was highly toxic to Bracon mellitor (Kovalankov, 2002). Danfa and Valk (1999) documented 100 per cent mortality of Bracon hebetor against Metarhizium sp. and Beauveria bassiana. The effect of Bacillus thuringiensis on Bracon instabilis was studied by Salama et al. (1996), who reported prolonged immature stages of Bracon followed by reduced emergence of adults with less fertile females. Acknowledging the available literature, it is not enough to get a clear picture of the selectivity of bio-pesticides and insecticides to be used along with the Bracon hebetor in a sustainable bio-intensive pest management. So, the present study was conducted with an objective of finding selective bio-pesticides and modern chemical insecticide either single or their different combinations against B. hebetor when the later can be used in integration with them for management of important lepidopteran larvae.
Studies on the toxic effect of bio-pesticides, synthetic insecticides and their combination to natural larval parasitoid Bracon hebetor was conducted in the Laboratory condition in completely randomized block design and each treatment was replicated thrice. The larval parasitoid B.
hebetor used in this study was obtained from the bio-control laboratory, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal. For such study, glass tube of 15 x 2.5 cm size was smeared with 0.5ml of pesticide solution. Freshly emerged 10 adults of B. hebetor were transferred into each treated tube. The tubes were then covered with a cotton cloth and honey (5%) was provided as food with the help of cotton swab at the top of the cloth. Mortality of the adult larval parasitoids was recorded at every one day interval upto 4 days after treatment. The Data collected on adult mortality were subjected to statistical analyses after angular transformations and the means were separated by DMRT (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
The detailed results of the present research on the toxic effect of bio-pesticides, chemical pesticides and some of their different mixtures on larval parasitoid B. hebetor is presented in Table 1. M. anisopliae was at par with untreated control with no mortality. All other treatments as compared to untreated check differ significantly in terms of mortality of adult Bracons. Among chemical insecticides, the cartap hydrochloride @ 0.1% proved highly toxic with 100 per cent mortality. At par mortality was recorded at different time intervals in separate mixture of cartap hydrochloride with bio-pesticides Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and Metarhizium anisopliae at half of their recommended doses. The complete mortality was observed for both of the mixtures at four days after treatment. In comparison to this, the new chemistry insecticide flufenoxuron was relatively more safe causing only 16.92 per cent mortality to adult Bracon hebetor exposed to four days after treatment. It was statistically at par with Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki, neem oil and Beauveria bassiana at different time hours. After four days of exposure, among microbial pesticides, B. thuringiensis caused relatively more mortality (13.43%) followed by B. bassiana (9.70%) and M. anisopliae (nil). The separate mixture of neem oil with B. thuringiensis and M. anisopliae were relatively safer than cartap hydrochloride 50 SP mixtures. The very negligible per cent of contact toxicity was recorded for adult Bracon hebetor to Bacillus thuringiensis
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Table 1. Toxicity of microbial, botanical, chemical pesticides and their mixtures on adult of larval parasitoid Bracon hebetor Dose Adult mortality (%) of Bracon hebetor (Days after treatment) 1 2 6.73ef 0.00e 7.25ef 10.83de 11.62de 100.00a 23.33e 63.33b 17.78cd 60.00b 4 13.43d 0.00e 9.70d 10.83d 16.92cd 100.0a 30.00b 100.00a 25.00bc 96.67a
Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.1% Metarhizium anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.5% Beauveria bassiana 1% W/W @ 0.5% Neem oil 5000 ppm @ 0.2% Flufenoxuron 10% DC @ 0.1% Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.1% Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.05% + Neem oil @ 0.1% Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki 5% WP @ 0.05% + Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.05% Metarhizium anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.25% + Neem oil 0.1% M. anisopliae 1% W/W @ 0.25%+ Cartap hydrochloride 50 SP @ 0.05%
*No mortality was recorded in untreated control
3.03e 0.00e 3.92e 7.50de 6.73de 100.00a 20.06 c 53.33b 12.22d 55.00b
*In a column, means followed by same alphabet are not significantly different (P=0.05) by DMRT
var kurstaki. This particular information is indirectly accordance with the result obtained by Salama et al. (1996). Although, 100 per cent mortality of the parasitoid was reported by Danfa and Valk (1999) when exposed to M. anisopliae and B. bassiana but in this study both the fungal pathogens were safe to Bracon hebetor. Such contradictory finding might be due to differences in strains of both the entomopathogens. Aqueous suspension and ethanolic extract of neem seed kernel (NSK) were safe to Bracon hebetor in respect of ovipositional deterency, toxicity (Raghuraman and Singh, 1998), which more or less corroborates the present findings. In this present study, the new generation insecticide flufenoxuron was less toxic to Bracon hebetor, although Khan et al. (2009) proved slightly harmful to harmful effect after 48 hours of application of the other new generation insecticides like emamectin benzoate, abamectin, spinosad, indoxacarb and methoxyfenozide at different doses. The complete mortality was observed in the adults treated with recommended dose rate of conventional insecticide cartap hydrochloride just after 24 hours of application. Moreover, the separate mixture of the same with Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki and Metarhizium anisopliae at half of their recommended dose were not also safe at all to Bracon after 96 hours of application. These results are indirectly supported with those obtained by Reddy et al. (1997) and Mandal and Somchoudhury (1995), who reported the toxicity of the conventional insecticides to Bracon hebetor. It can be concluded that the bio-pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis var kurstaki, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana and neem oil either solo or their mix application may be used with Bracon hebetor in biointensive pest management. Safe insecticide like
flufenoxuron may be integrated with bio-pesticides and Bracon hebetor for successful implementation of lepidopteran pest eradication as well as insecticide resistance management.
REFERENCES
Croft, B. A. ( 1990) Arthropod Biological Control Agents and Pesticides. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Danfa, A. and Valk, H.C.H.G. (1999) Laboratory testing of Metarrhizium spp. and Beauveria bassiana on Sahelian nontarget arthropods. Biocontrol Science and Technology 9(2): 187-198. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1984) Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. John Wiley and Sons, New York. pp. 680. Hull, L.A. and Beers, E.H. (1985) Ecological sensitivity modifying chemical control practices to preserve natural enemies. In: Biological pest Control in Agricultural Ecosystem . Acad. Press, Orlando, Fla., pp. 103-121. Khan, R. R., Ashfaq, M., Ahmed, S. and Sahi, S.T. (2009) Mortality responses in Bracon hebetor (Say) (Braconidae: Hymenoptera) against some new chemistry and conventional insecticides under laboratory conditions. Pak. J. Agri. Sci. 46(1): 30-33. Kovalankov, V.G. (2002) A biomethod for condition of arthropods resistances to insecticides. Zahista-i-Karantin-Res-Tenni. 5: 18-19. Mandal, S.K. and Somchoudhury, A.K. (1995) Bioefficacy of commercial formulation of insecticides against Bracon hebetor (Say). Ind. J. Entomo. 57: 50-54. Raguraman, S. and Singh, R.P. (1998) Behavioural and physiological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) seed kernel extracts on larval parasitoid. Bracon hebetor. J. Chem. Eco. 24(7): 12411250. Reddy, G.R., Sreelatha, S. and Divakar, B.J. (1997) Toxicity of six insecticides to two species of Bracon. Ind. J. Plant Prot. 25: 135-136. Salama, H.S., Zaki, F.N. and Sabbour, M.M. (1996) Effect of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin on Apanteles litae Nixon and Bracon instabilis Marsh. (Hym.: Braconidae), two parasitoids of the potato tuber moth Phthorimia operculella Zeller (Lep., Gelishiidae). J. Appl. Entomo. 120 (1-5): 565-568.
145
Sulfosulfuron is a main member of the sulfonylurea family of herbicides used widely throughout the world for the control of broadleaf and grassy weeds in a range of crops. The fundamental mode of action for sulfosulfuron and indeed all sulfonylurea herbicides entails inhibition of acetolactate synthase (ALS) an essential enzyme in aliphatic amino acid synthesis (Maheshwari and Ramesh, 2007). The sulfonylurea herbicides are mainly degraded by nonbiological chemical hydrolysis and soil micro organisms. Some parts of the herbicides are also lost from the upper soil layers as they leach down from the surface to the lower layers. Excessive mobility and persistence of sulfonylurea herbicides in soils may cause groundwater contamination and phytotoxicity to rotational crops. This movement of herbicides in the soil profile is also dependent upon soil factors such as pH, clay and organic matter (Yaron, 1989; Ramesh and Maheswari, 2003). Sulfonylurea herbicides are weak acids and they exist primarily in the anion form in agronomic soils. Consequently, sulfonylurea herbicides are generally weakly adsorbed by soil (Eleftherohorinos et al., 2004). The adsorption and leaching behaviour determine the persistence of a herbicide. Thus, adsorption and leaching behavior of sulfosulfuron need to be studied for determining the persistence of sulfosulfuron. Hence, the present study was conducted. An experiment was conducted during 2005 in the herbicide residue laboratory of the department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to study the adsorption and leaching behavior of sulfosulfuron. The soil was loamy sand in texture (sand 71.2 %, silt 12.3 % and clay 15.8 %) having pH 8.2, organic carbon 0.32 and EC 0.2 dS m-1. The type of soil selected was loamy sand because it is the predominant type of soil in Punjab. Sulfosulfuron at field rate for wheat crop i.e., 25 g ha-1, double (50 g ha-1) and four times (100 g ha-1) the field rate was used to study the adsorption and leaching behaviour. For this study, PVC columns having 10 cm internal diameter and 65 cm length were used. Each column was divided into two longitudinal segments by cutting the columns lengthwise in the middle. The two column
segments were then rejoined by using the plastic tape. Soil representing different soil depths (0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 3040, 40-50 and 50-60 cm) was taken from the field, dried in shade, ground, sieved and filled in soil columns depth wise with constant gentle shaking. The base of each column was closed by tying a muslin cloth to it. The top of the soil columns was covered with 2 cm of sand so as to prevent crust formation resulting from the addition of water which may hamper the downward movement of water. Columns were then placed on the plastic funnels adjusted on the tripod stands and connected to the beakers meant to collect the leachate. Water was added on the surface of columns and the columns were covered from the top by using aluminium foil to prevent any evaporation from the surface. Columns were brought to the field capacity by adding water from the top and waiting till dripping stops from the base. Herbicide doses corresponding to 25, 50 and 100 g ha-1 were calculated on the basis of surface area of the top of the columns, dissolved in 5 ml of water and added over the soil surface in the columns. Herbicide was then leached with 20 ml water and the leachates collected after 24 hours were analyzed by HPLC for the detection of residues. Thereafter, 25 ml of water was added on the surface of the columns after every 24 hours and leachates collected everyday were analyzed. The leachates were collected for 10 consecutive days. The leachates thus collected were acidified using 2 per cent phosphoric acid and partitioned with dichloromethane. The dried sample was taken in acetonitrile for injection into HPLC. The percentage recovery of sulfosulfuron from the fortified sample of water was found to be 91 per cent. On the eleventh day, the soil columns were longitudinally cut open using a sharp knife into two parts by tearing the plastic tape holding the two column segments together. Two parts of column were taken as two replicates. Depthwise sampling of soil profile in the column was done by taking samples from both the segments. Soil depth from 010 cm formed the first sample with subsequent 10 cm depths forming the remaining samples. The samples were taken up to 60 cm depth. The soil was dried in shade, ground,
146
Table 1. Concentration of sulfosulfuron in leachate taken at different intervals Sampling intervals (days after treatment) 25 g ha-1 (X) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.06 0.10 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 BDL BDL 50 g ha-1(2X) 0.11 0.19 0.08 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.01 BDL 100 g ha-1(4X) 0.19 0.24 0.11 0.10 0.08 0.03 0.02 0.01 Concentration of sulfosulfuron (ppm) in leachate at different concentrations
sieved and weighed. The soil was analyzed for the sulfosulfuron residue by using HPLC on Waters 600 Controller and Pump and Waters 2487 Dual Absorption Detector. The percentage recovery of sulfosulfuron from the fortified sample of soil was found to be 86 per cent. The results obtained from the analysis of leachates collected from the column base (Table 1) revealed that on first day the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates was 0.06, 0.11 and 0.19 ppm under X, 2X and 4X dose, respectively. Assuming the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates as 100 per cent on first day, the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates, on second day, increased to 166.7, 172.7 and 126.3 per cent and, on third day, the concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in leachates decreased to 83.3, 72.7 and 57.9 per cent under X, 2X and 4X dose, respectively. The concentration of sulfosulfuron residues, on fourth day, again reduced to 50.0, 54.5 and 52.6 per cent against 37.3, 54.5 and 42.1 per cent under X, 2X and 4X dose, on fifth day respectively. Whereas, on sixth day, the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron in leachates further reduced on seventh day, reached below detectable limit (<0.01ppm) under X dose and it was reduced to 9.1 and 10.5 per cent under 2X and 4X dose, respectively. Further, on eighth day,
the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron in leachates reduced to below detectable limit under both X and 2X dose and it was 5.3 per cent under 4X dose. On ninth and tenth days, the concentration of residues of sulfosulfuron was below detectable even at 4X dose of sulfosulfuron. The concentration of sulfosulfuron residues took 7-9 days to go below detectable limit indicating that sulfosulfuron persists for a long time. These observations gain support from the findings of Eleftherohorinos et al. (2004) who also reported that sulfonylurea exhibit persistence even at low rates of application. The analysis of soil column revealed the highest concentration of sulfosulfuron residues in the top 0-10 cm depth (Table 2) while there was decrease in the residue concentration in the soil at 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm soil depths under all the doses of herbicide. With every increase in soil depth from 30-40 to 40-50 and 50-60 cm, the concentration of sulfosulfuron from residue increased. The results indicated that at higher rates, sulfosulfuron takes more time to leach down below detectable limit. Adsorption of sulfosulfuron was more in the top 0- 20 cm soil depth and again in 30 to 60 cm soil depth. It might be due to the presence of organic matter in the plough layer (0-20 cm) and due to higher clay content in the lower layers because
Table 2. Concentration of sulfosulfuron in soil taken at different depths from the soil column Soil depth (cm) Concentration of sulfosulfuron (ppm) in soil at different concentrations 25 g ha-1 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.06 50 g ha-1 0.11 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 100 g ha-1 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.12 0.14 0.17
147
REFERENCES
Eleftherohorinos, I., Dhima, K. and Vasilakoglou, I. (2004) Activity, adsorption and field persistence of sulfosulfuron in soil. Weed Sci. 32(3): 274-285. Maheswari, S. T. and Ramesh, A. (2007) Adsorption and degradation of sulfosulfuron in soils. Environ. Monit. Assess. 127(1-3): 97-103. Ramesh, A. and Maheswari, S. T. (2003) Dissipation of sulfosulfuron in soil and wheat plant under predominant cropping conditions and in a simulated model ecosystem. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51(11): 3396-3400. Srivastava, A., Agarwal, V., Srivastava, P. C., Guru, S. K. and Singh, G. (2006) Leaching of sulfosulfuron from two texturally different soils under saturated moisture regime. J. Food Agric. Environ. 4(2): 287-290. Yaron, B. (1989) General principles of pesticide movement to groundwater. Agric. Ecosystem Environ. 26(3-4): 275-297.
Screening of Seed Sources and Development of Powdery Mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
K.S. Ahlawat*, J.C. Kaushik1, O.P. Lathwal and Avtar Singh2
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kurukshetra-136 118, India Department of Forestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004, India 2 PAU Regional Station,Bathinda-151 001, India *E-mail:ahlawat19799@gmail.com
Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.) is an important broad-leaved tree species of Indian subcontinent occurring naturally from Indus to Assam. Its heartwood is strong and durable, brown with dark figuring for which it is prized for furniture and general wood work. It is extensively planted under social forestry programme in northern Gangetic plains. In the recent past, large scale mortality of shisham has been recorded in different parts of India. Besides the biotic causes, a number of stress factors such as changing climatic conditions, water logging, longer dry spell, root injury, soil compaction and salt accumulation are responsible for shisham mortality (Shera and Saralch, 2006; Chauhan et al., 2007). A number of leaf spots and powdery mildew fungi attack the foliage of shisham. Powdery mildew is an important foliage disease caused by Phyllactinia dalbergiae Prioz. is wide spread in occurrence throughout the Indian subcontinent (Joshi and Baral, 2000). Nautiyal (2007) has also highlighted the growing problems in shisham and required improvement strategies. However, meager information is available about the role of climatic factors and development of powdery mildew of shisham. Hence, the present investigation was undertaken to screen the seed sources for disease resistance and development of powdery mildew of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. The present studies were carried out at the experimental farm of Department of Agroforestry, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (20o10/ N, 75o46/ E, 215 m above mean sea level), situated in the arid region of north-western India. The maximum temperature during summer months ranges between 42 to 450C while the minimum temperature during winter months sometimes goes as low as 0oC or less sometimes even than that. The average annual rainfall is about 350-425 mm, 75 per cent is received from July to September and a few showers of cyclonic rains are received in winter or late spring. In order to find out the role of weather parameters on disease development, the data on disease intensity were recorded
on three years old plantation under natural conditions at an interval of 15 days from the initiation of disease. Simultaneously, the data on weather variables viz., maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity (morning and evening) and rainfall (mm) prevailing during the period of study were obtained from Department of Meteorology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. Screening of forty seed sources of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. available at the research area of department of agroforestry, Hisar was undertaken to find out the relative resistance against powdery mildew disease under natural conditions. The seed sources were graded under six different categories as immune (zero per cent leaf area mildew), resistant (1-10 per cent leaf area mildew), moderately resistant (11-20 per cent leaf area mildew), moderately susceptible (21-40 per cent leaf area mildew), susceptible (41-60 per cent leaf area mildew) and highly susceptible (61-100 per cent leaf area mildew). Hundred leaves were randomly graded from each seed source and were examined carefully to calculate the per cent disease intensity [{sum of all numerical rating/(total number of leaves observed x highest grade)} x 100]. Out of the forty seed sources screened, none of the seed sources was found immune to the disease. Nine seed sources registered in the resistant group, nine in moderately resistant group and seven seed sources in moderately susceptible group. Rests of the seed sources were found susceptible to highly susceptible group (Table 1). The pattern of disease progression amongst the nine seed sources recorded as Kurukshetra-419, Haldwani-24 and Unna-Makdnmpur-52 (resistant), Manipur forest fatehpur-56, Dabwali-26 and Haldwani S.B.412 (moderately susceptible), Tanakpur N.B.-431, Dabwali-210 and Sirsa274 (highly susceptible). The environmental variables viz., temperature, relative humidity and rainfall are the most crucial, because they affect the pathogen. The disease appeared after the light showers in the last week of July and first week of August. During July to August maximum temperature ranged between 34.3-35.1oC and minimum
Table 1. Reaction of different seed sources of Dalbergia sissoo against powdery mildew disease under field conditions Cultivar Nil Dabwali-74,Progeny test-35,Kurukshetra-419, Haldwani-290, Provenance test-4, Haldwani-24, Unna-Makdnmpur-52, Haldwani-411, Haldwani292 Dabwali-467, Dabwali-203, Haldwani-5, Sirsa (Best)-17, Dabwali-62, Mahender nagar (Nepal)-442, Haldwani-25, Patiala-57, Haldwani-I-23 Haldwani S.B.-412, Dabwali-269, Provenance test-39, Sirsa-209,Manipur forest fathepur-56, Provenance test -16, Provenance test-48 Sirsa -215, Sirsa-218, Tanakpur N.B.-432, Provenance test-271, Etahawa-54, Sirsa-214, Ludhiana-107, Provenance test-53
Reaction Category
Immune
Resistance (R)
Susceptible (S)
Table 2. Per cent disease intensity in resistant, moderately and highly susceptible seed sources of shisham at fortnightly interval Disease intensity (%) Moderately susceptible seed sources Unnamakdnmpur-52 Traces 1.00 2.68 2.71 2.80 3.80 6.60 7.20 8.00 8.62 9.55 7.97 4.86 3.60 3.06 2.94 11.92 16.45 18.49 21.00 21.25 22.45 22.45 2.00 8.00 Traces 6.46 5.19 3.82 Traces 2.62 4.24 8.19 11.62 15.43 17.69 19.45 27.85 28.49 29.68 30.15 Traces fatehpur-56 Manipur forest Dabwali-26 Haldwani S.B.-412 Traces 4.85 6.28 9.18 15.00 18.43 21.45 30.89 31.69 36.00 36.49 38.25 Highly susceptible seed sources Tanakpur N.B.-431 Traces 4.89 8.23 10.69 18.30 23.62 30.23 45.10 54.65 60.13 62.43 65.13 69.85 Traces 8.62 9.23 35.29 21.23 30.39 40.62 51.30 58.72 64.13 68.69 72.13 75.00 Traces 4.23 8.69 17.62 24.82 33.49 45.28 58.43 62.00 75.13 80.00 87.00 87.65 Dabwali-210 Sirsa-274 Haldwani-24
Date of observations
(Fortnight)*
Kurukshetra-419
July II
August I
August II
September I
September II
Traces
October I
1.00
October II
2.53
November I
2.70
November II
2.70
December I
3.00
December II
5.90
January I
6.50
January II
6.50
149
150 temperature ranged between 23.0-24.7oC. The morning relative humidity was in the range of 81.4-82.8 per cent, while in the evening, it was between 59.1-66.1 per cent. The disease increased with the decrease in mean temperature and increase in percent relative humidity from September onwards. The maximum disease intensity was recorded in the month of January when temperature ranged between 4.4-20.10C and relative humidity ranged between 63.4-97.0 per cent. With the progress of time, the disease continued to increase in all the nine seed sources but varied in disease intensity. In resistant seed sources (Kurukshetra419, Haldwani-24 and Unna-Makdnmpur-52), the disease appeared in the second fortnight of September in traces and progressed at slow rate and reached to maximum in January (Table 2). In moderately susceptible seed sources (Manipur forest fathepur-56, Dabwali-269 and Haldwani S.B.-412), the disease appeared in first fortnight of August and progressed further upto January. Raghu and Mallaiah (1999) also observed that powdery mildew appeared on Dalbergia sissoo in the month of August and maximum was recorded in the month of January. In highly susceptible seed sources (Tanakpur N.B.-431, Dabwali-210 and Sirsa274), the disease appeared in the second fortnight of July in traces and highest disease intensity was recorded in January. The disease intensity in highly susceptible seed sources were also in variable ranges from 69.85 (Tanakpur N.B.-431) to 87.65 per cent (Sirsa-274). From the above study, it may be concluded that none of seed sources was immune to the disease. The disease appeared in first fortnight of August and continued to increase with decrease in mean temperature and increase in relative humidity. Appearance of Phyllactinia dalbergiae appeared for a longer period of six months indicated that it could withstand wide range of temperature and relative humidity. The maximum disease intensity was recorded in January when mean temperature was 12.4oC and mean relative humidity was 79.1 per cent. The disease intensity also varied among different sources ranging from 6.50 (Kurukshetra419) to 87.65 per cent (Sirsa-274).
REFERENCES
Chauhan, R., Garg, R.K., Chauhan, S. and Saralch, H.S. (2007) Tree mortality in Northern states of India-A review. In: Proc. of Regional Seminar on Mortality of Agroforestry Trees, D.P.S. Nandal and J.C. Kaushik (Eds.) at HAU Hisar, pp. 11-17. Joshi, R.B. and Baral, S.R. (2000). A report on dieback of Dalbergia sissoo In Nepal. In: Proc. of the Sub-Regional Seminar on Dieback of Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo), Katmandu, Nepal, 2528 April 2000. pp.17-22. Nautiyal, S. (2007) Dalbergia sissoo (shisham) mortality viz-a viz improvement strategy for future. In: Proc. of Regional Seminar on Mortality of Agroforestry Trees, D.P.S. Nandal and J.C. Kaushik (Eds.) at HAU Hisar, pp. 27-34. Raghu, R. and Mallaiah, K.V. (1999). Studies on foliar diseases of tree legumes caused by Cercosporaceous fungi. Ind. For. 125:313-315. Shera, P.S. and Saralch, H.S. (2006) Insect-pest and diseases of shisham (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.): A overview. In: Shisham and Kikar Mortality in India (S.S. Gill, S.K. Chauhan, H.N. Khajuria and R. Chauhan, Eds.), Agrotech Publi. Academy, Udaipur, pp.17-39.
Table 1. Effect of different treatments on plant growth characters of pigeonpea and nematode population
Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is considered as one of the most important pulse crop grown in India and is well adapted to tropical and sub-tropical conditions. It is highly vulnerable to many plant parasitic nematodes and among them root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica has emerged as potential threat to its production throughout the country. This nematode is widespread in all the pigeonpea growing states of India (Ali and Askary, 2001) and its management is yet to be perfected because most of the nematicides are generally expensive and requires a large quantity for its soil application. Therefore, the present study was conducted to find out an economically successful option through pre-sowing seed coating with different chemicals, bioagents and botanicals in the management of M. javanica on short duration pigeonpea cv. UPAS 120. The study was carried out during kharif season at experimental research field of Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur. Seeds of Pigeonpea cv. UPAS 120 were used in the experiment. There were eight treatments including check (Table 1). Treated seeds were sown at a spacing of 4520 cm in 44m M. javanica infested sick microplots. One treatment of untreated seeds was taken as check plot in the experimental study. All the treatments including check was replicated three times. Data regarding symptoms and other plant characters were recorded on the basis of regular field observations. The experiment was terminated at maturity i.e., 135 days after sowing. The present study indicated an increase in fresh and dry shoot and root weight, shoot length, number of rhizobial nodules per root system and yield of pigeonpea in seed treated plots as compared to check (Table 1). The below ground symptoms such as egg masses, number of galls per root system as well as nematode population in soil was significantly less in all the treatments as compared to untreated plots. These findings are in confirmation with the work done by other researchers (Dahiya and Singh, 1985; Das and Mishra, 2000, 2003; Haseeb and Shukla, 2002). Although all the treatments were significantly effective in reducing the nematode infection on pigeonpea plants as
1910.0
1850.0
1730.0
1660.0
1610.0
1935.0
1970.0
1140.0 69.0 64.0 25 2.1 6.0 6.7 114.7 Check (Untreated) 2.3 2740
1530.0
1610.0
1835.0
1910.0
1940.0
1495.0
1470.0
39.0
40.0
44.0
35.0
28.0
30.0
25.0
31.0
24.0
27.0
33.0
35.0
40.0
18.0
3.2
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.9
3.4
10.1
3.8
9.2
8.9
8.8
9.3
4.1
3.9
3.6
3.4
2.5
3.6
10.2
10.2
10.5
4.4
9.6
9.3
9.2
172.2
167.3
159.2
157.5
179.5
190.3
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 1%
Dimethoate 30 EC @ 0.8%
Triazophos 40 EC @ 3%
Calotropis procera @ 1%
CD (P=0.05)
Treatments
9.3
1.1
9.7
0.1
0.7
9.7
9.8
0.8
8.3
44
40
38
41
40
46
48
6.8
6.3
155.4
179.4
152
well as increasing the plant growth characters and yield, however, the most promising was neem seed powder followed by Paecilomyces lilacinus, Calotropis procera, Aspergillus niger, dimethoate and chlorpyriphos. The least effective among all the treatments was triazophos. Such findings assure that seed treatment is an economic and effective method in the management of root-knot nematode in pigeonpea.
REFERENCES
Ali, S.S. and Askary, T.H. (2001) Taxonomic status of phytonematodes associated with pulse crops . Curr. Nematol. 12: 75-84.
The Tullgren funnel is a device used to extract small invertebrate animals from soil samples (Tullgren, 1918). The sample is placed in a container with a base made from gauze with a mesh designed to hold soil particles but permit the organisms to pass. The container is arranged over a funnel, with a source of light above (Michael, 2009). The Tullgren funnel works on the principle that most organisms move away from bright light and very warm/dry conditions. They move to the bottom of the samples, fall through the fine sieve into a collecting vessel, and are preserved for examination (Michael et al., 1975). However, no realistic information is available on the standardization of soil arthropods extraction by using Tullgren funnel. For effective extraction of soil arthropods from soil samples by using Tullgren funnel within a specific time, it is necessary to standardize the method of extraction of soil arthropods. A well-defined standard method would be of immense help in investigations regarding soil arthropods as their effective extraction would be possible within a short period of time. Three ecosystems (dairy farm, orchard and tea garden) were selected inside the campus of Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam. Soil samples were collected randomly from six different spots by using rectangular soil sampler (30 X 11 X 8 cm) upto a constant depth of 10 cm (from surface) from each of the ecosystem. The soil inside the sampler was taken out without disturbing the soil profile and the soil arthropods were extracted by using Tullgren funnel. The soil arthropods were extracted by using 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs, keeping in low, medium and high light intensities for 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours of exposure. The low, medium and high light intensities for 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs were measured by using a luxmeter. The light intensities at 40 watt electric bulbs at low, medium and high intensities were 300, 2000 and 4500 lux, respectively. At 60 watt electric bulbs, 750, 2700 and 6200 lux were recorded for low, medium and high intensities, whereas, 1200 (low), 8200 (medium) and 15700 lux (high) were recorded at 100 watt electric bulbs. The soil temperature was recorded by using
soil thermometer and the moisture content was determined by Gravimetric method (Kishore et al., 2008 ). The collected soil samples were analyzed in the funnel and due to the light and heat gradient as well as the effect of gravity, the soil arthropods moved downwards through the mesh sieve that was attached at the bottom of the funnel. The extracted soil arthropods were collected in collecting tubes (40 ml) containing 70 per cent ethyl alcohol. The ethyl alcohol containing soil arthropods were transferred into a clean petridish for counting and sorting out. The populations of extracted soil arthropods (no. m-2) were estimated by using the following formula (Singh et al., 1978) P = (10,000 X)/ [(B L) n] Where, P = Population of soil arthropods per m2 X = Number of soil arthropods extracted from the funnel B = Breadth of the rectangular soil sampler (cm) L = Length of the rectangular soil sampler (cm) n = Number of samples per ecosystem When the Tullgren funnel was operated for 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72 hours with 40 watt electric bulbs at low, medium and high light intensity, the maximum population of soil arthropods (5241.9 m-2) was extracted by Tullgren funnel at high light intensity (4500 lux) upto 72 hours of exposure (Table 1). It was also observed that beyond 72 hours, very negligible population of soil arthropods were extracted by the funnel and at this exposure time, the soil samples were observed to be too dried and friable because of the constant heat generated by the 40 watt electric bulbs at high light intensity. The reason for getting highest population of soil arthropods for 72 hours of exposure reflects the inability of soil arthropods to tolerate the 40C temperature generated for 72 hours of exposure, which finally leads to vertical movements of the soil arthropods to the collecting tubes. Further, it can be mentioned that as a general behavior, most of the soil arthropods avoid light and many of them do not possess specialized eyes, well-developed tactile and
154
72 hours Table 1. Soil arthropods population extracted by Tullgren funnel by using 40, 60 and 100 watt electric bulbs from different ecosystems 48 hours Population of soil arthropods/ sq. m at five exposures (time)
151.50 30.30 60.60 242.40 121.20 60.60 60.60 242.40 575.70 60.60 303.00 939.30 1424.10 303.00 818.10 2545.20 515.10 333.30 363.60 1212.00 333.30 151.50 272.70 757.50 Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 60 watt** Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 100 watt*** Diary farm Orchard Tea garden Total 40 watt* 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 90.90 0.00 0.00 90.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 151.50 90.90 30.30 272.70 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 0.00 30.30 0.00 30.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 121.20 0.00 60.60 181.80 121.20 30.30 60.60 212.10 90.90 0.00 30.30 121.20 181.80 30.30 90.90 303.00 666.60 181.80 363.60 1212.00 121.20 151.50 90.90 363.60 121.20 90.90 30.30 242.40 60.60 0.00 0.00 60.60 90.90 30.30 30.30 151.50 272.70 30.30 121.20 424.20 333.30 60.60 90.90 484.80 212.10 181.80 151.50 545.40 242.40 60.60 212.10 515.10
818.10 1787.70 90.90 666.60 303.00 1060.50 1212.00 3514.80 636.30 666.60 242.40 424.20 212.10 606.00 1090.80 1696.80 515.10 484.80 121.20 181.80 242.40 424.20 878.70 1090.80 *40 watt - L: Low light intensity (300 lux), M: Medium light intensity (2000 lux) and H: High Light intensity (4500 lux); **60 watt -L: 750 lux, M: 2700 lux and H: 6200 lux and ***100 watt - L: 1200 lux, M: 8200 lux and H: 15700 lux
Bulb
Ecosystems
181.80 151.50 121.20 454.50 151.50 90.90 121.20 363.60 878.70 151.50 545.40 1575.60
1212.00 303.00 393.90 1908.90 727.20 333.30 606.00 1666.50 909.00 212.10 666.60 1787.70
2787.60 818.10 1636.20 5241.90 1484.70 606.00 1030.20 3120.90 818.10 333.30 484.80 1636.20
155
48 hours
tested to standardize other types of funnels like Berlese and OConnors funnel to draw a logistic conclusion extraction of soil arthropods with high levels of precision. The use of proper type of funnel for extracting soil arthropods depending on the physico-chemical properties of soil will further intensify and generate more information on taxonomic identity, species richness, distribution pattern, biology and behavior of soil arthropods. Furthermore, the role of soil arthropods and other microflora as possible bioindicators of the polluted and degraded soil ecosystem can be investigated effectively by using the above standardized method. The effect of global climatic change on soil arthropods and their ability to recover after the cessation of a climatic disturbance needs further comprehensive research.
(1.759)
(1.028)
72 hours
34.50
39.50
30.00
35.00
34.00
42.00
32.50
36.00
52.00
61.00
44.50
70.00
(0.426)
40.00
55.00
84.00
29.00
32.00
40.00
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to Dr. Y.S. Mathur, Ex. Net Work Coordinator, All India Network Project on white grubs and other soil arthropods, Agricultural Research Station, Durgapura, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India for his encouragement during the period of investigations.
32.00
36 hours
39.00 33.50
30.00
49.50
53.00
REFERENCES
Didden, W.A.M. (1983) Ecology of terrestrial Enchytraeidae. Pedobiologia 37: 2-229. Kishore, D. K., Sharma, S.K. and Pramanick, K.K. (2008) Temperate horticulture: current scenario. New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi. Masan, P. (2007) Olopachys (Olopachylaella) gronychi subgen. nov., sp. nov., a new species of mite from Bulgaria (Acari: Mesostigmata: Pachylaelapidae). Zootaxa 1509: 31-39. Michael, A. (2009) A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford University Press. pp. 554.
*Figures in the parentheses are the moisture per cent values
28.00
24 hours
30.00
28.00
38.00
46.00
36.50
27.00
29.00
32.50
Michael, A., Tribe, Michael Eraut and Roger K. Snook (Eds.) (1975) Ecological principles. Interaction between organisms and their living environment. Cambridge University Press, pp. 65. Singh, J., Mahajan, S.V. and Singh, R.K. (1978). Sampling, extraction and precision regarding some statistical studies for population ecology of soil mesofauna. Bull. Entomol. 19: 130-145. Tripathi, G. and Sharma, B.M. (2005) Effects of habitats and pesticides on aerobic capacity and survival of soil fauna. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 18(3): 169-175. Tullgren, A. (1918) Ein sehr einfacher Auslesgeapparat fur Terricole, Tierformen. Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Entomologie 4: 149150.
28.50
30.00
12 hours
27.00 26.50
temperature*
28.00
29.00
(21.24)
(21.24)
26.00
Bulb(watt) Initial
26.00
100
40
60
(21.24)
(C)
26.00
Present annual fish production of the Bihar state is 2.88 lakhs tones, which makes it fourth among all states. About 1.5 lakhs tonnes comes from capture fisheries resources comprising rivers and rest from culture resources, which is about half of the annual requirement/ consumption of 4.56 lakhs tonnes. To bridge the gap, it is essential to focus attention to promote aquaculture by achieving optimum sustainable yield from flood plain wetlands particularly from Ox-bow lake by ecological management and fishery enhancement strategies. Vaas (1997) and Ayyappan (2006) has reported the importance of floodplain wetlands for fishers. Despite abundant aquatic resources in terms of about 3,200 km of rivers, 100,000 hectares chaurs and floodplain wetlands, 9,000 hectares of ox-bow lakes or mauns, 7,200 hectares of reservoirs and 69,000 hectares of ponds and tanks, fish supply is short of demand in the State of Bihar. Abraham (1990) has suggested pen nursery technology for the development of fisheries of Ox-bow lakes and reservoirs. Realizing the importance of Ox-bow lakes, a study was conducted in the year 2010 with an objective of documenting the problems of fishers and suggesting strategies. In Bihar, Muzaffarpur District of Trihut division (2607 N and 8524 E) is very rich in water bodies. In the present study, an attempt was made to study the existing management practices followed in the two lakes Sikandarpur and Manika, Muzaffarpur, North Bihar. The data has been collected by interacting with fishers, society heads, head of SHGs and Department of Fisheries officials. The problems faced by 100 fishers from Sikandarpur Ox-bow lake and Manika Ox-bow lake were recorded through interview method. In the study, the area was the households dependent on the Sikandarpur Ox-bow lake and Manika Ox-bow lake. List of the households dependent on the two Ox-bow lake was procured. It was found that there were 350 and 150 households dependent on the Sikandarpur and Manika lake, respectively.
A total of 50 households each form both the lakes were selected randomly. Interview schedule was administered to the head of the household usually a male. In case where the head of the household was absent or not available, the lady of the household was interviewed. A total of 80 men and a total of 20 women comprised the sample. Management practices adopted . Fisheries cooperative society or the Self help Group (SHGs) sources fish seeds from Government department at subsidized cost rates. They follow the fishing ban during breeding season and during religious festivals, which helps in stocking. Weed manifestation ( Eicchornia, Hydrilla Vallisneria, etc.) is present in both the lakes, mainly there is a serious problem of water hyacinth. Farmers who are members of co-operative society takes the responsibility of removing the weeds manually from the lakes with the help of boats and fishers. Fishers catch fish with the help of traditional fishing gears and crafts. They have their ancestral crafts like dengi (small boat). The gears, which they use for catching the fish are gill net locally called Phansi net, cast net called Jaliya, drag net called Mahajaal. The floats of the nets made up of plastic and round in shape are used. They also use thermo coal. Sinkers are made up of cast iron, iron and burnt clay/soil. Nylon threads are used to make the nets. It is coloured (one to five times in a year) to extend the life of the net. Sometimes the fishers rear the seeds in a confined area to grow it to fingerling size then they stock the lake. But usually it is not practiced because fishers cannot monitor this all the time. For catching the fish they set their gill net in the night and in early morning they remove the net with the help of boats. They also take the help of boats and swimmers to operate the cast net and drag net. Fishers manage both the lakes with the help of co-operative called Matasya Jalaj Sahakari Samiti. During monsoon and post-monsoon season fishers give fish holiday or ban fishing for the juveniles to grow. This is a natural way of giving fish holiday. There is no regular practice of stocking the lakes with cultured seed.
157
women) in fisheries. Community management practices and training on financial management (book keeping, accounts etc), organization management, team work and leadership is required. As regards to financial management, provision of credit facilities, financial inclusion is required.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dr. W.S. Lakra, Vice Chancellor/Director CIFE, Mumbai for his valuable help and support for the work. The authors are also thankful to all fishers, Department of Fisheries Bihar who provided the information.
REFERENCES
Abraham, M. (1990) Pen nursery technology for the development of fisheries of Ox-bow lakes and reservoirs. In: A.G. Jhingran, V.K. Unnithan and A. Ghosh. Contribution to the Fisheries of Inland Open Water Systems in India. Published by the Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barrackpore, Part I, pp.71-76. Ayyappan S. (2006) Oxbow lake fisheries. Handbook of Fisheries and Aquaculture. ICAR, pp. 1-12. Bhowmik, M.L. (1990) Pen culture- A means for higher fish yield from Ox-bow lakes. In: A.G. Jhingran, V.K. Unnithan and A.Ghosh. Contribution to the Fisheries of Inland Open Water System in India, Part I Published by the Inland Fisheries Society of India, Barackpore, pp.46-52. http://planningcommission.nic.in/data/central/ index.php?data=centab http://ahd.bih.nic.in/Docs/ICAR-Report-Fisheries-Dev-Bihar.pdf Vass, K. K. (1997) Floodplain wetlands - An important inland fisheries resources of India. In: V.V. Sugunan and M. Sinha (Eds) Fisheries Enhancement of Small Reservoirs and Floodplains Lakes in India. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, Bulletin No. 75, pp.238-242.
Effect of Residue Management Practices and Nitrogen Levels on Soil Properties, Yield and Uptake of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in Soybean Sown after Preceding Wheat Crop
K. S. Saini and S. K. Chongtham
Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, India
Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is a native of Asia. As a leguminous crop, soybean fixes atmospheric N through symbiotic association with Bradyrhizobium japonicum (syn. Rhizobium japonicum). About 25 to 75 per cent of the crops total N requirement is supplied through symbiotic N-fixation in soybean. The management of the preceding wheat crop residue by turning it into soil can be a better option to reduce N dose of the succeeding soybean crop. This may help in better N mobilization from wheat straw in soil, thus increasing available N supply to crop besides improving soil properties such as organic carbon content, nutrients availability and their uptake. The present investigations were conducted to study the performance of soybean with crop residue management practices and nitrogen levels in terms of yield, nutrients uptake and soil properties. Present studies were undertaken during kharif season of 2009 at the Students Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. This tract of India falls under Trans-Gangetic Agro-climatic Zone with sub-tropical climate. The soil of the experimental field was loamy sand in texture and alkaline in reaction (pH 8.1). The soil tested low in organic carbon (0.30%), available nitrogen (145.63 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorus
(12.70 kg ha-1) and available potassium (189.66 kg ha-1). The experiment was conducted in split plot design with three replications comprising of three residue levels {full (RF), half (RH) and no residue (RO)} in main plots and four nitrogen levels {125% N (N125), 100% N (N100), 75% N (N75) and 50% N through inorganic source+ 50% N through FYM (N50 + N50 FYM)} in sub plots. The residues of preceding wheat crop were kept as per treatments (full, half and no residue) in main plots and these were turn down into experimental field with rotavator on April 21, 2009. The crop variety SL 525 was sown on June 15, 2009 and harvested on October 28, 2009. Recommended dose of nitrogen dose for soybean is about 32 kg N ha-1. The total amount of rainfall received during crop season was 901.7 mm. The crop was raised as per the package of practices of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Chemical analysis of seed, straw and soil were conducted after the harvest of the crop using standard analytical methods. The perusal of data (Table 1) revealed that crop residue management practices did not significantly affect organic carbon (%) in soil at 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm soil depth. However, the organic carbon increased with increasing level of residues incorporation of preceding wheat crop. Similarly
Table 1. Effect of crop residue management practices and nitrogen levels on organic carbon, available N, P and K in soil after harvest Treatments Residue management (RM) RO (No residue) RH (Half residue) RF (Full residue) CD (p=0.05) Nitrogen levels (N) N75 (75%) N100 (100%) N125 (125%) N50 fertilizer + N 50 FYM CD (p=0.05) Interaction (RMxN) 0.37 0.39 0.40 0.42 NS NS 0.32 0.31 0.31 0.33 NS NS 164.56 170.10 172.35 173.15 NS NS 12.60 12.71 12.35 12.75 NS NS 185.14 183.93 187.21 186.35 NS NS 0.36 0.38 0.44 NS 0.30 0.31 0.33 NS 164.76 168.25 171.10 NS 12.21 12.45 12.48 NS 184.85 187.21 185.11 NS Soil organic carbon (%) 0-15 cm 15-30 cm Available N (kg ha-1) Available P (kg ha-1) Available K (kg ha-1)
159
Straw yield (q ha-1) 36.25 37.62 41.35 NS 37.68 38.88 38.76 39.02 1.24 NS
RH (Half residue) 6.11 RF (Full residue) 6.06 CD (p=0.05) Nitrogen levels (N) N75 (75%) N100 (100%) N125 (125%) N50 fertilizer + N50 FYM CD (p=0.05) 0.29 Interaction (RMxN) NS 5.77 6.27 6.22 6.19 NS
different nitrogen levels did not significantly affect the soil organic carbon. The effect of residue management practices on available N, P and K was also found to be non-significant. However, increasing trend with increase in residue incorporation was observed in available N and P except K in soil. Similarly, available N in soil increased with increasing N level, however this increase was not significant. The data in Table 2 revealed that the different crop residue management practices did not influence significantly on nutrient contents namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in seed and straw and their total uptake. Similar trend was recorded under different nitrogen levels on nutrient content and total uptake except in case of nitrogen content in seed and straw and their total uptake. Application of N125 resulted in highest total N uptake (141.54 kg ha-1), which was significantly higher than N75 (125.95 kg ha-1), but was statistically at par with N100 (140.18 kg ha-1) and N50 fertilizer + N50FYM (139.48 kg ha-1). This is in agreement with findings of Sharma and Gupta (1992), Patel and Chandravanshi (1996) and Chauhan et al. (2005). The interactional effect was found to be non-significant. The effect of crop residue management practices on seed and straw yield was also non-significant. These results confirm the findings of Khelkar et al. (1991) and Singh et al. (2001). Crop residue management practices did not affect straw yield significantly. The maximum straw yield was recorded at N50 fertilizer + N50 FYM (39.02 q ha-1), which was significantly higher than that of N75 level (37.98 q ha-1), but was statistically at par with that of N125 (38.76 q ha-1) and
N100 (38.88 q ha-1). This is in agreement with findings of Singh and Bansal (2000) and Singh et al. (2001). Different residue management practices did not influenced the percentage of N, P and K content in seed and straw and total uptake. Similarly nitrogen levels of N100 and N125 did not showed any superiority in terms of total uptake of P and K and soybean seed and straw yield, but the integrated use of chemical fertilizer and Farm Yard Manure (N50 + N50 FYM) resulted significantly higher than nitrogen level of N75.
REFERENCES
Chuahan, S., Sheoran, P., Singh, M. and Kumar, M. (2005) Nutrient uptake and yield of soybean as influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Haryana J. Agron. 21: 190-191. Khelkar, P. M., Jadhao, S. L., Shinde, V. U. and Malvi, S. D. (1991) Response of soybean (Glycine max) varieties, plant densities and fertilization. Indian J. Agron. 36: 414-415. Patel, S. R. and Chandravanshi, B. R. (1996) Nitrogen and phosphorus nutrition of soybean ( Glycine max) grown in vertisol. Indian J. Agron. 41: 601-603. Sharma, R. A. and Gupta, R. K. (1992) Response of rainfed soybean (Glycine max )-safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) sequence to nitrogen and sulphur fertilization in Vertisols. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 62: 529-534. Singh, S. P. and Bansal, K. N. (2000) Response of soybean (Glycine max) to nitrogen, its application time and sulphur. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 70: 34-36. Singh, S. P., Bansal, K. N. and Nepalia, V. (2001) Effect of nitrogen, its application time and sulphur on yield and quality of soybean (Glycine max). Indian J. Agron. 46: 141-144.
Sowing Time, Seed Rate and Planting Method Effect on Nitrogen Uptake and Quality of Bread Wheat
Balkaran Singh, R.S. Uppal and R.P. Singh1
Deptt. of Agronomy, 1Deptt. of Plant Breeding and Genetics Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India E-mail: balkaransandhu@gmail.com
Wheat is the most important winter cereal crop of the country and cultivated on an area of 27.2 mha with an annual production of 74.9 mt at an average yield of 2.8 t ha-1 (Anon., 2008). It has been projected that to feed 1.3 billion population and diversified uses, India will have to produce at least 109 million tones of wheat by 2020 AD, which might be possible through elevating the productivity up to 4 t ha-1 (Kulhari et al., 2003). The grain yield and quality are influenced by seed rate, time of planting and appropriate planting methods along with nutrient management, irrigation, etc. Optimum seed rate is essential for maintaining plant population, which plays an important role in increasing productivity and improving quality. Low plant population per unit area is one of the major constraints for low yield. Optimum plant number per unit area of a crop varies with seed size, genotype, sowing time and season (Pandey and Prakash, 2003). The seed rate requirement also varies with planting method. Sowing time is one of the most important management factor involved in obtaining higher yield. Timely sowing of wheat crop generally improves the yield and quality parameters like protein content. Under late sowing situations, wheat yield is adversely affected due to low temperature during germination, causing delayed emergence and during early crop establishment period resulting in slow growth and its exposure to higher temperature during reproduction phase reduces the period of grain filling. However, the protein content, -carotene content and sedimentation value is significantly higher in late sown crop as compared to timely sown crop (Singh and Jain, 2000). This improvement is mainly an account of shrivelling of grains due to improper filling, leading to the higher proportion of browny layers. Yellow berry was negatively correlated with seed protein and higher in early sown crop as compared to late sown crop. The selection of suitable method of sowing may also be important for the placement of seed at proper depth, which ensures better emergence and subsequent crop growth. Furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) is a recently introduced concept in wheat sowing to obtain better crop performance. In bed
sowing, the planted area does not come in direct contact with irrigation water. Since the wetted surface area in bed sowing is less in comparison to conventional flat sowing, the water requirement for irrigation is also less, therefore, keeping above points in view the present investigation was carried out to study the N-uptake and quality characteristics of wheat under different seed rate, sowing time and planting methods. The field experiment was conducted during rabi season 2008-09 at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana on sandy loam soil, low in available N (133 kg ha-1) and medium in available P (14 kg ha-1) and K (227.5 kg ha-1) with pH-8.0. The experiment was replicated thrice in split plot design with three sowing time viz., 25th October, 5th November and 15th November and two planting methods viz., bed planting and flat sowing as main plot treatments while sub-plot treatments consisted of four seed rates (87.5, 100, 112.5 and 125 kg ha-1). The crop received a uniform dose of nutrients @ 125 kg N, 62.5 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O ha-1 through urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively. Half of the nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus and potash were applied as basal dose at the time of sowing. The remaining nitrogen was applied after first irrigation at crown-root initiation. The crop received six irrigations at different growing stages. To check the weed growth, one hand hoeing was followed after first irrigation. Clodinafop 15 WP and 2,4-D were applied to control the growth of grassy and broad leaf weeds, respectively. Rogor 30 EC (dimethoate) was applied to control aphids at grain filling stage. Propaconazole 25 EC was applied at milk stage to check the infestation of head scab. The crop sown on 25th October took 141 days to maturity as compared to 147 and 145 days for the 5 th and 15 th November sowing respectively. The yield was recorded at maturity and quality parameters like grains appearance score, grain hardness, test weight, protein content, yellow berry content, sedimentation value and beta carotene contents were analyzed in the laboratory using standard methods. The grain appearance score was determined subjectively by
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was statistically at par with the crop sown on 5th November and than the 25th October sown crop. The nitrogen uptake by the straw and total nitrogen uptake of wheat crop as a whole were also significantly higher in the crop sown on 15th November as compared to the crop sown on 25 th October and 5th November. This was due to the higher grain and straw yield (Table 1). The crop sown on 15th November also had maximum protein content in its grains, which was statistically at par with that of crop sown on 5th November and significantly higher than the crop sown on 25th October due to the more nitrogen content in the grains. The effect of sowing time was also significant on the grain protein harvest. However, the wheat crop sown on 15th November gave significantly higher protein harvest in grains than that sown on 5th November and the crop sown 25th October. The protein harvested in grains was significantly higher due to significantly higher grain yield and protein content (Table 1) observed for the 15th November crop as compared to other sowing dates. Bangarwa and Ahlawat (1996) and Kumar and Kumar (1997) also reported that the protein content had the highest additive environmental effect in 15th November and lowest in sowing of 1st November sown crop. The incidence of yellow berry was significantly higher in the crop sown on 25th October as compared to crop sown on 5th November and 15th November. Yellow berry is negatively correlated with protein content of grains. The higher yellow berry in early sowing date of 25th October might be due to the lower protein content in grains (Table 1). Sharma et al. (1999) also reported that the incidence of yellow berry
Table 1. Effect of sowing time, planting method and seed rate on nitrogen concentration, uptake and protein content in grain and straw of bread wheat Treatment Grain yield (q ha-1) Sowing time 25th October 5th November 15th November CD (P=0.05) Planting Method Bed Planting Flat sowing CD (P=0.05) Seed rate (kg/ha) 87.5 100 112.5 125 CD (P=0.05) 51.17 52.16 54.38 54.46 1.09 56.69 57.51 60.47 60.72 NS 93.15 94.92 99.49 99.61 1.98 29.82 30.96 34.42 35.11 0.72 122.97 125.88 133.91 134.72 2.51 11.46 11.44 11.50 11.51 NS 5.87 5.98 6.27 6.27 0.18 53.31 52.77 NS 58.87 58.82 NS 97.23 96.36 NS 32.21 31.94 NS 130.44 128.30 NS 11.47 11.49 NS 6.12 6.07 NS 47.02 55.60 56.51 1.72 52.27 61.52 62.76 2.40 83.89 101.67 104.83 3.16 27.85 32.61 35.27 1.35 111.74 136.27 140.10 4.32 11.24 11.51 11.68 0.28 5.28 6.41 6.60 0.20 Straw yield (q ha-1) Grains Nitrogen uptake (kg ha-1) Straw N uptake (total) (kg ha-1) Protein content (%) Protein harvested (q ha-1)
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Table 2. Effect of sowing time, planting method and seed rate on quality parameters of bread wheat Treatment Sowing time 25 October 5 November 15 November CD (P=0.05) Planting Method Bed Planting Flat sowing CD (P=0.05) Seed rate (kg/ha) 87.5 100 112.5 125 CD (P=0.05) 76.34 76.46 76.49 76.65 NS 12.19 12.37 12.64 12.81 NS 45.35 46.35 45.30 45.35 NS 3.87 3.94 3.97 3.89 NS 29.94 30.24 2958 30.10 NS 76.45 76.52 NS 12.39 12.62 NS 45.72 45.45 NS 3.89 3.95 NS 29.98 29.96 NS 76.08 76.64 76.74 NS 12.38 12.57 12.56 NS 43.50 45.68 47.59 2.22 3.83 3.95 3.98 NS 33.24 28.94 27.73 0.40 Test weight (kg hectolitre-1) Grain hardness (kg) SDS-sedimentation value (cc) Yellow pigment content (ppm) Yellow berry (%)
decreased significantly with successive delay in sowing, whereas, the sedimentation value increased with delay in sowing. Sowing time did not produce any significant effect on test weight, grain hardness and beta-carotene content of wheat grains. The planting method did not differ significantly in respect of grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen uptake, protein content and quality parameters of wheat. Significantly higher grain yield was recorded with 125 and 112.5 kg seed rate ha-1 from 87.5 and 100 kg seed ha-1. The straw yield of wheat crop was not significantly influenced at different levels seed rates. The different seed rate had no significant effect on the protein content in grains, however nitrogen uptake was maximum in the crop sown with 125 kg seed ha-1 used. This might be due to higher grain and straw yield due to the higher population under higher seed rate. The total protein harvested in grains increased with increase in seed rate from 87.5 kg seed ha-1 to 125 kg seed ha-1 and maximum protein was harvested in grains with 112.5 and 125 kg seed ha -1, which was significantly higher than 100 kg seed ha-1 and 87.5 kg seed ha-1. The protein harvested in grains was significantly higher due to significantly higher grain yield in higher seed rate. The different seed rates did not influence significantly on the test weight, sedimentation value, yellow berry content, grain hardness and beta carotene. The result confirms the findings of Pandey et al. (2004). Thus, it was concluded that grain yield, straw yield, nitrogen uptake and protein content in the grains were
maximum at 15th November sowing, which was statistically at par with sowing time of 5th November. Among different seed rates, the maximum grain yield and nitrogen uptake of wheat was obtained with 125 kg ha -1 , which was statistically at par with 112.5 kg seed ha-1 and significantly higher than 87.5 and 100 kg seed rate.
REFERENCES
AACC (1990) Approval methods, Association of cereals chemists, ST. Paul, Minnesota, USA Anonymous (2008) Website: http// www.indiastat.com Axford, D. W. E., McDEnmott, E. E. and Radman, D. G. (1979) Note on sodium dodecyl sulphate test of bread making quality comparision with Pelshenke and Zeleny Test. Cereal Chem. 56(6): 582-584. Bangarwa, K. S. and Ahlawat, T. R. (1996) Effect of date of sowing on grain yield and quality in macaroni wheat. Annals of Agri. Bio. Res. 1(1-2):73-74. Kulhari, S. C., Sharma, S. L. and Kantwa, S. R. (2003) Effect of varieties, sowing dates and nitrogen levels on yield, nutrient uptake and quality of durum wheat. Ann. Agric. Res. 24(2): 332-336. Kumar, R. and Kumar, S. (1997) Effect of time of sowing and nitrogen application on marcaroni wheat for yield and some quality parameters in sandy loam soil of Haryana. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 67(11): 543-544. Kumar, R., Nanwal, R. K. and Agarwal, S. K. (2006) NPK content and uptake as affected by planting systems, seed rates and N levels in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Haryana Agric. Univ. J. Res. 36: 93-96. Pandey, A. K. and Prakash, V. (2003) Response of wheat varieties to seed rates under rainfed condition. Ann. Agric. Res. 24(3): 567-569.
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A field study was conducted during Kharif 2006 and 2007 on loamy sand soil, which was low in available N and medium in available P and K on the experimental farm of PAU, Ludhiana. Experiment was laid out in split plot design by keeping two varieties of rice (PR115 and PR116) in the main blocks. Four date of sowings i.e., 8, 15, 23 and 30 June during the respective years, were in the sub-plots. These treatments were compared with conventional practice of transplanting during both years. A seed rate of 40 kg ha-1 was used in all the direct seeding treatments. Sowing of direct seeded rice was done manually in the dry conditions and the seed was hand drilled by keeping row to row spacing of 20 cm. Light irrigation was applied immediately after sowing and later on irrigations were applied at an interval of 3-4 days. Pre-emergence application of pendimethalin at 0.75 kg ha-1 was made within 2 days of sowing and besides the application of herbicides, two hand weeding were also given to keep the crop free from weeds. The direct seeded crop received 150 kg N ha-1 in three splits, i.e., during third, sixth and ninth week after sowing, whereas transplanted crop was supplied with 120 kg N ha-1 in three splits, i.e., 1/3rd each at transplanting, third and sixth week after transplanting. Fifty kg zinc sulphate ha-1 was also applied at sowing. The plots to be puddled were surrounded by bunds of 15 cm height and flooded with 57 cm of water. The plots were kept moist for the 15 days with light irrigation at alternate day intervals and thereafter, irrigation was applied 3 days after the ponded water infiltrated in the plots. The irrigation was continued till 15 days before the harvesting of crop. The irrigations were stopped during rains and further continued at 3 days interval. Plant height recorded up to the base of flag leaf of two varieties was found to be similar (Table 1). The crop raised by transplanting rice seedlings technique recorded significantly higher plant height as compared to direct seeded crop sown on 23rd June and 30th June. However, plant height of transplanted crop was at par with the crop sown on 8th June and 15 June. The differences in number of effective tillers m-2 recorded at harvest were found to be
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non-significant during 2006, however, during 2007, PR 115 produced significantly higher tillers m-2. During 2006, crop sown on 23rd June recorded significantly lower effective tillers m-2 as compared to transplanted and direct seeded rice sown on 8th June. During 2007, crop sown on 23rd June and 30th June recorded significantly lower effective tillers m-2 than the transplanting and direct-sown rice on 8th and 15th June. The lower effective tillers m-2 in direct seeded rice sown on 23rd and 30th June during 2007 were due to severe attack of stem borer in these treatments. Panicle length of PR 115 and PR 116 was similar during both the years of study (Table 2). Panicle length of the crop sown on 23rd and 30th June was found to be significantly lower than the crop sown on 8th and 15th June and transplanting treatments. Direct sowing of rice on 8th and 15th June yielded at par with conventional puddled
transplanted rice (Table 2). Late sowing of direct-seeded rice (23rd and 30th June) resulted in significantly lower grain yield as compared to transplanted rice. There was drastic reduction in yield with delayed sowing during 2007, which may be due to severe attack of stem borer on these plots. Lower yields of direct-seeded rice sown on 23rd and 30th June were due to less number of effective tillers and smaller panicle length as compared to other treatments. On an average of two years, transplanted and direct seeded rice sown on 8th, 15th and 23rd June recorded 121, 108, 90 and 28 per cent higher yield, respectively, than direct seeded rice sown on 30th June. Gill et al. (2006) observed that the crop sown on 1st June gave grain yield at par with 10th June and significantly higher by a margin of 9.4 q ha-1 than 20th June sown crop. All interaction effects were found nonsignificant.
Table 2. Panicle length and grain yield of rice as influenced by variety and date of sowing Treatment 2006 Varieties PR 115 PR 116 LSD (P= 0.05%) Sowing time Direct Sowing on 8th June Direct Sowing on 15th June Direct Sowing on 23rd June Direct Sowing on 30th June Transplanting 4th July CD (P = 0.05) 27.1 26.9 21.5 19.4 28.4 2.6 27.4 25.3 22.3 21.8 28.1 2.3 44.09 42.65 35.80 31.66 47.53 6.19 53.61 46.62 24.04 15.22 55.93 9.41 25.4 24.1 NS 25.6 23.6 NS 41.94 38.75 NS 42.25 35.91 NS Panicle length (cm) 2007 2006 Grain yield (q ha-1) 2007
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REFERENCES
Anonymous (2012) Package and Practices for Kharif crops of Punjab. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Balasubramanian, V. and Hill, J. (2000) Direct wet seeding of rice in Asia: Emerging issues and strategic research needs for the 21st Century. Paper presented at Annual Workshop of the Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. Dhyani, V. C., Singh V.P. and Singh, G. (2005) Response of rice crop establishment and weed management. Indian J. Weed Sci. 37: 260-262. Gill, M. S., Kumar, A. and Kumar, P. (2006) Growth and yield of rice (Oryza sativa) cultivars under various methods and time of sowing. Indian J. Agron. 51: 123-127.
Gupta, R. D., Mahajan, G. and Goyal, B. R. (1995) Availability and quality of ground water in Punjab state. In: Water Management. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India, pp 18-42. Nageshwari, R. and Subhramaniayan, B. (2004) Influence of delayed basal dressing and split application of nitrogen in wet-seeded rice (Oryza sativa). Indian J. Agron. 49: 40-42. Mann, R.A., Munir, M. and Haqqani, A.M. (2004) Effect of resource conserving techniques on crop productivity in ricewheat cropping system. Pak. J. Agric. Res. 18: 58. Pandey, S. and Velasco, L. (1999) Economics of direct seedling in Asia: Patterns of adoption and research priorities. Int. Rice Res. Newslett. 24: 611.
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Effect of Fruit Maturity and Temperature on Seed Germination in Summer Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.)
Namarta Gupta*, S.S. Bal1 and H.S. Randhawa1
Seed Technology Center, 1Directorate of Seeds, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: namjindal70@yahoo.co.in
Physiological maturity (PM) of the seeds is the stage at which the seeds attain its maximum dry weight and represents maximum viability and vigour of the seed. The change that occurs in the seeds beyond PM is mainly due to dehydration without any accumulation of reserves. During this period of dehydration, there is no change in the seed quality in some of the crops. But in others maximum seed quality in terms of germination is attained some times beyond PM. So optimum time of harvest is very important. This necessitates accurate and precise determination of physiological maturity of the crop for the harvest of high quality seeds. Harvesting the seeds at optimum fruit maturity immensely declines the loss of the seed due to germination and vigour. Since the fruit colour serves as effective visual morphological index for physiological maturity therefore it was correlated with the seed quality. Further there are reports of dormancy in summer squash which is more pronounced at lower temperature and being altered at high temperature. Cucurbits are warm climate crops which are both cold weather and frost sensitive and most of them require relatively high temperatures for germination (Nerson, 2007). Minimum and maximum germination temperatures have been reported from 15 and 45C, respectively, with large differences among cultivars (Singh, 1991). Thus, objective of the study was to investigate the effects of fruit colour at the time of seed extraction, different germination temperatures and fruit storage on germination and various vigour parameters of Cucurbita pepo L. seeds and to provide some practical suggestions. The experiment was conducted at the experimental area of Seed Technology Center, PAU, Ludhiana. The crop was sown during the first week of March 2010. At the time of harvesting, the fruits were classified into three categories i.e., light yellow, deep yellow and deep orange. The seeds thus extracted were subjected to analysis of seed quality parameters viz., percentage germination (Anon., 1996), fresh and dry weight of seedlings, root length, shoot length, vigour index I and II (Abdul Baki and Anderson,1973) and 100 seed weight. The germination tests were conducted
using three replications of 50 seeds in each using roll towel paper method. The germination was recorded on 8th days per ISTA methods (Anon.,1996). The vigour index I (percentage germination x seedling length) and vigour index II ( percentage germination x dry weight of seedlings) were computed adopting the method of AbdulBaki and Anderson (1973). In the present study, the significant differences were observed among the different harvest stages with respect to seed quality parameters. All the quality parameters like percent germination, fresh and dry weight of seedlings, root length, shoot length, vigour index I and II and 100 seed weight increased as the stage of harvesting advances. The seeds obtained from earlier stages were immature, poor and under developed which is evident from lower 100 seed weight (4.03g in light yellow, 3.08g in orange yellow). As the fruit weight increased with the maturity stage (from 2.01 in light yellow, 3.08 in orange yellow to 3.57g in deep orange), the 100 seed weight also increased from 2.02 in light yellow and 3.08 in orange yellow to 7.14g in deep orange. The higher 100 seed weight at deep orange stage could be due to further accumulation of photosynthates in the seed. The deep orange coloured fruits recorded maximum percent germination, fresh weight and dry weight of the seedlings as compared to the fruits harvested at earlier stages. The seeds extracted from fruits from light yellow colour had germination less than 50 per cent germination (Table 1). However, when seeds were extracted from fruits ripened to orange yellow colour, their germination increased to 77.5 per cent. Seeds from deep orange coloured fruits achieved the maximum germination of 92.5 per cent. The fresh and dry weight of the seedlings was maximum at deep orange. Similarly the higher vigour index of the seedling at deep orange stage indicated that seed possesses maximum dry weight (0.041 g in deep orange as compared to 0.025 g and 0.034 g ) and vigour (Vigour Index II 18.96 at deep orange as compared to 13.33 and 6.51 at earlier stages) at the stage of physiological maturity. However in some of the crops PM occurs a little before the
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Table 1. Effect of different maturity stages of fruits and temperature on seed quality parameters in summer squash (Cucurbita pepo L) Fruit Maturity Stage Temperature (28C) Deep orange orange yellow Light yellow Temperature 22C Deep orange Orange yellow Light yellow 67.5 62.5 45.0 20 18 15 17 14 14 37 32 29 0.973 0.816 0.665 0.035 0.033 0.025 2497.5 2000.0 1305.0 11.81 10.31 5.54 92.5 77.5 52.5 25 22 20 20 19 16 45 41 36 1.11 0.861 0.697 0.041 0.034 0.025 4162.5 3177.5 1890.0 18.96 13.33 6.51 % Germination Shoot length (cm) Root length (cm) Seedling length (cm) Fresh weight (g) Dry weight (g) Vigour index I Vigour index II
harvest maturity as in capsicum (Naik et al., 1996; Alan and Eser, 2008) and is correlated to high respiration rate and photosynthetic partitioning at the time of seed maturity. When the fruits were stored for a few weeks, they showed declined percentage germination due to the development of micro flora on the pulp of fruit and even the seeds. This was attributed to the reason that harvesting period of the seed crop (end June and July) coincides with the arrival of hot and humid monsoons which result in the development of the inoculums. When the seed germination was tested at two different temperatures, the per cent germination was more at all the three stages (being 52.5 in light yellow, 77.5 in orange yellow to 92.5 in deep orange) at 28 0C as compared to the germination per cent at 220C (being 4..05 in light yellow, 62.5 in orange yellow to 67.5 in deep orange). This is attributed to the optimum temperature for the activation of biochemical reactions in the cell and activation of the enzymes needed for the germination process. Our findings are in accordance with the findings of Milani et al. (2007) that optimum germination temperatures range from 20 to 32C while 15 and 38C are the minimum and maximum germination temperatures, respectively.
Thus, from the study, it can be concluded that fruit of deep orange colour in summer squash (PCK-1) may be harvested for wet seed extraction, surface dried to have best quality seeds. The fruits should not be stored for seed extraction for days or weeks. The seeds show higher germination per cent at 280C.
REFERENCES
Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Anderson, J.D. (1973) Vigour determination in soybean by multiple criteria. Crop Sci. 13: 630-633. Alan, O. and Eser, B. (2008) The effect of fruit maturity and postharvest ripening on seed quality in hot and chronic pepper cultivars. Seed Sci. Tech. 36: 467-474. Anonymous (1996) International rules for seed testing (ISTA): rules. Seed Sci. Tech. 24 Suppl.: 29-356 Milani, E., Seyed, M., Razavi, A., Koocheki, A,, Nikzadeh, V., Vahedi, N., MoeinFard, M. and Gholamhossein Pour, A. (2007) Moisture dependent physical properties of cucurbit seeds. Int. Agrophys. 21: 157-168. Naik, L.B., Hebber, S.S. and Doijode, S.D. (1996) Effect of fruit maturity on seed quality in capsicum (Capsicum annuum L.). Seed Res. 24: 154-155. Nerson, H. (2007) Seed production and germinability of cucurbit crops. Seed Sci Biotechnol. 1: 1-10. Singh, D.K. (1991) Effect of temperature on seed germinability of Momordica charantia cultivars. New Agriculturist 2: 23-26.
Evaluation of N, P, Zn Complex Fertilizer for its Efficiency using Wheat as Test Crop in IndoGangetic Alluvial Soils of Northwestern India
B.S. Brar, D.S. Benipal* and Jagdeep Singh
Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: dsbenipal@Yahoo.com
Wheat, being the most important cereal crop is of great significance in agriculture for triggering green revolution and will also play a vital role in stabilizing national food supply in coming decades. Phosphorus is the backbone of any fertilizer management programme and plays a key role in energy related activities and development of root system (Mehta et al., 2005). Zinc has been rated as the fifth most important plant nutrient ranking behind nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur. Zinc plays an important role in sustaining yield and quality of crops and is removed by crops in large quantities. The need for applying micronutrient fertilizers to soils of Punjab was first felt with the appearance of zinc deficiency in rice and wheat. The adoption of intensive agriculture in irrigated areas involving cultivation of high yielding crop cultivars, use of high analysis macronutrient fertilizers, decreased use of organic manures and crop residues resulted in depletion of micronutrient reserves in soils due to bumper crop harvests. The deficiency of zinc is mainly associated with soils having coarse texture, high pH, low organic matter content and high calcium carbonate content in the soils (Takkar et al.,1999).The efficiency of applied P rarely exceeds 30 per cent and that of Zn more than 10 per cent in the soil (Nayyar et al., 1990).Therefore, repeated application of phosphorus over the years leads to its build up and interactions in soil and/or plants affecting crop production. However, both P and Zn deficiencies occur simultaneously as compared to other nutrients in Indian soils. Hence, it may be worthwhile to apply P and Zn together, which may boost up the use efficiency of both the nutrients. In India, zinc enriched diammonium phosphate and nitrophosphorus fertilizers have also been found to be effective in rectifying zinc deficiency in crops (Savithri et al. 1999). The information on Zn and P relationship in an important crop like wheat is not adequate, especially in situations where both the interacting nutrients (P and Zn) are deficient in soil. Keeping the above facts in view the present investigation was carried out for two years to study the effect
of soil application of different levels of phosphorus and zinc on their uptake, response and yield of wheat. A field experiment was conducted at PAU, Research Farm on wheat for two years in rice-wheat cropping system using wheat as test crop situated 30O 54 N latitude 750 46E longitude at 280 m above mean sea level. The soils at PAU Research farm were loamy sand, non-calcareous, Typic Ustochrepts. The pH of the field under investigation was 8.2, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the field was 0.22 d Sm-1 and the field was poor in organic carbon (3.2 g kg-1) as determined by standard methods. The soil tested low in available P (11.5 kg ha-1) determined by the method given by Olsen et al. (1954) and in available Zinc (0.50 ppm) determined by the method given by Lindsay and Norwell (1978 ). The treatments included two phosphorus levels P0 and P66 kg P2O5 ha-1 with four Zn levels of 0, 1.8, 5 and 10 kg i.e., ha-1. Zinc was applied through mosaic complex fertilizer N: P: Zn (10:50:1.5) in some treatments and through zinc sulphate in other treatments. The experiment was conducted in randomized block design with three replicates. The grain and straw yield of the crop were recorded and total uptake of nutrients were also analyzed. The agronomic efficiency (AE) and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) were computed using the following formulae:
Grain yield in fertilized plot- Grain yield in control AE = (kg grain kg-1 Amount of nutrient applied nutrient applied) Nutrient uptake in fertilized plot- Nutrient uptake in control NUE (%) = x 100 Amount of nutrient applied
The grain and straw yield of wheat increased significantly with the application of 60 kg P ha-1, it improved further to the tune of 5.1 and 4.2 q ha-1 when 5 kg zinc was added through zinc sulphate along with 60 kg P ha-1 over control. The grain and straw yield of wheat for both the years were at par when zinc was applied through mosaic zinc
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Table 1. Grain and straw yield of wheat (q ha-1) as affected by levels and sources of P and Zn fertilizers (mean of two years) Treatments P0 Zn0 P60 Zn0 P60 Zn5 P60 Zn1.8+3.2* P60 Zn0(DAP) P60 Zn1:8* P60 Zn1.8 P0 Zn5 P60 Zn10 P60 Zn1.8+3.2 CD (0.05) Grain 33.5 42.8 47.9 47.6 44.6 47.6 47.3 43.9 44.7 47.2 4.1 Straw 57.6 68.6 72.8 79.1 74.2 76.9 76.8 75.5 71.6 78.5 6.1 % increase over control (grain) 27.7 42.9 42.1 33.1 42.1 41.2 31.0 33.4 41.0 % increase over control (straw) 19.9 26.4 37.3 28.8 33.5 33.4 30.3 24.0 36.3
complex fertilizer. The grain and straw yield of wheat were also similar by the application of 1.8 and 5.0 kg Zn ha-1 indicating that 1.8 kg zinc ha-1 is sufficient to meet the crop requirement in terms of increasing yield. (Table 1).In a field experiment in wheat paddy system Khan et al. (2007) found that direct application of 5 and 10 kg zinc ha -1 to paddy gave an increase of 39 and 45 per cent, respectively. With the application of 60 kg P, the grain and straw yields of wheat for the years 2004-05 and 2005-06 increased by 27.7 and 19.9 per cent over control, which may further increased to the tune of 42.9 and 26.4 per cent with the application of 5 kg zinc along with 60 kg P ha-1. The trends in grain and straw yield of wheat remained almost same when the dose of zinc was 1.8 kg ha-1 and it was applied either through zinc sulphate or through mosaic zinc complex fertilizer indicating that 1.8 kg zinc ha-1 is sufficient for the requirement of wheat crop and both the sources of zinc were at par in increasing the wheat crop yields. In alluvial soils of Punjab. Brar et al. (2006) also evaluated this complex fertilizer on
paddy and found that the grain yield of paddy increased significantly when zinc was applied through N P Zn complex fertilizer either alone or in combination with zinc sulphate. In a six year experiment, the mean response to zinc on a Fatehpur loamy sand soil was 1.9 q ha-1 (Chandi and Takkar,1982). On moderately alkaline soil, according to Takkar and Randhawa (1978) the response of wheat to the zinc varied from 8 to 17 q ha-1. In a field experiment, total N uptake increased significantly with the application of P, it further improved with the addition of zinc (130.8 kg ha-1). Total N uptake was highest in plots where NPZn compex fertilizer was applied (141.7 kg ha-1) and lowest in control. Similar type of trends were observed in total K uptake in the crops for both the years. The uptake of N and K also increased significantly with the application of P and zinc indicating synergistic effect of integrated application of these nutrients. Total uptake of P increased significantly with the application of P, its content improved when 5 kg Zn was applied along with P. Increase in P uptake with P application
Table 2. Nutrient uptakes by wheat as affected by levels and sources of P and Zn fertilizers (mean of two years) Treatments N P0 Zn0 P60 Zn0 P60 Zn5 P60 Zn1.8+3.2* P60 Zn0(DAP) P60 Zn1:8* P60 Zn1.8 P0 Zn5 P60 Zn10 P60 Zn1.8+3.2 CD (0.05) 80.6 107.6 130.8 141.7 122.5 131.7 115.0 110.3 139.8 128.4 15.8 Total nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) P 13.4 17.6 21.3 22.5 21.5 19.3 21.2 17.5 18.0 22.6 2.7 K 69.0 75.6 98.2 122.0 99.0 113.8 106.4 96.4 97.7 116.4 13.4 (g ha-1) Zn 177.0 228.1 293.9 323.8 244.9 281.7 275.7 242.3 259.3 223.9 38.2
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has also been observed by Setia (2002). The contents of total P uptake in grain and straw of wheat were almost similar when the Zn was applied either through heptahydrate or mosaic zinc complex fertilizer. The increase in P uptake was insignificant when the dose of zinc was enhanced from 1.8 to 5.0 kg Zn ha-1. Total uptake of zinc also increased significantly with the application of zinc at both the levels i.e., 1.8 and 5.0 kg Zn ha-1. Total zinc uptake was minimum in control (177.0 g ha-1) and maximum in plots where mosaic zinc complex fertilizer was added (323.8 g ha-1). When both the levels of zinc (1.8 and 5.0 kg zinc kg ha-1) were compared, increase in total uptake of zinc was insignificant. The agronomic efficiency of P over control was 41.8 kg grain kg-1 P applied and it reduced with the application of zinc, similar trends were observed in apparent recovery of P (Table 3). Value of agronomic efficiency of applied zinc was highest (69.4 g grain kg-1 zinc) at its lower level of application in mosaic zinc complex fertilizer treated plots followed by zinc sulphate ( 59.8 g grain kg-1 zinc) treated plots. So from the present investigation it is concluded that the fields deficient in P and Zn, the N, P, Zn complex fertilizer can be used for obtaining higher crop yields.
24(S): 389-392. Chandi,K.S. and Takkar,P.N. (1982) Effect of agricultural system on micronutrient transformation. Pl. Soil. 69 :423-436. Khan, R., Gurmani, A.R., Khan, M.S. and Gurmani, A.H. (2007) Effect of zinc application on rice yield under wheat rice system. Pak. J. Biol. Sci.10:235-239. Lindsay,W.L. and Norwell, W.A. (1978) Development of DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese and copper. Soil Sci. Soc.Am.J. 42:421-428. Mehta,Y.K., Shaktawat, M.S. and Singhi,S.M. (2005) Influence of S, phosphorus and farmyard manure on yield attributes and yields of maize (Zea mays) in Southern Rajasthan conditions. Indian J. Agron. 50 (3):203-205. Nayyar, V.K.,Takkar, P.N., Bansal, R.L., Singh, S.P., Kaur, N.P. and Sadana, U.S. (1990) Micronutrients in soils and crops of Punjab. Res. Bull. Depaprtment of Soils. Punjab Agric. Univ. Ludhiana, India, pp. 148. Olsen, S.R., Cole, C. V., Watanabe, F.S. and Dean, L.A. (1954) Estimation of available P by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA Circ 939. Takkar, P.N. and Randhawa, N.S. (1978) Micronutrients in Indian agriculture. Fert. News 23: 3-26. Takkar, P.N., Chhibba, I. M. and Mehta, S. K. (1999) Twenty years of coordinated research on micronutrients in soils and plants. Bull. I. Indian Inst. Soil Sci., Bhopal, India, pp. 314. Savithri, P., Perumal, R. and Nagarajan, R. (1999) Soil and crop management technologies for enhancing rice production under micronutrient constraints. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys. 53:83-92. Setia, R.K. (2002) Chemical pools of nutrients and their dynamics in soils under continuous maize-wheat system. M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agric. Univ., Ludhiana.
REFERENCES
Brar,B.S., Benipal, D.S., Singh, Jagdeep and Mavi,M.S. (2006) Evaluation of NPZn complex fertilizer for its efficiency using rice as test crop in an alluvial soil of Punjab. Environ. Ecol.
Effect of Bio-fertilizers in Combination with Chemical Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Broccoli (Brassica oleracea Var. italica Plank)
Pradeep Kumar, Sanjay Kumar*, Yogesh Chandra Yadav and Adesh Kumar
Department of Applied Plant Science (Horticulture) Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University Lucknow-226 025 (UP), India *E-mail: sanjay123bhu@gmail.com
Sprouting broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plank) is the most important winter vegetables in India, which belongs to family Brassicaceae. It is herbaceous annual vegetable grown for its green tender curd and biennial for seed production. United States of America is the largest producer of broccoli in the world. In recent year, cultivation of broccoli has gained momentum in India. The progressive use of fertilizers along with inorganic fertilizers may be the right answer to increase the productivity. The bio-fertilizers denote all the nutrient inputs of biological origin for plant growth. They possess unique ability to enhance productivity by biological nitrogen fixation and solublization of insoluble phosphate or producing hormones, vitamins or other growth factors required for plant growth. In recent years, uses of microbial inoculants as source of bio-fertilizers have become a hope for most of the countries as far as economical as well as environmental concerns. Therefore, in developing countries like India, it can solve the problem at high cost of fertilizer and help in saving the economy of the country. The present study aimed to assess the performance of broccoli under inorganic chemical and biofertilizers conditions. The field experiment effect of bio-fertilizers with chemical fertilizers on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plank) cv. Fista was conducted at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow during 2009-10 in randomized block design with three replications. There were ten treatments combinations of NPK and biofertilizers. The plants were randomly selected and three plants were tagged in each plot in the beginning for recording various observations on 45th, 60th, 75th and 90th day after transplanting on ten growth, yield and yield attributing traits viz., height of plant (cm), number of leaves per plant, leaf length (cm), leaf width (cm), leaf weight per plant (kg), stem diameter (cm), curd diameter (cm), gross weight of plant (kg), net weight of curd (kg) and yield (q ha-1).
The effect of different treatment combinations of chemical fertilizers along with bio-fertilizers on growth and yield of curd are given in Table 1. The maximum plant height and number of leaves per plant on 45th and 90th day after treatment (DAT) was recorded in treatment PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N & K followed by Azotobacter + recommended of NPK and PSB+75% P and RD of N and K. The maximum length and breadth also showed the same trend. The maximum length of leaf, curd diameter gross weight of plant and net weight of curd gross weight of plant and net weight of curd was recorded in PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N & K through chemical fertilizers followed by Azotobacter + recommended of NPK and PSB+75% P and RD of N and K at 90th DAT. The yield was significantly affected by various bio-fertilizers treatments. The maximum yield (362.96q ha-1) was obtained by PSB + 50% P and recommended dose N and K through chemical fertilizers and was significantly superior over all the treatments and control. Same findings were found by the Bhattacharya et al. (1997) and Singh et al. (2006). The minimum yield (285.18q ha -1) was observed with recommended dose of chemical fertilizers (control). On the basis of above observations, it could be concluded that the application of PSB+50% P and recommended dose (150, 60 & 60 kg ha-1) of NPK through chemical fertilizers proved best for higher curd yield of broccoli.
REFERENCES
Bhattacharya, P., Jain, R.K., Paliwal, M..K. and Argar, M.Y. (1997) Effect of azospirillum and azotobactor on growth, yield and quantity of knol-khol (Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes L.) Veg. Science 24(1): 16-19. Singh, R., Chaurasia, S.N.S. and Singh, S.N. (2006) Response of nutrient sources and spacing on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica Plank). Veg. Science 33 (2): 198-200.
Table 1. Effect of different treatment combinations of chemical fertilizers along with bio-fertilizers on growth and yield of broccoli Height of plant (cm) 90th 45th DAT DAT 22.40 23.62 24.10 27.98 28.20 26.92 26.12 25.82 25.90 24.98 3.30 4.08 0.109 0.129 3.25 46.23 8.30 15.20 41.10 47.10 9.10 16.10 41.26 47.45 9.58 16.02 42.14 1.710 1.660 1.600 0.139 48.90 9.64 16.50 43.09 1.850 49.10 9.83 17.12 44.73 2.004 50.41 10.90 18.12 48.90 2.190 1.51 1.32 1.20 1.12 1.10 1.05 0.14 49.25 10.60 17.42 46.72 2.106 1.51 46.48 8.60 15.87 40.99 1.840 1.19 3.16 3.50 3.50 3.34 3.20 3.10 3.08 2.95 0.25 42.90 7.90 15.21 38.74 1.840 0.98 3.04 41.98 6.80 14.50 38.32 1.190 1.06 2.27 10.82 11.26 11.45 12.80 13.47 12.45 12.14 11.40 11.20 11.08 0.272 Number of leaves per plant 45th 90th DAT DAT Leaf length (cm) 45th 90th DAT DAT Leaf width (cm) Stem diameter (cm) Curd diameter (cm) Gross weight of plant (kg) 2.31 2.78 3.15 3.96 4.59 3.54 3.25 2.96 2.88 2.58 0.27 Net weight of curd (kg) 0.750 0.794 0.847 0.972 0.980 0.968 0.940 0.820 0.805 0.800 0.10 Yield (q ha-1)
Treatments
285.18 294.07 313.70 360.00 362.96 358.51 348.14 303.70 298.14 296.29 0.93
PSB + RD of NPK
PB + RD of NPK
CD (0.05)
RD: Recommended dose of N,P and K 150, 60 and 60 kg ha-1, respectively DAT= Days after transplanting PSB= Phosphate Solublizing Bacteria PB= Phosphobacteria
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