4.

Pragmatics

the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of: a. how the interpretations and use of UTTERANCES depends on knowledge of the real world b. how speakers use and understand SPEECH ACTS c. how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with SEMANTICS, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences. Usage1 the ways people actually speak and write. In this sense, usage is closely related to PERFORMANCE, and can be studied by the analysis of specimens of AUTHENTIC language and by experiments of various kinds. The study of usage can reveal, for example, that the passive voice (see VOICE1) is more than ordinarily frequent in scientific writing, or that the spellings all right and alright both occur. It is also possible to study reactions to usage, and on this basis to make recommendations when usage is divided. Usage guides attempt to do this. They may say, for example, that people write both all right and alright, but that there are still strong feelings against the spelling alright, and that therefore it is better to write all right as two words. Usage2 a distinction has been proposed by Widdowson between the function of a linguistic item as an element in a linguistic system (usage) and its function as part of a system of communication (use). For example, the PROGRESSIVE ASPECT may be studied as an item of grammar or usage (i.e. to consider how it compares with other ASPECTS and TENSES in English and the constructions in which it occurs) and in terms of its use (i.e. how it is used in DISCOURSE for performing such communicative acts as descriptions, plans, commentaries, etc.).

The meaning a linguistic item has as an example of usage is called its signification, and the meaning it has as an example of use is called its value. Uptake the illocutionary force (see SPEECH ACT) a hearer interprets from an utterance. For example in the following exchange: Child: Im tired. Mother: You can stop doing your homework now. the uptake or interpretation by the mother is as if the child had said Can I stop doing my homework now? But sometimes there may be a difference between the intended uptake (what the speaker wants the hearer to understand) and the actual uptake (what the hearer actually understands).

Anthropological linguistics
a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure. For example, anthropological linguists have studied the ways in which relationships within the family are expresses in different cultures (kinship terminology), and they have studied how people communicate with one another at certain social and cultural events, e.g. ceremonies, rituals, and meetings, and related this to the overall structure of the particular community. Some areas of anthropological linguistics are closely related to areas of SOCIOLINGUISTICS and the ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION. Ethnography of communication the study of the place of language in culture and society. Language is not studied in isolation but within a social and/or cultural setting. Ethnography of communication studies, for example, how people in a particular group or community communicate with each other and how the social relationships between these people affect the type of language they use. The concept of an ethnography of communication was advocated by the American social anthropologist and linguist Hymes and this approach is important in SOCIOLINGUISTICS and APPLIED LINGUISTICS.

Sociolinguistics
the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc. Linguists differ as to what they include under sociolinguistics. Many would include the detailed study of interpersonal communication, sometimes called micro-sociolinguistics, e.g. SPEECH ACTS, SPEECH EVENTS, SEQUENCING1 of UTTERANCES, and also those investigations which relate variation in the language used by a group of people to social factors (see SOCIOLECT). Such areas as the study of language choice in BILINGUAL or MULTILINGUAL communities, LANGUAGE PLANNING, LANGUAGE ATTITUDES, etc. may be included under sociolinguistics and are sometimes referred to as macro-sociolinguistics, or they are considered as being part of the SOCIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE or the SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE. Speech event a particular instance when people exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, an enquiry, a conversation. For example: Child: Mum, wheres my red jumper? Mother: Bottom drawer in your bedroom. Child: Right, Ill have a look. Speech events are governed by rules and norms for the use of speech, which may be different in different communities. The structure of speech events varies considerably according to the GENRE they belong to. The components of a speech event are its SETTING, the PARTICIPANTS and their ROLE RELATIONSHIPS, the MESSAGE, the key (see KEY1) and the CHANNEL. The term speech situation is sometimes used instead of speech event, but usually it refers to any situation which is associated with speech, e.g. a classroom lesson, a party. A speech situation may consist of just one speech event, e.g. two people meeting in the street and having a brief conversation, or it may contain a number of speech events, some going on at the same time, e.g. a large dinner party.

Sequencing (in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS) the relationship between UTTERANCES, that is, which type of utterance may follow another one. Sequencing is governed by rules known as sequencing rules, which may be different for different languages or different varieties of the same language. In some cases, the sequence of utterances is quite strictly regulated, as in greetings and leave-takings (see ADJACENCY PAIRS) but often there is a range of possibilities depending on the situation, the topic, the speakers, and their intentions at the moment. For example, a question is usually followed by an answer but can, in certain circumstances, be followed by another question: A: What are you doing tonight? B: Why do you want to know? Sociolect also social dialect a variety of a language (a DIALECT) used by people belonging to a particular social class. The speakers of a sociolect usually share a similar socioeconomic and/or educational background. Sociolects may be classed as high (in STATUS) or low (in status). For example: He and I were going there. (higher sociolect) Imn me was goin there. (lower sociolect) The sociolect with the highest status in a country is often the STANDARD VARIETY. The difference between one sociolect and another can be investigated by analyzing the recorded speech of large samples of speakers from various social backgrounds. The differences are referred to as sociolectal variation or social dialectal variation. Language planning planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.

Through language planning, an official language policy is established and/or implemented. For example, in Indonesia, Malay was chosen as the national language and was given the name Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language). It became the main language of education. There were several spelling reforms and a national planning agency was established to deal with problems such as the development of scientific terms. Language attitudes the attitudes which speakers of different languages or language varieties have towards each others languages or to their own language. Expressions of positive or negative feelings towards a language may reflect impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity, ease or difficulty of learning, degree of importance, elegance, social STATUS, etc. Attitudes towards a language may also show what people feel about the speakers of that language. Language attitudes may have an effect on SECOND LANGUAGE or FOREIGN LANGUAGE learning. The measurement of language attitudes provides information which is useful in language teaching and LANGUAGE PLANNING.

Highlights
Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Usage is the ways people actually speak and write. An Uptake is the illocutionary force (see SPEECH ACT) a hearer interprets from an utterance. Anthropological linguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions, beliefs, and family structure. Ethnography of communication is the study of the place of language in culture and society. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social factors, that is, social class, educational level and type of education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc.

A Speech event is a particular instance when people exchange speech, e.g. an exchange of greetings, an enquiry, a conversation. Sequencing (in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS) is the relationship between UTTERANCES, that is, which type of utterance may follow another one. A Sociolect (also social dialect) a variety of a language (a DIALECT) used by people belonging to a particular social class. Language planning is the planning, usually by a government or government agency, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems. The Language attitudes are the attitudes which speakers of different languages or language varieties have towards each others languages or to their own language.

Questions
1. What kinds of study does pragmatics include? 2. What is usage related to? 3. What is the difference between usage and use as proposed by Widdowson? 4. What have anthropological linguists studied? 5. What does micro-sociolinguistics include? 6. What does macro-sociolinguistics include? 7. What are speech events governed by? 8. How can be sociolects classified? 9. What is a standard variety? 10. How is an official language policy established? 11. What do language attitudes show?