898

Index Probability density diagram, 17 Probability density functions, 1617 Probable error, 125 Process controllers, 435437, 444 Process control systems, 388 Processor load reduction, 239 Process reaction method, 412 Process sheets, 706 Process signature, 412, 413 Programmability, 680681 Programmable interconnects, 251253 Programmable I / O blocks, 251, 252 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 434, 683, 687696 data types for, 695 functions for, 694 function blocks for, 695 IEC 61131 standard, 691, 696 interfaces in, 688691 principles of operation for, 687688 programming of, 689696 Programmable ROM (PROM), 249250 Programming: of NCs, 702709 of PLCs, 689696 PROM, see Programmable ROM Propagation-of-error equation, 11 Propagation of error or uncertainty, 1012 Proper rational functions, 325, 326 Proportional band, 399 Proportional control, 399401 Proportional-derivative (PD) control, 404 406, 408 Proportional gain, 399 Proportional-integral (PI) control, 403 constant reference and disturbance inputs, 762 digital, 429431 hydraulic implementation of, 407, 409 op-amp implementation of, 406408 Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, 404, 405 constant reference and disturbance inputs, 763 digital forms of, 425427 op-amp implementation of, 406, 409 open-loop design for, 420421 Simulink model of, 439, 440 Prototypes, 269 Pseudoderivative feedback (PDF), 418, 419 Pull-in torque, 564 Pull-out torque, 564 Pulsating ows, 177 Pulse-echo technique, 173 Pulse-frequency modulation (PFM) method, 554 Pulse transfer functions, 379, 381, 385, 463465 Pulse-width modulation (PWM), 554, 670, 672 Pulsing ow, 184185 Punched cards, 699 Punched tape, 699, 702 Pure dependent source, 311 Pure gyrators, 308 Pure transducers, 308, 310 Pure transformers, 308, 309 Pure transmitters, 308 PWM, see Pulse-width modulation PWM ampliers, 569572

Q
Q-learning, 816, 820 Quadratic index, 411412 Quadratures, 391 Quadrature optical encoders, 853854 Quarter-decay criterion, 412 Quarter-square multipliers, 494496 Questionnaires, 270

R
Radial basis function (RBF), 794 Radiation error, 151 Radiation temperature detectors, 167, 168 RAM, see Random-access memory Ramp input, 487, 528531 Random-access memory (RAM), 250, 849 Random deviation, 102 Random errors, 10, 1213 Random processes, 360, 362363 Random sampling, 910 Range, 4 Rare-earth magnets, 552, 553 Rate action, 404 Rate-based owmeters, 175 Rate limiter, 439 Rate-type systems, 543, 576