Journal of Tourism, Recreation & Sport Management, vol.

1/2013 Section II Physical activity, leisure and recreation

Baby gender determination in scuba divers

by Andrzej Ostrowski1, Arkadiusz Stanula2, Daniel Makowski3, Andrzej urawik2
Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical Education, Cracov 2 Department of Sports Theory, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice 3 Student of The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice 4 Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, The Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, Katowice
1

Diving has been recognized as a factor influencing childrens gender. Diving is related to staying in unfavorable thermal conditions and being subjected to changing hydrostatic pressure, the necessity to decompress pressure, which in turn may lead to extreme physiological changes. At the same time diving is connected with good health and good physical condition. All of these determinants have inspired the authors to investigate the determination of divers childrens gender with consideration given to such factors as divers age during conception, diving frequency, diving depths and divers experience. The average age of respondents is 30,9 years and their general diving experience is 7,6 years. Whereas in the group of respondents aged up to 30 years the number of female and male children was the same, in the group of older divers the difference was significant 67,4% of born children were girls and 32,6% were boys. On the basis of these data we have decided to find out whether there are dependencies between divers varying in diving experience, frequency and depth. Although the results have shown that more girls were born than boys, these data is not statistically significant. Therefore we may assume that diving and adaptive reactions, physical strain, being subjected to water pressure and temperature, and decompression that are related to it do not burden so much to decrease sperm quality.

Abstract

Key words: scuba diving, baby gender determination

Introduction Scuba diving consists in being under water with the use of special diving equipment meting out respiratory gas or blocked off air. People dive for various reasons: as a form of recreation and for sporting, scientific, technical, consumption, rescue, military and other purposes, e.g. to get married. Recreational scuba diving with the possibility to breathe air provided by means of air hoses from independent diving apparatus (free-diving) is the most popular kind of diving. The time that a diver can

spend underwater is therefore limited by the following factors: the amount of air in tanks (up to 20 l and 300 atm), resistance in breathing apparatus (the increase of density of exhaled air with the increase of depth), the intensity of physical strain while diving, the depth and synergetic effect of nitrogen (N), carbon dioxide (CO2) and high O2 partial pressure related to it, as well as the time necessary for decompression. Mixed gas diving, which limits the toxicity of O2 and N so typical of diving with the use of air and which eliminates or limits

Andrzej Ostrowski Ph.D. Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical Education, Cracov, Poland 31-571 Krakw, Jana Pawa II 78, tel. (12) 683 11 05; e-mail: andrzejostrowski@poczta.fm
Accepted for printing in Journal of Tourism, Recreation & Sport Management vol. 1/2013 on May 2013

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Ostrowski et al. Baby gender determination in scuba divers

decompression, is getting more and more popular. This kind of diving consists in being underwater with a respiratory system using specially selected gas [Krzyak, 2008]. As a result of the development of knowledge about diving and its popularization, this kind of physical activity is now available to more and more diving fiends. It is a sports discipline drawing swimming abilities, the technique of using equipment in limited lighting, thermal and physical conditions in which pressure changes during diving and surfacing. The complexity and the untypical nature of activities performed by divers underwater ought to encourage them to take care of their health, physical and psychological fitness and good physical condition. The proper functioning of ones body, mainly the respiratory and vascular systems is essential as well. That is why divers should regularly monitor their health by seeing a diving medicine specialist. Risks related to diving are minimal if one follows diving procedures and is aware of changes taking place in the human body during diving [Ostrowski, 2010]. A diver functioning in an underwater environment is directly affected by it. His body consists of millions of cells, which, despite the fact that each of them is independent, form tissues, organs, systems, that is a living organism. A body functions as a whole, it is consists of many systems. Some of them can be damaged without any serious consequences for the rest of the organism, but damage in others may result in death. In order to survive underwater, the respiratory and vascular systems, which cooperate to provide O2 and nutrition to cells and remove metabolic products, are most important to divers. The constant functioning of these systems changes under the influence of the pressure of water [Gob, 2008]. While diving a number of changes in the respiratory system take place and they exert influence on a divers safety. First of 80

all, the frequency of taking breaths declines, but at the same time each breaths is deeper. This results in a smaller lung respiration and the increase in concentration of carbon dioxide in alveoli. What is more, respiratory activity increases and the resistance of gas flow increases by 30%. Lungs ability to expand decreases, and the value of vital capacity may drop to 10% at the unchanged tidal volume. Breathing compressed air that is characterized by greater density improves the flow of O2 in alveoli. Diving and surfacing with held breath is a great risk for divers since air expanding in lungs may crush them as well as lead to pulmonary barotraumas. That is why divers are advised to breathe in a steady and calm way. In addition, while diving a diver needs to overcome resistance in breathing apparatus which results from the surrounding pressure [Macke et al., 2003, Krzyak, 2008]. During diving the functioning of the vascular system changes partially. The so-called diving reflex occurs and it results in the constriction of the peripheral vascular and weakens hearth rate. Balancing gravity that takes place when a person dives increases stroke volume and cardiac output that results from this change. These two parameters influence the gas exchange by speeding up unfavorably the saturation of a body with neutral gases. Blood concentration in the torso area decreases plasma density in the right atrium and thickens blood, which leads to over normative urinary output. It also exerts influence on the increase in pressure in the right atrium and right cardiac ventricle, which, in the longer period of time may result in hypertrophy [Krzyak, 2006]. In the case of men staying in an environment with higher pressure, more X chromosomes, carrying female genetic information, are found in sperm. There are several factors determining the effect of sperm activity, and, consequently, which sperm cell will reach the egg cell first. The most influential factor are hormones that

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determine fertility and the life cycle of an egg cell or sperm. A woman is born with a determined number of egg cells, but sperm cells are produced during the process of maturation and biological development. Sperm cells are produced systematically and that is why the lifestyle and the environment exert such great influence on hormone production and, consequently, sperm production [http://www. centrumzdrowiakobiet.pl]. It is a commonly held belief that a babys gender is a matter of chance. However, research investigating sperm has proven that male chromosomes (Y) are more active and lighter, but less immune, and, as a result live shorter than female ones. Female chromosomes (X), on the other hand, are slower and heavier, but more immune. Male chromosomes die quicker in unfavorable conditions, but female chromosomes are more resistant. The quality of sperm depends on a mans general physical condition. The general condition of sperm is determined by such factors as overheated testicles (which is a condition observed in drivers), working in a toxic environment, alcohol abuse or smoking. Taking into consideration that sperm carrying the Y chromosome is more delicate by nature, fathering a boy is more difficult as sperm carrying the X chromosome is more resistant. The influence of environmental factors, lifestyle and personal factors on sperm quality is consequently statistical in nature. The influence of various factors differs depending on predispositions. However, they cannot be passed over and include: age, obesity, overweight, underweight [Jensen et al., 2004, Kort et al., 2006, Wegner et al., 2010], high temperature [Evenson et al., 2000, Lampiao, 2009], toxic substances and environmental pollution, stress [Li et al., 2011], medication, illnesses, genetic disorders, infections and inflammations of the genital system, smoking [Elshal et al., 2009, Niu et al., 2010], alcohol, sex steroids [Wollina et al., 2007, Pundir et al., 2008], diet, mechanical

injuries, ionizing radiation, including X-ray radiation. Recent studies conducted by Oxford University researchers have shown that stress experienced by a mother-to-be is the major factor influencing a babys gender. Women who were stressed and nervous gave birth to girls. By investigating the presence of cortisol and adrenaline in their bodies, researchers have proven that the former plays a key role in baby gender determination. In the case of women with the highest level of cortisol, the likelihood of giving birth to a boy was as much as 75% lower. However, such dependence has not been found in the case of adrenaline [http://www.forumginekologiczne.pl/]. Methods Various factors have an impact on a diver that is underwater. They influence the functioning of many organs that play key roles in the proper functioning of the human body. The dependence between the scope and kind of diving and the determination of a babys gender has been investigated in the present paper. Achieving the aims of the paper was related to formulation the following research questions and providing answers to them: 1. Is the age of a father at the moment of conception related to baby gender determination? 2. Is the frequency of diving related to baby gender determination? 3. Is the depth of diving related to baby gender determination? 4. Is there a relationship between divers experience and baby gender determination? The research has been conducted based on a diagnostic poll method using a questionnaire, whose content has been posted on ankieter.pl website. Besides, a redirection to the questionnaire has been 81

Ostrowski et al. Baby gender determination in scuba divers

posted on two internet forums related to diving [http://forum-nuras.com and http://divetrek.com.pl/forum]. The questionnaire was available online from the twentieth of July 2012 till the twenty-first of March 2012, which enabled us to collect data on seventy-eight divers that have been diving regularly since their children were born. The questionnaire was anonymous and included mostly closedended questions. The first three questions were related to respondents personal particulars, such as age, place of residence and educational background, and the following fourteen questions concerned their diving experience. Information on a hundred and one children has been collected, including fifty-eight girls and forty-three boys respectively.

StatSoft Statistica v. 10PL statistical package was used to obtain results, that is to calculate descriptive analysis parameters and chi-squared tests (ch^2). Results Before the analysis of the dependence between the quality of diving and the baby gender determination in divers, a general description has been provided. The majority (95%) of respondents live in cities, almost half of whom live in big cities inhabited by more than 500,000 people. 88% of respondents have tertiary education, and only a few (3%) have elementary education. Apart from that, respondents were characterized in terms of age, the their diving experience and their childrens gender. Table 1 presents an account of this information.

Table 1. Age, diving experience and childrens gender in the group of divers aged up to 30 and higher.
Age (years) Numbers (n) Diving experience (years) Average diving experience (years) Babys gender 22 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 42 51 1 3 3 5,3 3 7 7 3 7 7 9 5 11 4 2 1 1 5 1 2 1 6 3 1

4,9 3,7 6,1 5,3 8,7 8,4 6,6 8,3 13 12 6 yr

5 11,6 10 14 9,4 yr

6,7 34

=50%

=50%

=67,4%

=32,6%

The average age of divers is 30,9 years and their average diving experience is 7,6 years. More than 75% of respondents is in the 24 to 33 age bracket. Their diving experience increases with age. By dividing the respondents into two groups: up to 30 years-old and more than 30 years-old (forty-one and thirty-seven respondents respectively) we have been able to observe that in the former group diving experience was on average 6 years and was 3,4 years shorter when compared to members of the latter group. Another important difference 82

is the fact that the number of girls and boys in the first group was the same, but differed significantly in the second group where 67,4% of children born to divers were girls, and 32,6% boys. In order to verify the results presented in Table 1 a reference to data included in the 2011 demographic yearbook has been made. Thanks to this comparison it was possible to determine whether the gender of divers children diverges from the average or is in the normal range.

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Table 2. The gender of children based on the 2011 demographic yearbook with respect to the gender of divers children.
Place of living Babys gender Numbers [n] Numbers [%] 116 750 48,2 City 125 280 51,8 82 044 48,0 Village 88 890 52,0 198 794 48,1 Total 214 170 51,9 Scuba divers 58 57,4 43 42,6

The conducted research shows that 57,4% and 42,6% of children born to divers were girls and boys respectively. The 2011 demographic yearbook says that in Poland boys are born more often than girls (51,9% and 48,1% of births respectively) and that there was a small difference in births between the inhabitants of cities and villages. By comparing the results of the study with data included in the 2011 demographic yearbook it has been noted

that the number of births given to girls is 9,3% higher in the case of divers. The sperm production deteriorates with age, which results in the deterioration of sperm parameters and lowering the fertility potential. Sperm quality deterioration with age can take place with varied intensity. The research into divers has confirmed that sperm quality deteriorates with age. This has been presented in Table 3.

Table 3. The relationship between the divers age at the moment of conception and baby gender determination.
Babys gender Female % total number Male % total number Total number % total number Moment of conception under 25 yr 2 2,60% 5 6,49% 7 9,09% 25-30 yr 16 20,78% 17 22,08% 33 42,86% 30-35 yr 14 18,18% 9 11,69% 23 29,87% above 35 yr 10 12,99% 4 5,19% 14 18,18% Total 42 54,55% 35 45,45% 77 100,00%

chi^2=4,37; df=3; p=0,224

In the majority of cases divers were in the 26 to 35 age bracket when their children were conceived. In this case the number of girls and boys born was similar. In the next, older group of fathers (in the 30 to 35 age bracket) a growing tendency to conceive girls has been observed. In the case of extreme groups, that is divers up to

25 years boys were born more often than girls, and in the group of fathers older than 35 years the majority of children were girls (10 out of 14 births). Diving experience is related to age and as a result the abovementioned factors may cumulate. The analysis of births of children 83

Ostrowski et al. Baby gender determination in scuba divers

whose fathers were ageing and prolonging their diving experience is presented in

Table 4.

Table 4. Diving experience and the determination of a babys gender.

Babys gender Female % total number Male % total number Total number % total number Diving experience under 1 yr 0 0,00% 3 3,90% 3 3,90% 1-5 yr 18 23,38% 15 19,48% 33 42,86% 5-10 yr 13 16,88% 9 11,69% 22 28,57% above 10 yr 11 14,29% 8 10,39% 19 24,68% Total 42 54,55% 35 45,45% 77 100,00%

chi^2=3,87; df=3; p=0,276

The respondents started diving when they were twenty years old and that is why their diving experience grew with age. The majority of respondents whose diving experience was higher than five years become fathers of girls. However, in the group of respondents with experience of less than five years the number of births of boys and girls was the same. The difference

in births of girls between these two groups was 9%. Diving is related to reaching depths. A diver is under the increased influence of water pressure which may be related to childrens gender. That is why the frequency of birth and gender of divers children has been investigated (Table 5).

Table 5. The depth of diving and the determination of a babys gender.

Babys gender Female % total number Male % total number Total number % total number Depth of diving up to 10m 2 2,60% 0 0,00% 2 2,60% 10-20m 9 11,69% 9 11,69% 18 23,38% 20-30m 15 19,48% 9 11,69% 24 31,17% 30-40m 7 9,09% 12 15,58% 19 24,68% 40-50m 6 7,79% 3 3,90% 9 11,69% above 50 m 3 3,90% 2 2,60% 5 6,49% Total 42 54,55% 35 45,45% 77 100,00%

chi^2=5,42; df=5; p=0,366

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The majority of children were born to divers who reached the average depths ranging from 20 to 40 m (55,85% of respondents). The analysis of the depth of diving and the gender of divers children shows that there is only a small difference between divers diving up to 20 m depth. While in the case of divers going down to 20-30 meters the majority of children born were girls, more boys than girls were born to respondents diving at 30 to 40 meters. Such variance may show that the depth of

diving does not influence the gender of children born to divers. In the case of divers going down to 40 meters the majority of respondents were fathers of girls, but the group was too small to formulate unequivocal conclusions. Divers experience grows with age and enables them to dive more often and at greatest depths. Table 6 present the analysis of the relationship between divers experience and baby gender determination.

Table 6. The relationship between divers experience and the determination of a babys gender.
Babys gender Female % total number Male % total number Total number % total number Divers experience under 1 yr 0 0,00% 3 3,90% 3 3,90% 1-5 yr 18 23,38% 15 19,48% 33 42,86% 5-10 yr 13 16,88% 9 11,69% 22 28,57% above 10 yr 11 14,29% 8 10,39% 19 24,68% Total 42 54,55% 35 45,45% 77 100,00%

chi^2=3,87; df=3; p=0,276

The greatest number of children was born to divers whose experience ranged from 1 to 5 years (42,86%), 5 to 10 years (28,57%) and more than 10 years (24,68%) respectively. In all three groups girls (54,55%) were born more often than boys (41,55%). The greatest disproportion has been observed in the case of group with diving experience ranging from 5 to 10 years. Summary The gender of a baby is rather a matter of chance, but it is dependable on sperm. Scientific research has shown that sperm cells carrying the Y chromosome are more active and lighter, but less immune. Sperm cells carrying the X chromosome, on the other hand, are slower and heavier, but

more resistant. Whereas the former die faster, the latter can survive for a longer period of time. Factors influencing the quality of sperm are: age, physical condition, lifestyle and the kind of job. The influence of environmental factors, lifestyle and personal factors on sperm quality is consequently statistical in nature. The influence of various factors differs depending on predispositions. Diving has been recognized as a factor influencing childrens gender. Diving is related to staying in unfavorable thermal conditions and being subjected to changing hydrostatic pressure, the necessity to decompress pressure, which in turn may lead to extreme physiological changes. At the same time diving is connected with good health and good physical condition. All of these 85

Ostrowski et al. Baby gender determination in scuba divers

determinants have inspired the authors to investigate the determination of divers childrens gender with consideration given to such factors as divers age during conception, diving frequency, diving depths and divers experience. First the respondents have been characterized. The majority of them lives in cities, half of whom live in big cities and have tertiary education. The average age of respondents is 30,9 years and their general diving experience is 7,6 years. Whereas in the group of respondents aged up to 30 years the number of female and male children was the same, in the group of older

divers the difference was significant 67,4% of born children were girls and 32,6% were boys. On the basis of these data we have decided to find out whether there are dependencies between divers varying in diving experience, frequency and depth. Although the results have shown that more girls were born than boys, these data is not statistically significant. Therefore we may assume that diving and adaptive reactions, physical strain, being subjected to water pressure and temperature, and decompression that are related to it do not burden so much to decrease sperm quality.

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