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WATER TREATMENT
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6. Water treatment
6.1 Introduction
Water can be contaminated by the following agents:
Pathogens disease-causing organisms that include bacteria, amoebas and viruses, as well as the eggs and larvae of parasitic worms. Harmful chemicals from human activities (industrial wastes, pesticides, fertilizers). Chemicals and minerals from the natural environment, such as arsenic, common salt and fluorides. Some non-harmful contaminants may influence the taste, smell, colour or temperature of water, and make it unacceptable to the community.
Water from surface sources is often contaminated by microbes, whereas groundwater is normally safer, but even groundwater can be contaminated by harmful chemicals from human activities or from the natural environment. Rainwater captured by a rooftop harvesting system or with small catchment dams is relatively safe, provided that the first water is allowed to flow to waste when the rainy season starts. The amount of water to be treated should also be assessed. This can be estimated by assuming that each person will need a minimum of 2050 litres of water a day for drinking, cooking, laundry and personal hygiene. A community should be consulted when choosing a water-treatment system and should be made aware of the costs associated with the technology. In particular, community members should be made aware of the behavioural and/or cultural changes needed to make the system effective over the long-term and thus be acceptable to them. Communities may also need to be educated about protecting water sources from animal or human contamination, and mobilized. It should be emphasized that all the positive effects of a water-treatment system could be jeopardized if the water is not drawn, stored and transported carefully and hygienically. The Fact Sheets in this section deal with both community and household methods for treating water. Some household treatment methods and their effectiveness are summarized in Table 6.1, whereas the following household and community water-treatment technologies are described in greater detail: Household water-treatment systems boiling; household slow sand filter; domestic chlorination. Community water-treatment systems storage and sedimentation; up-flow roughing filter; slow sand filtration; chlorination in piped water-supply systems.
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a b
Adapted from: Skinner & Shaw (1998). The treatments were categorized as being: of no effect, or of unknown effectiveness (); of little effect (); moderately effective (); highly effective ().
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6.1.2 Reducing the concentration of chemicals in water Iron and manganese
Water collected from boreholes can have a high concentration of iron (greater than 0.3 mg/l, the WHO guideline value). This can be the result of a naturally high iron content in the soil, or the result of corrosion (from iron pipes, borehole casings and screens). The iron gives the water an unpleasant metallic taste and odour, stains laundry and white enamel on sinks and bowls, and discolours food. Although such levels of iron are not known to be harmful, the undesirable properties can cause communities to accept contaminated water that has no taste, instead of safe water that has a metallic taste. Most of the iron can be removed simply, by aerating the water and filtering it through sand and gravel. The sand and gravel used in the filters will need to be cleaned periodically. Similar problems arise when water has excessive manganese concentrations (above 0.1 mg/l, the WHO guideline value), but again the water can be treated by aeration, followed by filtration and settlement.
Fluoride
High concentrations of fluoride (above 1.5 mg/l, the WHO guideline value) can damage bones and teeth. Low-cost treatment methods include the Nalgonda system (which uses lime to soften the water), and using alum as a coagulant. With either treatment, the water is then left to settle at the same time it is being chlorinated.
Arsenic
Arsenic is widely distributed throughout the Earths crust and enters water as dissolved minerals. It can also enter water bodies in industrial effluents, or by deposition from the atmosphere. Arsenic concentrations greater than the WHO guideline value of 0.01 mg/ l are toxic. Simple treatment methods include adding lime to soften the water, or adding alum as a coagulant, followed by settlement. When arsenic (or fluoride) is to be removed at household level, the implementation should always be carefully planned and supported by the community.
6.2 Boiling2
6.2.1 The technology
Heating water is an effective way to kill the microorganisms in it. WHO recommends that the water be brought to a vigorous boil. This will kill, or inactivate, most organisms that cause diarrhoea. High turbidity does not affect disinfection by boiling, but if the water is to be filtered, this must be done before boiling. For household use, water is mostly boiled in a pot on a stove. If it is not to be stored in the same pot in which it was boiled, the water
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should be poured into a clean storage container immediately after boiling, so that the heat of the boiled water will kill most of the bacteria in the storage container. Fuel costs, and the time involved in boiling and cooling the water, limit the usefulness of this method. A study in Bangladesh estimated it would cost 7% of the average family budget to boil all the water for the village (Gilman & Skillicorn, 1985). Also, fuel prices continue to rise in most parts of the world.
Household member. Collect fuel and water, boil water, clean utensils, monitor boiled water supply, repair mud stove. Blacksmith. Repair metal stove.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Technical skills.
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6.2.5 Potential problems
the water becomes recontaminated after boiling; fuel for boiling the water is scarce and, consequently, expensive; boiled water tastes flat this may be corrected by adding herbs to the water during boiling and not drinking it for six hours after it has been boiled.
USAID (1982).
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organic material must be scraped off the top of the filter, washed, dried in the sun and put aside. When the filter bed becomes too thin, the washed sand is restored. This is done by taking some more sand from the top of the filter, adding back the washed sand from previous operations, and then placing the sand just taken out on top of the filter. Every year, the tanks must be checked for corrosion, and any leaks repaired immediately. Occasionally, the clean-water tank may need to be disinfected with chlorine, and a hose or tap may need to be repaired. As a household slow sand filter is operated at family or household level, the organizational structure for operation already exists. At least one person in each household should be trained in matters of hygiene, and in the O&M of the filtering system. It may also be beneficial to have a local laboratory to support and train families on water-quality issues.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Technical skills. Highly qualified.
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when water quality is very poor, harmful and bad-tasting products like ammonia may be formed in the lower layers of the filter; smooth vertical surfaces in the filter tank may cause short circuits in the water flow, producing badly-filtered water; in some regions, sand is expensive or difficult to get as an alternative, other materials such as burnt rice husks can be used; household slow sand filters require a substantial investment and dedicated O&M, and can thus be expensive.
White (1986)
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6.4.2 Main O&M activities
In some cases, the water will need to be pre-treated (e.g. by filtering), to remove particulate matter. Chlorine-producing chemicals should be stored in a cool, dry place, and care should be taken not to get any of the chemicals in the eyes or on clothes. Disinfection with chlorine can easily be learned and needs to be done regularly. Apart from cleaning and occasional replacement of containers and utensils, no maintenance is needed. If the concentrated chlorine solution or chlorine-producing chemicals are provided by an external organization, there will be logistical and administrative problems, and training to deal with. Sometimes communities organize the buying of chemicals themselves, but even then some training at household level will be useful.
Household member. Disinfect the water, clean the containers and utensils. Local health worker. Prepare concentrated chlorine solution, or provide the chlorine chemical itself. Local shopkeeper. External support. Sell chlorine chemical. Determine doses, train water users.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Basic skills. Highly qualified.
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Water Research Centre and WHO Regional Office for Europe (1989).
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6.5.3 Actors and their roles
Actors Caretaker. Water committee. Water user. Roles Regulate the water flow, flush the reservoir, perform small repairs. Supervise the caretaker. Assist in cleaning the reservoir. Skills required
Local or area mason. Repair leaks in the brickwork or concrete. Local or area mechanic. Repair the valve.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Basic skills. Technical skills.
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rated PVC pipe, which also permits rapid abstraction during cleaning when the flow direction is reversed (backwashing). For backwashing, a special drainage valve is installed which can be opened quickly. The underdrains are covered with a layer of coarse gravel, on top of which lie several layers of finer gravel and coarse sand. The filter layers are covered with a 0.1 m-deep layer of boulders, to avoid exposing the outflow directly to sunlight; this helps to prevent algal growth. The outflow is stored in an outlet structure. In some cases, the outflow of one roughing filter is fed to another roughing filter with finer material for further cleaning.
Initial cost: Reported construction costs are US$ 2040 per m3 of water per day, for a structure designed to be in operation for 24 hours a day (data from Colombia, 1986; Wolters & Visscher, 1989). Filtration rate: Approximately 0.6 m/h. Performance: If raw water with a turbidity below 50 NTU is used as the source for a roughing sand filter, the outflow has a turbidity below 12 NTU. Approximately 8498% of suspended solids are removed. Better results are obtained with two or three filters in series. Use: As a pre-treatment stage prior to slow sand filtering or other purification processes.
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6.6.3 Actors and their roles
Actors Caretaker. Water committee. Water user or paid worker. Local or area mechanic or plumber. Roles Regulate the water flow, keep a logbook of repairs etc., clean the filters hydraulically, organize manual cleaning. Supervise the caretaker, organize manual cleaning. Assist in manual cleaning. Repair or replace valves. Skills required
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Basic skills. Technical skills.
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in only one day, but it is important that hygienic measures are observed every time someone enters the filter unit for maintenance or inspection work. If the filter is well-designed and constructed, hardly any repairs of the filter tanks and drainage system will be needed, although the valves and metal tubing may need occasional attention. Test kits to monitor water quality are available and they require only basic training to use. A slow sand filter for community use requires considerable organization to be able to provide enough people for scraping and resanding the filter units. A local caretaker will have to be trained, and others may need to be trained to test the water quality and to be able to stand in for the caretaker. Apart from extra sand, some chlorine and test materials, very few external inputs are needed. With proper external assistance, water organizations can manage their water treatment independently.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Basic skills. Technical skills. Highly qualified.
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6.7.5 Potential problems
if the flow rates through the filter are too high, water quality drops; excessive turbidity (>30 NTU) in the raw water can cause the filter to clog rapidly, in which case a pre-filtration step may be needed; when the water quality is very poor, harmful and bad-tasting products such as ammonia may be formed in the filter; it may take some time for people to believe that a green and slimy filter can produce safe water; if the water flow is interrupted for more than a few hours, beneficial microorganisms in the filter may die and the filter action will become impaired; smooth vertical surfaces in the filter can cause short circuits in the water flow and result in poor-quality water; in some regions, sand is expensive or difficult to get; slow sand filters require a substantial initial investment, and dedicated O&M; it takes a few days for a filter to ripen after re-sanding and in this period the water quality is lower.
Water Research Centre & WHO Regional Office for Europe (1989).
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tional costs for the tank, for the concentrated chlorine solution, and for the construction costs of a protective shelter. Yield: Generally, 3501400 m3 of treated water per kg of a 70% chlorine compound. Area of use: Wherever drinking-water needs to be disinfected and chlorine is available.
Simple (often requires gender-specific awareness-raising, and training activities to change behaviour and build capacity); Basic skills. Highly qualified.
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6.8.5 Potential problems
chlorination is less effective in alkaline water (pH above 8.0); when the water contains excessive organic matter or suspended material, it will need to be pretreated; the cost and availability of chlorine compounds can be serious limitations; chlorination affects the taste of water and for this reason the water may be rejected by consumers who have not been informed; on the other hand, users may believe a chlorine taste indicates that the water has been disinfected, but water can still taste of chlorine even when not enough has been added to purify it. Despite these limitations, disinfecting drinking-water by chlorination is one of the most effective and least-expensive technologies available and should be encouraged.