Chapter 25

Nationalism
Concept based on common bonds such as language, customs, and history; political and
ethnic boundaries should coincide

Nationalists created nations

Schools spread a sense of history and language
Nations became associated with groups that could support an economy
Cultural elite to nurture a national language
Large enough to conquer others and maintain independence

Opposition to the Vienna Settlement

1. Nationalists opposed to concept that legitimate monarchies or dynasties were
basis for political unity
2. Opposed states like the AU or Russian Empires
3. Objected to groups in political units smaller than ethnic nations (GE, Italians)

NOTE: Good points to remember… the cause of every major event in chapter 25
Regions of Nationalistic Pressure
Ireland: seek independence from GB
Germany: supremacy over AU (pitting Prussia against AU)
Italy: peninsular unity, want to drive out AU
Poland: struggle against Russia
Eastern Europe: Czechs, Hungarians, Slovenes
Balkans: independence from Ottomans and Russians

Liberalism
Political ideas derived from the Enlightenment
1. GB civil liberties / FR Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
2. Legal equality, religious toleration, freedom of press
3. Limit arbitrary power of government
BIG 4. Legitimacy of gov emanated from people’s consent, expressed in parliament
5. State / Crown ministers accountable to the parliament, NOT the monarch

Economic goals (based on Adam Smith)

free trade, construction of railways; freedom to enrich oneself

Nationalists drew upon Liberals by espousing representative government and

political liberty (Essay 1)
Liberals came from the learned professions or involved in commerce and manufacturing
—Not democrats!
Despised the lower classes
18th century aristocratic liberty became a privilege based on wealth and property
Lead to wars of independence in Latin America and African and Asian colonies

1
 Revolution in France (1830)
Louis XVIII dies 1824, Charles X (r. 1824 -1830) succeeds him, ruling by “divine right”
Very conservative, appoints an ultra-royalist ministry

In 1830, Charles X called for new elections

1. Liberals scored a stunning victory in the Chamber of Deputies
2. Charles distracts the French by launching a military campaign in Algeria, then
on July 25, Charles X issued the Four Ordinances (and freaks everyone out)
Restrict freedom of the press
Dissolve the Chamber of Deputies
Restrict new elections to the wealthiest

People revolt and erect barricades; 1,800 people die in battles with royal troops
1. Charles flees to England
2. Louis Philippe (r. 1830 -1848) declared new king

July Monarchy
1. Constitutional monarchy; cooperation with the Chamber of Deputies
2. The Charter (constitution) embodied the rights of the people
3. Catholicism the religion of the majority; censorship abolished; voting rights
extended (but not universal)
Money was the route to power and influence; lower and working classes were neglected

Britain from the Great Reform Bill (1832) to Home Rule for Ireland
Forces of conservatism and reform compromised with each other

GB determined to maintain union with Ireland

Act of Union in 1800  no separate Irish parliament
Only Protestants could serve in British parliament (and Ireland mostly Catholic)

Catholic Emancipation Act (1892) pushed in Parliament by the Duke of Wellington and
Robert Peel; Catholics and Protestant non-conformists could now serve in Parliament

Wellington’s ministry fell, Tories were divided

King William IV turned to the Whigs to form a new government under the leadership
of Earl Grey

Great reform bill presented to House of Commons

1. District the “rotten boroughs”
2. Increase number of voters
The bill was defeated and passed repeatedly, it was passed into law in 1832

GR Bill expanded the voting base (from 1.4M to 2.5M), but was not democratic
1. Wealth was still the basis for voting

2
The Second Reform Act of 1867 gave city boroughs a voice in the House of Commons
3. Supported by Conservative Benjamin Disraeli; he believed the working class
would support the Conservatives

Gladstone and Disraeli

William Gladstone’s election was the culmination of British Liberalism; he served as
PM in 1868 (served 4 times); he was disliked by Queen Victoria
1. Competitive exams for civil service
2. Officers’ commissions could no longer be purchased
3. Oxford and Cambridge opened to people of all faiths
4. Education Act of 1870 (state run elementary schools)

Conservative Disraeli elected PM in 1874 (liked by Victoria)

1. Paternalistic approach to care of the poor; Public Health Act of 1875 extending
sanitary legislation

The Irish Question

Leader for Irish home rule (autonomy within the GB empire) was Charles Parnell
1. Organized Irish voting bloc in H of C
2. Held balance of power between Conservatives and Liberals

Several attempts between 1885 and 1914 to instill home rule failed to pass in either the H
of C or the H of L
1. Split of Liberal party (over home rule in Ireland) hurt the cause of further
domestic reforms

1848: Year of Revolution in Europe

Severe food shortages due to poor harvests

Impetus for revolution came from the liberal middle class, not from the working class;
revolts confined to the continent
1. In FR, Louis Philippe was overthrown and replaced with a republic, which
was overthrown in 1851 by Louis Napoleon, who created the 2nd Empire and
declared himself Napoleon III
3. Short revolutions in Prussia and AU (suppressed by the military)
4. Italian nationalists failed to overthrow AU

Key result was the emergence of strongly conservative governments

1. End of the era of liberal revolutions that started in 1789
2. End of riots and insurrection for the working class; instigating a turn to trade
unions and political parties

3
 Crimean War (1854 – 1856)
Fought between the Russian and Ottoman Empires
1. Russia wanted to extend influence over Moldavia and Walachia (Romania)

Pretext for war: Ottomans gave Roman Catholic France the right to defend Christians in
the Holy land… but not Orthodox Russia
1. Russia goes to war with the Ottomans in 1853
2. FR and GB side with the Ottomans to protect commercial interests in the
Eastern Mediterranean (AU and Prussia neutral)

First of the modern wars

1. Photography and war correspondents
2. Use of ironclad ships by FR to destroy Russian forts

Charge of the Light Brigade

1. Battle of Balaclava (Ukraine)
2. Led by Lord Cardigan and the 17th Lancers
3. High casualty rates (36%)
4. 9 Victoria Crosses awarded—Origin of the Victoria Cross

Florence Nightingale organizes the Red Cross

1. Increased hygiene cut the fatality rate from 40% to 5%

War settled with a Treaty in Paris in 1856

1. Highly unfavorable to Russia and shattered their image as invincible; forced to
withdraw from Moldavia and Walachia
3. Lost right to protect Orthodox Christian shrines in the Holy Land

Significance: Broke down the Concert of Europe (GB, AU, Russia, Prussia) as a means
of dealing with Continental relations (1815-1822)
Four Objectives of Concert of Europe
1. Contain France
2. Achieve a balance of power
3. Uphold territorial arrangements of Congress of Vienna in 1815
4. Prevent rise of another Napoleonic figure
Next twenty-five years marked by unstable European affairs

Italian Unification
Accomplished under conservative PM of Piedmont, Camillor Cavour (with FR guidance,
after help in Crimean War, and support of Italian Nationalists)
1. Romantic republicans Mazzini, Garibaldi failed to oust AU by military support
2. Piedmont, “Kingdom of Sardinia” was most independent; fought AU
unsuccessfully in 1848-1849
4. Victor Emanuel II, King of Piedmont (r.1848 -79), appointed Cavour PM
Cavour plotted with Napoleon III to start war with AU, who they defeated in 1859;

4
Lombardy was conceded
Cavour defeated troops of Garibaldi in the south (who had taken Sicily to Naples)

Italy united in 1860, conservative constitutional monarchy, reputed for corruption

1. March of 1861, Victor Emanuel II is crowned King of Italy
Veneto was gained in 1866 (Austro/Prussian War), and Rome was annexed in 1870
(Franco/Prussian War)

German Unification
Single most important political development in Europe between 1848 and 1914
1. Transformed the balance of economic, military and international power

Unification achieved under a conservative army, monarchy of Wilhelm I (r. 1861-1888),

and PM of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898, greatest European statesman of the
19th century)
1. Bismarck opposed liberal Parliament
2. Undertook a policy of “kleindeutsch” or small German, to win popular
support; shifted focus from domestic matters to foreign affairs

Launched two brief wars

1. Took Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark (with help of AU)
2. Then turned against AU; allied with FR and Italy
3. In 1866, defeated AU (7 Weeks War); Hapsburgs excluded from GE affairs;
Prussia became only power among the GE states
4. In 1867, Prussia annexed Hess, Hanover, Nassau, and Frankfurt from AU
5. Formation of the North German Confederation

Franco-Prussian War of 1871

1. Bismarck goaded FR; July 19, Napoleon III declared war
2. Southern GE states support Prussia
3. Sept 1, French army defeated at Sedan; Napoleon III captured; FR defeated on
Jan 28, 1871
4. The German Empire recognized under Kaiser Wilhelm I
5. Within 5 years, FR became a Republic (the 3rd)

Unrest in Eastern Europe

Following the Revolutions of 1848, Emperor Franz Joseph (r. 1848–1916) looked to
established centralized control over a multinational empire

A bureaucratic government run by German-speaking Austrians annoying to Hungary

1. Defeat by Italy and GE caused AU to come to terms with Hungary
2. Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 transformed the Habsburg Empire into a
dual monarchy
Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary; the 2 states shared armies w/ a common

5
foreign policy
Other national groups within the empire including the Czechs, Ruthenians, Romanians,
and Serbo-Croatians resented the GE / Magyar influence.

Nationalist feelings caused tensions within the empire

Some wanted to join GE or Mother Russia, others wanted independent states

Racial Theory
Racial theory in the 18th century classified peoples according to skin color, language, and
stages of development

Late 18th century scholars observed similarities between the European languages and
Sanskrit (India)
1. Claimed all European races were derived from the ancient race of Aryans

Anti-Semitism and Zionism

Religious anti-Semitism has existed since the Middle Ages, promulgated by the belief
that the Jews were responsible for the crucifixion of Christ
1. Popular anti-Semitism identified Jews with banking, so Jews were blamed for
economic problems
2. RACIAL Anti-Semitism. Their “Jewish-ness” or blood was a threat

Push for foundation of a Jewish state, called Zionism; establish a state in Palestine
1. Led by Theodor Herzl, an Austro-Hungarian
3. Directed the appeal to poor Jews, thus combining liberalism (tolerance,
liberties) and socialism in a state outside of Europe

Racism and anti-Semitism were part of wider, late-century AGGRESSIVE nationalism

1. From 1870s, nationalism became a movement; mass support, political parties
2. The “nation” and its duties replaced religion for many secular people; became
“religion” in the hands of state schoolteachers, who replaced the clergy as
educators of the youth

6
 Chapter 26
European Factory Workers and Urban Artisans
By 1830, only GB was a fully industrial society

Proletarianization: Entry of workers into the wage economy and the gradual loss of
the means of production
Loss of control over trade and loss of equipment where the factory system arose

New work discipline focused on the efficient running of machines; workers have no real
input into quality or price of the goods
1. Those that resisted factories experienced increased levels of poverty

By the 19th century urban artisans struggled to exercise direction over their craft
Guilds were outlawed by the FR revolution; liberals pressed to make guild illegal
Confection (production of one-size goods) increased division of labor in the
workshop; workers become less skilled

19th Century Urban Life in Europe

Redesign of the cities and development of suburbs
1. Areas of cities became districts for businesses
2. Both middle and working classes begin to seek housing outside of the city

Urban sanitation increased; partially due to Cholera

Epidemics of 1830s-40s killed thousands, affected all classes
Thought to be airborne, so focused on cleaning up causes of foul-smelling city air
New water and sewer systems (Disraeli’s Public Health Act of 1875) decreased mortality
Bacterial theory of disease accepted; antiseptics now used in medicine

Industrial revolution’s impact on the life of women

Took all productive work out of the home and allowed many families to live on a single
wage of the male
1. Women assumed domestic duties; domestic division of labor came the
characterize the middle class

Women in the Early Industrial Revolution

Women traditionally worked in textile industry
1. By the 1820’s, men displaced women for the higher paying textile jobs
2. Women worked in less skilled positions and received a lower wage
3. Many women only worked long enough to get married

The most serious problem facing women was uncertainty of employment

1. Some resorted to prostitution temporarily in late teens to early 20s
2. Marriage offered some security, unless husband died

7
Girls born in country would migrate to towns in search of domestic service jobs; goal of
earning enough money for a dowry so she might marry
1. See increase in co-habitation before marriage and in illegitimate births

Marriage was less of an economic partnership

1. Husband could support the family without the wife working
2. Children sent to work, so fertility increased
3. Women responsible for domestic duties and managing family finances

Women’s Social Disabilities

Until the last quarter of the century, women could not own property in their own names
1. Upon marriage gave up all rights to property

Family Law
1. Legal codes required women to obey their husbands
2. Until 1857, divorce required an act of Parliament in GB; FR forbade divorce
from 1816 -1884
3. Only husband could permit daughters to marry; husbands could take children
away from mother

Educational Barriers - % of illiterate women exceeded that of men

1. University education was closed to women until last ¼ of the century
2. Men felt threatened by educated women and excluded them from professions
like medicine and law
3. Elementary teaching became haven; secondary education remained male

New Employment Patterns for Women (2 contradictions)

Availability of new jobs VS. Withdrawal of married women from the workforce

Late 19th Century Working Class women

Still employed in textiles
2. When demand high, work was good; when waned, exposure of unemployment
for women—bore majority of production risk
3. Women were considered to be casual workers as they were “supplementing
their husbands’ income”

Poverty and Prostitution

1. Prostitution subject to governmental regulation on the Continent; more or less
unregulated in GB
2. Huge problem with venereal disease

8
 Women of Middle Class
Fathers’ and husbands’ income allowed them to participate in expansion of consumerism
and domestic comfort
Motherhood, domesticity, religion, and charity were praised from middle-class women
1. Oversaw all domestic management and childcare; in charge of consumption,
therefore advertising directed at mothers

Political Feminism
Not granted vote; opposed by liberals (feared women would vote with conservatives)
Division among feminists themselves
1. Subordination of women’s rights issues to nationalist patriotism

Vote for women in GB

Millicent Fawcett led moderate National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies
Tried to convince Parliament that women would be responsible
and respectable in their political activity
Emmeline Pankhurst took a more radical approach
Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union, became known
as suffragettes; resorted to violence in the form of arson
Ultimately women did not receive vote until 1918 (as recognition for war contribution)
FR women received the vote in 1944; GE granted the vote in 1918

Jewish Emancipation
Important social change bringing Jews out of ghettos and putting on relatively equal
grounds
As early as 1782, the Hapsburg Empire gave same rights to Jews as Christians
In FR, in 1789, Jews were recognized as citizens

Opportunities for Jews Expanded (except in Russia)

1. From Italy to the low countries, and in Scandinavia, Jews given full citizenship
2. After 1858 in England could serve in Parliament
3. Austria-Hungarian Franz Joseph (r. 1848- 1916) extended in full rights in 1867

Despite above, Jews limited in property ownership, subject to taxes

1. It was not until mid-century that Jews in W Europe (and some in E Europe)
had acquired equal citizenship

Major exception was Russia, where Jews treated as aliens

1. Restrictions of Jewish books, limitations regarding where to live, banned from
state service and higher education
2. Pogroms: Organized riots against Jewish neighborhoods

Many persecuted Jews (especially from Russia and E Europe) emigrated to the U.S.
1. Pogroms broke out

9
Anti – Semitism began to rear up at end of century
1. In 1870s Jewish bankers, industrialists were blamed for economic problems
2. Organized anti-Semitism erupted in GE in 1880s, in FR in 1890s
Leads to the Zionist movement (see Ch 25)

The Working Classes

Industrial expansion led to fewer artisans and highly skilled workers (see Ch 25)
Late in the century some businesses attempted to provide some security to workers in the
form of company housing and pensions, but for most part inadequate.

Trade Unionism
After the revolutions of 1848 workers ceased to riot and turned to trade unions,
democratic political parties and socialism

By end of the century, trade unions represented large groups of unskilled workers
1. Opposed by employers; only recognized by long strikes
3. In the decade before 1914, strikes are common as unions press to keep wages
in line with inflation
Unions never represented majority of workforce

Democracy and Political Parties

Democratic franchise gave workers direct political influence

Except for Russia, all major European countries adopted a broad based, democratic
electoral system

With advent of democracy, we witness formation of organized mass political parties

1. Mobilized new voters
2. The single largest group in the mass electorate was the working class

Marxism
Karl Marx
Jewish parents, attended University of Berlin (became involved in radical politics)
Driven into exile by GE authorities; landed in London by 1849

Friendship with Friedrich Engels; published the Communist Manifesto in 1948

1. Adopted the name “communist,” more radical than socialists; communism
implied the outright abolition of private property
3. The Manifesto became the most politically influential document of
modern European History

10
Communist Manifesto
1. History is the record of humankind coming to grips w/ production and goods
necessary for survival
2. The organization of means of production always involves conflict b/w classes
who owned the means of production and those that worked for them
3. Only a RADICAL social change can eliminate the social and economic evils
inherent in production. REVOLUTION is inevitable, outcome of capitalism.

Stated that 19th century conflict had moved b/w the middle class (bourgeoisie) and the
working class (proletariat)
1. Proletariat would grow as large-scale industrial production forced smaller
producers into the working class
2. As the workers suffered, they would ultimately revolt
3. Workers would organize the means of production through a dictatorship
4. Would give way to a property-less and classless communist society

German Social Democrats and Revisionism

GE Social Democratic Party (SPD) adopted Marxist ideas, bringing vast influence
1. Founded in 1875
2. Persecuted by Bismarck for 12 years

Bismarck, failing to repress the SPD, turned to social welfare legislation to win GE
workers from their socialist loyalties
1. Health insurance, accident insurance, and old age/disability pensions
2. Organized social security that did not change politics or property holdings

Bismarck forced to resign in 1891 by Kaiser Wilhem II

1. SPD recognized as a legal party; set modus operandi (Erfut Program 1891)
Declared the imminent doom of capitalism, BUT… Objectives to be achieved not
through revolution but through legal political participation

The stance of the SPD posed a huge challenge to orthodox Marxists who advocated
revolution
Eduard Bernstein wrote Evolutionary Socialism: known as “revisionism,” he
argued that socialist society required more democracy and social reform; not revolution

SPD was most successful pre-war socialist party

1. Influence on Vladimir Lenin France

Two Leaders: (1) Jean Jaures: revisionist, (2) Jules Guesde: revolutionist
United (1914) became a large group in the Chamber of Deputies; no real impact

Great Britain: Labor Party and Fabianism

No form of socialism made significant progress in GB

11
 1. Trade union members normally supported Liberals
2. An act of the H of L removed protection for union funds; formation of the
Labour Party in response—they sent 29 members to Parliament in 1906
GB socialism remained the preserve of intellectuals
1. Fabian Society founded in 1884, promoting a gradualist approach to reform
2. Gradual and democratic resolution was inherent in direction of production

Russia
Post Crimean War defeat, Russia undertook a series of major internal reforms
Emancipation of serfs in 1861… (made serfs pay for land)
Plight of serfs led to urban revolutionaries, assassinated Tsar Alexander II (1881)
Brought greater political repression under Alexander III (r. 1881 – 1894)
Autocratic like Nicholas I; increased secret police, censorship

Conditions for ANYTHING OTHER THAN revolution were not present

1. Situation for Russian socialists was different from those in the rest of Europe
No representative political parties through whom they could vote
and only a small working class (still agrarian)
2. Russian Social Democratic Party was formed in 1898
Marxist, admired the GE SPD; had to operate in exile due to
tsarist repression

Leading Russian Marxist was Georgii Plekhanov and his chief disciple was Vladimir
Illich Ulyanov (Lenin)
1. Lenin
Son of high bureaucrat; brother executed for plot against Alexander III
In 1895 exiled to Siberia for 5 years; spent next 17 years in Switzerland

Lenin wrote What Is To Be Done in 1902

1. No form of compromise short of revolution was acceptable
2. Revolutionary consciousness would not arise from the masses, but had to be
taken to them by a small elite party

1903 London Congress of Russian SDP

1. Split of the Bolsheviks (majority) from the moderate Mensheviks (minority)

1905 Lenin wrote paper where he argued for unification of proletariat with the peasants
1. TWO principles (of a small elite party and a dual social revolution) allowed
Lenin to capture the leadership of the Russian revolution of 1917

Revolution of 1905
1. Russia lost war with Japan in 1904 and lost control of Port Arthur
2. Father Gabon marched on the palace in St. Petersburg to petition Tsar for
reform of industrial conditions; troops opened fire on workers
100 killed on Jan 22, known as Bloody Sunday

12
Mutiny on the Potemkin 1905
Sailors refused to eat maggot invested food and are sentenced to death by firing
squad; other sailors mutinied and killed their officers

In response to growing revolutionary disturbances in Russia Tsar Nicholas II (r. 1894 –

1917) promised Russia a constitutional government
1. Formed parliament (Duma); appointed Stolypin as PM (assassinated in 1911)
2. Reserved ministerial appointments, foreign policy, military affairs for himself
In 1906, cancellation of redemptive payments owed from serf emancipation repressed
rural discontent
4. Tsarist government muddled on through the Great War

13
 Chapter 28
Intro: Complex process of modernization was more gradual in W Europe than the more
disruptive processes of imperialism and colonialism on India, Asia, and Africa

British Rule in India “The Crown Jewel”

Before direct rule (1858) GB controlled India through the East India Company
1. India was a mix of states; GB ruled directly or in “princely” states
2. Economic impact of EIC was extensive
3. Settled agriculture; displaced nomadic cultures; deforested for tea plantations
4. Pacification involved clearing of lands to deny natural cover to enemies

Indians not passive; uprisings in the early 19th century lead to the Indian Revolt of 1857
1. Trigger of revolt: concern of Bengal troops about animal grease on new rifles
2. Other issues underlying: Sikhs + Gurkhas in the army, deteriorating econ. and
excessive taxes, anger at GB annexation of Awadh
3. Retaliation severe, the “Devil’s Wind” policy of no prisoners, mass executions

The “mutiny” of 1857 was not a nationalist revolution, however highlighted resentment
that would continue to build over the next 90 years of Crown Rule (“raj”)

Burden of Crown Rule

Revolt of 1857 exacerbated mutual fear and hatred; afterward, GB tried to maintain ratio
of 1 GB to 3 native troops
1. 1/3 of annual Indian revenues used to pay for their own occupation
Industrialization was avoided; peasants lost hereditary lands
Established cantonments: separate areas for British rulers apart from native Indians

Indian Resistance
Formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885
Formation of the Muslim League to counterbalance the Hindu dominated Congress
Principal obstacle to independence was not GB rule, but division amongst the Indians

Nationalistic Movement
National Congress who sought gradual reform and self-governance or swaraj
1. Not opposition to GB, but emphasized change from w/in
2. Leaders: Mohandas Gandhi and follower Jawaharlal Nehru (later the first PM)
Gandhi was a GB trained lawyer known as the Great Soul, “Mahatma”
Militant Hindu nationalists
1. Leader: extremist anti-Muslim B.G. Tilak; Indian languages, revival of Hindu
culture and learning, and Hindu “self governance”

Muslim Element: contingencies united by fear of a Hindu dominated Indian state

14
 Hindu / Muslim Friction
th
In 20 century division b/w Hindus and Muslims widened; Muhammad Iqbal and
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the “founder of Pakistan,” moved to a separate Muslim state
Indian and Pakistani independence

Islamic Response to Declining Power

18th century saw a weakening of great Muslim empires from their 16th-17th century peaks
1. Regimes less stable and based in heredity
3. Influence of the “ulama” and Sufi orders

18th century saw reform movements to revive Islam and purify it: most famous was
Wahhabis in Arabia
1. Sought to break the influence of the ulama
2. The only authorities were to be the Koran and teachings of the Prophet
3. Movement swept most of Arabian Peninsula

Western Political and Economic Encroachment

Fortunes of Islamic states increasingly dictated by W Powers from 1600s to WWII
1. W govs extracted favors in return for military protection

Ottoman empire internally disjointed by virtually independent provincial rulers (pashas)

Napoleon’s failed invasion of Egypt (1798) set up GB as power in eastern Mediterranean
GB influence
1. Had control of India and Persian Gulf from FR
2. Russians posed only serious threat to GB’s dominance (sought Iranian
influence and territory in central Asia)
3. Crimean War showed GB and Russia struggling for supremacy in the region

Impact of Western political ideology, culture and technology

Countries most affected were Egypt, Lebanon, North Africa, and Turkey
Least affected were Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asian khanates
1. 1794–1925 Iran was ruled by Qajar shahs, whose reign was similar to Safavids
(dynasty that ruled Persia from 1502 -1736 that installed Shia rather than Sunni as
the Islamic state religion)

Three Typical Styles of Reaction to Western Influence

I: Emulation of the West
Egypt
Ottoman Vicroy Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt (1805-1849)
Rejuvenated agriculture, introduced modern industry, modernized the army, and
introduced European culture and education in state schools

15
Ottoman / Turkish
Following defeat of Turks by Russians (1774), saw reforms
19th century Turkish reforms failed to save the Ottoman Empire, but paved the
way for Turkish nationalism
“Young Turk” revolution + nationalist movement (1920s) shaped modern Turkey
Turkish Republic was creation of Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), known as “Ataturk”
Fought at Battle of Gallipoli
Secularized an Islamic state + created a unique Islamic democracy; president from
(1922–1938)
European code of civil law
Elimination of the caliphate, Arabic script, and Arabic call to prayers

II: Integration of Western and Islamic Ideas

Joining of modernization with traditional Islamic traditions
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani argued for progressive Islam instead of materialistic Western
secularism; known for “pan-Islamism” or unity of Islamic world

III: Purification and Revival of Islam

Extremism; recourse to Islamic values to the exclusion of “outside” forces
Example of Iran since 1979 (post Shah)

1800 - 1945
Marked Period of Significant Change in Sub-Saharan Africa
After 1880 (with the exception of South Africa below the Transvaal) tropical Africa came
under major influence and ultimately colonial control
Prior, internal conflict and Islamic reform movements dominated the area

Southern Africa
Devastating internal warfare, depopulation, and forced migrations of the Bantu peoples,
called Mfecane or crushing era
2. Saw the creation of multi-tribal/multilingual Bantu states
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Zambia, and Tanzania
3. Most famous military state formed by Shaka—the Zulu nation (1818–1828)
Conquest of vast areas of SE Africa w/ tribes scattered to N and S

Lesotho, the Sotho kingdom of King Mosheshwe existed from the 1820’s to 1870
1. Defended his people against Afrikaners, Zulus, missionaries, and British
2. Today is constitutional monarchy; water is principal export

Boer expansion and GB annexation of Natal province in 1843 brought an end to the state
building started by the mfecane
1. Great Trek of Boer voortrekers between 1835 and 1843
2. In 1834, GB declared an end to slavery; 6000 Afrikaners and slaves left Cape

16
 Colony and migrated N to more fertile lands
3. Resulted in creation after 1850 of two Afrikaner republics, the Orange Free
State and the South African Republic

East and Central Africa

External trade resulted in the formation of strong states
Exported slaves, ivory, and copper; imported Indian cloth, weapons, and
manufactured goods

West Africa
Slave trade replaced by European demand for palm oil and gum Arabic by 1820s
1800s-1850s, jihad movements shattered stability from Senegal and Ghana to Nigeria
Ultimately succumbed to GB and FR colonial activity later in the century

European Involvement
Exploration
1. GB, FR and GE uncovered sources of Niger, Nile, Zambezi, and Congo Rivers
2. Discover Mt. Kilimanjaro and Lake Tanganyika
Explorers opened the way for traders, missionaries, governors from the Christian West
1. Explorer Dr. David Livingstone a missionary dedicated to Africa + Africans
First man to cross the African continent, discovered Victoria Falls
Christian Missions
1. Influx of both Protestant and Catholic missionaries (10,000 by 1900)
2. More often idealists than opportunists; half succumbed to disease; those
successful brought education and literacy

Colonial Scramble for Africa

Prior to 1850 only two significant efforts to take territory in Africa:
1. Boers on their Great Trek took land from the Bantus
2. FR invasion of Algeria (1830); confiscation of farmland
From 1880 to the end of WWI the continent was a colonial patchwork
1. Desire for markets and resources; competition for power and prestige
Technical advances made continental exploration possible beyond coastal regions
1. Steamboats above waterfalls; railroads around them

GB and FR at the vanguard

1. GB’s interests from SA (taken from Dutch in 1795) to Egypt by 1882
2. GB preferred “indirect” to “direct” administration; FR preferred direct control
3. Establishment of protectorates: local ruler kept his title but ceded power

By mid-1880s European powers beginning to seek agreement as to their claims on

segments of Africa
1. King Leopold II, Bismarck (GE) agree on most Africa (King Leopold II:

17
 Congo, GE: SW Africa)
2. Italy took colonial territory in Eritrea, Somaliland, Libya, and Ethiopia

European colonies did not gain independence until after WWII (1950s)
1. Last colonial influence fell with the end of apartheid in South Africa in 1994
2. Today many countries remain victim of military despots

Two South African Wars

Anglo-Zulu War, January 11 and July 4th, 1879
1. Islandwana (1400-2K GB + African; 10-15K Zulus)
2. Mission Station at Rorke’s Drift (139 GB troops against 4K Zulus)
3. Army strengths: Zulus 35K; GB + African 15K; casualties: Zulus 10K; GB
1,727 killed and 256 wounded
Boer Wars
1. First Boer War (1880-1881) fought when GB tried to annex the Transvaal;
Boers in the Transvaal won independence
2. Second Boer War (1899-1902) fought when GB annexed the Orange Free
State + South African Republic; guerilla engagement by 1900; Commander
Kitchener resorted to concentration camps

Result was two independent Boer Republics within the British Empire
Union of South Africa (1910); member of the Commonwealth of Nations

German Southwest Africa

Policy of genocide (1904-1907) under Lt. Gen. Lothar von Trotha
1. No male prisoners to be taken, women and children to die of thirst in desert
Cost in lives estimated at 20K Herero and 14K Nama (50%)

African Resistance and rise of Nationalism

Armed resistance doomed b/c of European technical superiority
Post WWII rise of nationalism as native elite returned from education at foreign
universities
Most African colonies gained independence in late 1950s and 1960s

18
 Chapter 30
The New Imperialism:
The extension in the late 19th and early 20th century of Western political and
economic dominance to Asia, the Middle East, and Africa

Influence spread to 1/5 of the world’s land mass and 1/10th of its population
Typical pattern: nation invests capital in country then established degrees of
political control like annexation (colony), protectorates, and indirect influence

Reasons for New Imperialism

1. Economic motives; new colonies were NEVER major markets
2. Responsibility to spread superior civilization and Christianity
3. Strategic and prestige seemed to be the dominant factors
GB’s presence in Egypt (1880s) to protect the Suez Canal (1869)
Many equated international status with the possession of colonies (GB was model)

Emergence of the German Empire

Prussia’s victories over Austria and France and creation of German Empire in 1871
revolutionized European diplomacy and posed problems

Balance of power created at Congress of Vienna in 1815 was radically altered

1. GB and Russia retained their position
2. Austria and FR lost power

Until 1890, Bismarck guided GE policy Bismark ESSAY

1. Insisted that after 1871 wanted NO FURTHER territorial gains
2. Prepared for worst
Wanted to be certain FR formed no alliances, especially with
Austria and Russia; wanted to avoid a war on two fronts

Three Emperors League (1873) combined conservative Russia, Austria, and GE

1. Collapsed in 1877 when Russia went to war with Turkey
2. The pan-Slavic movement brought all slavs (even those under Ottoman and
AU rule) under protection of Russia, who hoped to gain Constantinople

Treaty of San Stefano (1878) was a Russian triumph but alarmed AU and GB
1. Disraeli sent GB fleet to Constantinople in order to deter Russia
2. Recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro and the
autonomy of Bulgaria from the Ottomans

Congress of Berlin (June-July 1878) overseen by Bismarck: a blow to Russian ambition

1. Bulgaria lost most of their land; lost access to the Aegean
2. AU-HU given Bosnia and Herzegovenia (under formal Ottoman rule)
3. FR was allowed to occupy Tunisia
4. GB received Cyrus

19
 5. GE asked for nothing
6. S Slavic Serbia and Montenegro resented AU occupation of B & H
Russia angry; Three Emperors League dead; threat to future peace of Europe

Formation of Alliances
GE could ignore the Balkan issues, but not Russia
1. Formed the Dual Alliance with AU (in secrecy) in 1879 (until 1918)
If either were attacked, other would maintain neutrality; provide aid only
against Russia
2. GE would never attack Russia, meddle in AU’s Balkan issues (Bismark)

Italy asked to join the Alliance in response to FR’s gains in Tunisia

1. Triple Alliance formed in 1882 (renewed 1887): Bismarck allied with three
of the great powers, friendly with GB
In 1887, Bismarck negotiated the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, which stated each
would remain neutral if the other was attacked

Kaiser Wilhem II (1888-1918)

Considered it GE’s destiny to be leading power of Europe; wanted a navy and colonies
like GB; opposed Bismarck and dismissed him in 1890
During Bismarck’s time, GE was a force for PEACE in Europe

Forging the Triple Entente

Bismarck’s retirement collapsed his system of alliances; succeeding Chancellor (von
Caprivi) refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia

In 1894, the Franco-Russian alliance was signed

GB and GE begin to deteriorate
1. Traditionally GB was opposed to Russia and to FR
2. W/in a decade of Wilhem II’s rise, GE became the enemy (naval ambitions)
3. GE tried to persuade GB to join the Triple Alliance, but she refused
4. GE sympathies w/ Boers, fight a GB railroad in Africa: increased tension

In 1902, GB allied w/ Japan to defend GB interests in the Far East from Russia
In 1904, GB signed the Entente Cordial with FR, which had no military provisions but
settled colonial differences and went far toward aligning GB against GE

First Moroccan Crisis—ESSAY III

In March 1905, Wilhem II lands in Tangier; challenges FR predominance in their favor of
Moroccan independence
Intended to show FR’s weakness; hoped to extract colonial concession

Response is conference in SP in 1906 where AU sides with GE; but SP, Italy, and the US
voted with GB and FR

20
 FR confirmed in their position in Morocco; GE bullying drives GB and FR closer

British Agreement with Russia—ESSAY III

Russia’s defeat by Japan in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) and Russian Revolution
(1905) made Russia less of a threat in GB eyes
1. With FR support, in 1907 an agreement put Russo / GB quarrels in central
Asia and Persia aside
2. Triple Entente was formed (Russia, GB, FR)
Bismarck’s two front war w/ FR and Russia aligned w/ GB was becoming a reality
Tensions in the Balkans and GE’s alliance with AU, who opposed Russia in the region
was a recipe for war

The Bosnian Crisis—ESSAY III

Inhabitants of Balkans were Slavs and felt kinship with Russia
1. Southern Slavs wanted a unified “Yugoslavia,” led by Serbia
2. Wanted to detach Bosnia from AU
3. In 1908, modernizing reform: Young Turks overthrew the Ottoman gov,
threaten to revive the empire, precipitated a series of Balkan crises

In 1908 Russia and AU decided to act before the Turks gained strength; decided to call an
international conference
1. AU annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina
2. Russia requested support for the Dardanelles to be opened to Russian warships

AU acts unilaterally and British reject Russia request…Russia was furious

1. Russians too weak to do anything
2. GE was unhappy b/c AU’s actions threatened their relations w/ Russia, but
supported AU b/c they depended on the Dual Alliance
3. GB and FR’s failure to support Russia puts strain on Triple Entente

The Second Moroccan Crisis—ESSAY III

FR sent army in 1911 to put down a rebellion in Morocco

GE sent the gunboat Panther to the Port of Agadir in Morocco under the “defending
citizens”; went too far, as in 1905
1. GE extorts concessions from the FR in the Congo and GE withdraws

GB assumed GE was positioning for a naval base on the Atlantic at Agadir

1. Drove GB and FR closer
2. Agree to naval cooperation
3. GB prepared an expeditionary force to defend FR should GE attack

21
 The Balkan Wars
Italy feared that FR will move into Ottoman Libya and in 1911 attacked the Ottomans to
forestall FR
1. Obtained Libya and Dodecanese Islands in Aegean

Encouraged by the Italian victory Bulgaria: Greece, Montenegro and Serbia attacked the
Ottomans and won easily
1. Serbs and Bulgarians argued over division of Macedonia
2. In 1913, Turkey and Romania joined Greece and Serbia against Bulgaria
3. Lost most of their territorial gains from 1878 and 1912

AU determined to limit Serbian gains, prevent the Serbs from gaining a port in Albania
on the Adriatic
1. GB sponsored a conference (1913); resolved the matter in AU’s favor
2. Called for an independent kingdom of Albania
3. AU humiliated by the public airing of Serbian demands, forced Serbia to
withdraw from Albania
4. Russia was too weak to intervene

AU was determined not to accept an international conference again, w/ their GE allies

believed more could be gained by use of force

Sarajevo and the Outbreak of the Great War

AU Archduke Francis Ferdinand (1863-1914, heir to Austro Hungarian throne), his wife
assassinated on June 28, 1914
1. In capital city of Sarajevo
2. Bosnian called Gavrilo Princips, member of political terrorist society
Aided by chief of intelligence of Serbian Army

AU were looking for an excuse to attack Serbia and end their Balkan problems; this
seemed like a perfect opportunity
1. Hungary resisted; AU would need GE support if the Russians mobilized to
protect Serbia, so put the question to Berlin
Wilhelm II, Chancellor Theobold von Bethmann-Hollweg promised
GE support for an attack on Serbia
Encouraged AU to move quickly while world still angry w/ Serbia
GE miscalculations
1. Thought AU would strike quickly—did NOT. Waited one
month; declare war on July 28th, but could not get army ready until
mid-August
2. Hoped that GE support would deter Russian involvement (did
NOT)
3. Hoped that GB would remain aloof (2nd Moroccan crisis) (did
NOT)

22
 The Triple Entente’s Response
Russians ordering a partial mobilization of the army to deter AU’s attack on Serbia
1. Equivalent to an act of war

Head of GE general staff, General Helmuth von Moltke

1. Russian mobilization could upset the timing of GE’s battle plan, called the
Schlieffen Plan; required that GE attack FR first

FR responded as GE had done w/ AU; assures Russia of its support if they go to war
GB called for another conference to resolve the rising tension; AU declined

Bethmann-Hollweg realized GB would come in on the side of FR tried to persuade AU to

negotiate (but NO)

Schlieffen Plan put into Effect

Plan had been developed by 1905 by Count Alfred von Schlieffen
1. Sweep south through FR and push army E against the GE fortress in Lorraine
2. GE was to hold back only 10% of their army for the E front and remain on the
defensive with AU against Russia

On July 30, AU ordered mobilization against Russia

GE invaded Belgium on August 3, which violated Treaty of 1839 where GB guaranteed

Belgian neutrality

23
 GE proceeded through Belgium and invaded FR; Schlieffen Plan implemented

GB declared war on GE on August 4 (remember 2nd Moroccan Crisis of 1911) and sent
in British Expeditionary Force (BEF)

Both Sides Expected Swift Victory

Had not seen a general war in 100 years
1. People were excited; the horrors of modern war were not truly appreciated yet
2. Modern weapons increased the casualty rates dramatically
Machine-guns, heavy artillery, mines (digging beneath trenches
and blowing them up), gas, tanks, airplanes
Allies had advantage of superior numbers, financial resources, command of the sea
Central powers had advantage of internal lines of communication, first strike

The Western Front

GE plan stalls due to stiff Belgian resistance
1. Proceed into FR later, but again resisted by the BEF, French 3rd and 4th armies
2. By September 1914, things halted at the Battle of Marne, casualties of 500K
Stalemate sets in as both sides dig a series of trenches, which stretch from the Swiss
border to the English Channel

------------------Three major engagements on the Western Front------------------------------

I. Battle of Verdun was an attempt by GE chief of staff Falkenhayn to “bleed the FR
white” and annihilate the army at Verdun-sur-Meuse, due east of Paris near the GE border
—“they shall not pass” at Nivelle
1. German offensive fought from Feb 21 – Dec 19, 1916
Opened with a nine hour artillery bombardment of the FR
Over 1M shells fired
GE used flamethrowers for the first time
2. Longest battle of the war and second bloodiest after the Battle of the Somme
3. Resulted in 550K FR and 434K GE casualties of which ½ were fatalities

II. Battle of the Somme (July – November 1916) was a FR / BEF offensive launched
along a 30 km front along the Somme River; intended as attrition to divert GE resources
from the Battle of Verdun
1. Preceeded by an 8 day preliminary bombardment; unsuccessful in destroying
GE front defenses
2. Launched on July 1, 1916
GB casualties in no-man’s land were 58,000 on the first day, 1/3
of total killed; remains a record
27 Allied divisions amounting to about 750K men in the offensive
In September, tanks are used for the first time to little effect

24
 3. Offensive ultimately called off on November 18, 1916
4. Casualties: 500K GE; 420K GB and 200K FR
5. Virtually no territory gained

III. Three Battles at Ypres in Belgium was inspiration for poem “In Flanders Fields” by
John McCrae (written after 2nd Battle in May 1915)
1. 3rd battle launched July 31, 1917 as a battle of attrition to weaken GE
2. GE quickly moved troops from the E Front; use mustard gas for the first time,
as opposed to chlorine gas (used in the 2nd Battle of Ypres)

The Eastern Front

Battles are less well known, however the statistics remain grim with over 3M dead and
9M wounded
Russia collapsed and Austria-Hungary lost their monarchy

Characterized by:
1. AU incompetence under Conrad von Hoetzendorf
2. Lack of transportation infrastructure to support Russian advances
3. Increased tension between GE and AU high command
4. Russian army disintegrated into civil war at home

War in east began August 17, 1914 w/ the Russian invasion of East Prussia on 2 fronts
1. Under Erich von Ludendorf, GE mounted a counter-offensive against the
weaker of the Russian armies
2. Battle of Tannenberg: entire Russian command collapsed; 92K prisoners
and 10K casualties
3. W/in a week, the Russians suffered defeat at the Battle of Masurian Lakes and
suffered an additional 100K casualties

In 1915, the Central Powers drove into the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Poland
1. Russians suffered casualties of 2M; central powers suffered casualties of 1M

Both the Allies and Central Powers Sought Additional Allies

Turkey and Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers

Italy entered on the side of the Allies after they agreed to give up Trentino, the South
Tyrol, Trieste, and some of the Dalmatian Islands once AU was defeated (Italia Irredenta)
In the Far East, Japan honored its alliance with GB and attacked GE colonies in
China and the Pacific

Allies tried to circumvent the impasse on the W Front at Gallipoli

Campaign was developed by the First Lord of GB Admiralty, Winston Churchill to push

25
through the Dardanelles, capture Constantinople
1. Known by GB as the Dardanelles Campaign w/ objective of taking
Constantinople and knocking Turkey out the of war

ANZAC soldiers bore the brunt of fighting

1. Lasted from April 1915 to Dec 1915
2. Allied casualties of 140K (44K dead); Turkish casualties of 250K (90K dead)

Failure resulted in the resignation of Churchill and Asquith as Prime Minister

Contributed to the rise of Mustafa Kemal, who commanded the 19th Turkish division
and defeated the invasion at ANZAC cove

War at Sea
GB established blockade of the North Sea to starve out the enemy
GE responded with unrestricted U-boat warfare on GB shipping to starve them out
1. Declared area around GB Isles a war zone; neutral shipping not safe
2. In 1915, GE sunk the GB ship the Lusitania; 118 US drowned in 1200 total
3. President Wilson protested and GE stopped, perhaps a grave error as it takes
a very expensive and effective weapon out of the war

The US entered the war in 1917 due to 2 developments

GE resumed open warfare on shipping in February 1917

Wilson could only see the US involved as a greater part of a crusade to “make the world
safe for democracy”
1. If the autocratic Tsarist gov held power in Russia and the Triple Entente,
Wilson would not support
2. Revolution and an interim socialist gov under Kerensky removed obstacle

Russian Revolution
March Revolution in 1917 was NOT planned, nor was it coordinated amongst political
factions
1. Result of the Tsarist monarchy’s inability to govern any longer
2. Military and domestic failures produced massive casualties and discontent

Riots erupted in St. Petersburg in March and the Tsar abdicated on March 15th

Duma formed a provisional gov comprised principally of Constitutional Democrats w/ W

sympathies
1. Socialists organizing the workers into councils, called soviets, not happy
2. Temporary gov continued war effort, but offensive in summer 1917 collapsed

Moderate socialist, Alexander Kerensky, took over leadership

26
From April 1917 onward, the Bolsheviks, under Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky
worked to undermine the provisional government
1. GE shipped Lenin from Switzerland to Russia to assist in the turmoil
2. An attempted coup failed; Lenin fled for Finland; Trotsky was imprisoned
3. By November 1917 the Bolsheviks seized power

November election by the provisional gov resulted in a landslide victory of the Social
Revolutionaries (over the Bolsheviks), but when the Assembly gathered, the Red Army
controlled by the Bolsheviks dispersed the Assembly and seized power

Bolshevik Russia
Immediate acts of the Bolsheviks
1. Nationalized land, gave it to the peasants; turned factories over to the workers
2. Banks seized, Tsarist debts were repudiated, seized the property of the church

Negotiated truce with GE in December 1917

March 3, 1918 accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Surrendered Finland, Poland, the Baltic States and Ukraine to GE
GE agreed to pay indemnity; needed time to resolve internal issues

Internal civil war (1918) b/w the Red Russians (Bolsheviks) and the White Russians who
opposed the Bolsheviks (supported by the Allies)
1. On July 17,1918, the Tsar and his family murdered at Ekateringburg
2. Trotsky led the Red Army to victory

Germany decided to bet everything on one last offensive

Stalled at the Marne again

Allies, bolstered by American troops, launched a counteroffensive

1. Held off GE at the Battle of Belleau Wood (June 1–26, 1918)
2. First Medal of Honor awarded to Gunnery Sergeant Ernest Jansen
AU army collapsed on the E Front in Balkans and Italy

GE army allowed new gov based on democratic principles under Prince Max of Baden
1. New gov negotiated peace based on Fourteen Points (Wilson)
2. Breakdown of army forced Wilhelm II to abdicate Nov 9, 1918
3. SDP proclaimed a republic to prevent a soviet gov from gaining strength under
a Leninist wing
4. GE signed an armistice accepting defeat (11/11/11, 1918 Armistice Day)

Total Casualties
10M dead and 20M wounded:
GE suffered greatest number of casualties at 6.2M, AU / Hungary: 4.7MM, FR: 3.4MM

27
Waste of life; economic implications in terms of loss of consumers and producers
Changed in the Old International Order
Russia was now ruled by a Bolshevik dictatorship
Dual Monarchy in AU / Hungary collapsed
GE was in chaos
Colonial holdings would never be as secure as they had been before the war again
Allies, who had been creditors to the world, were now debtors and the U.S. had
become the creditor

Settlement at Paris
Big 4 were United States (Wilson), Britain (David Lloyd George), France (Clemenceau)
and Italy (Orlando)… Japan also played a key role

Numerous conflicts of interest

1. GB and FR believed GE should pay for cost of the war
2. Romania to receive expected Transylvania at the expense of Hungary
3. Italy and Serbia had conflicting claims on parts of the Adriatic
4. GB encourage the Arab states during the war, promising an independent Arab
state carved from Ottoman Empire in conflict with Balfour Declaration (1917)

Bolshevism was viewed as greatest immediate threat

Allies land small armies in Russia; support the White Russians; overthrow the Bolsheviks
1. There was an aborted communist uprising in Berlin
2. Army of GE volunteers was permitted to fight Bolsheviks in the Baltic States
GE + Soviet Union excluded from settlement; delivered the terms and forced to accept

League of Nations
NOT and international gov; a body of sovereign states agreed to pursue common policies
If war threatened, members promised to submit the matter to the “international court”

In reality the League of Nations was powerless

1. Had no army to implement policy + action required unanimous consent
2. Council consisted of US, FR, GB, Japan, Italy and 4 other rotating members
3. Exclusion of GE + Soviet Union undermined claims to evenhandedness
In general, countries continued to act in their own self-interests

Resolution of Germany – Key objective was safety of France

Alsace-Lorraine returned to the French
Demilitarized zone was established west of the Rhine and 50 kms to east of Rhine
1. Allied troops stationed on the west bank of Rhine for 15 years

Reduction in GE armed forces

army reduced to 100K; no planes, subs, tanks, gas, heavy artillery, and naval fleet

28
US and GB guarantee to defend FR if invaded by GE
GE was forced to accept a war guilt clause; placed full blame for the war on GE… caused
bitter resentment

Resolution in the East

East Prussia cut off from the rest of GE to give Poland access to the sea

AU-Hungary disappeared
1. Germans concentrated in Republic of AU (was forbidden to unite with GE)
2. Magyars confined to Hungary
3. Czechs united w/ Slovaks and Ruthenians to form Czechoslovakia
4. Southern Slavs, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes united to form Yugoslavia

Old Ottoman Empire disappeared; the new Republic of Turkey was limited to
Constantinople and Asia Minor

Middle East
Palestine and Iraq under GB Control; Syria and Lebanon under FR Control
Germany’s African / Pacific colonies were divided among the victors

Financial Reparations
GE forced to pay for “all damages done to civilian populations and their property,” but
GB and FR wanted them to pay full cost of war
$5B per year until 1921 and then a final figure set to be paid over 30 years
FR wanted to “bleed them into impotence,” force them to default so they could intervene

Evaluation of the Peace – Much attacked over the years

Reparations were scaled down and GE actually experienced economic recovery until the
Great Depression of 1930s

Elimination of Austro-Hungarian Empire was disastrous: removed producers of raw

materials from consumers and manufacturing
Large groups of unhappy Germans found themselves living in Czech and Poland

Excluding GE and Soviet Union from the settlement process and the League of Nations
was unrealistic as they were key players in European affairs

29
 Chapter 31
After Versailles
General resentment
1. Reparations caused tension between allies (especially FR) and GE
2. National groups in Eastern Europe felt mistreated: wanted borders re-drawn

The Great Depression in Europe and Contributing Factors

Financial Crisis
1. FR determined to collect war reparations from GE; US determined to collect
on war loans extended to allies during WWI
2. In 1923 FR declared GE to be in default on its reparation payments
Jan 11: FR occupied the Ruhr mining and manufacturing districts
Weimar Republic ordered passive resistance
FR ran GE mines and railroads at great cost
3. International efforts arose to ease German reparations
4. Collapse of Wall Street in Oct 1929 saw loss of large amounts of money and
there was little US capital for investment in Europe
5. Kreditanstalt collapsed in May 1931 (a principal lenders to Europe)
Hoover announced a 1-year moratorium on war debt June 1931
Lausanne Conference, summer 1932 ended to war reparations

Agricultural Commodity Problems

1. 1920’s witnessed contraction in world demand for European goods
2. Farming methods, transportation vastly increased world wheat supply (surplus)
Prices fell, but cost in industrial goods remained high
Farmers default on debts
3. Developing countries where supply of agricultural goods outstrips demand,
decrease in demand for industrialized goods
4. Industries like coal, iron, and textiles decline in demand and lay people off
5. By 1930’s the Depression was feeding on itself

The Soviet Experiment

Most durable authoritarian government of 20th century, lasting from 1917 to 1991
1. Communist party was NOT one of the masses or nationalistic
2. Confronted challenge of industrialization at great expense to people
3. Felt Communism was exportable (fail)

War Communism
1. Appearance of Secret Police called Cheka within months of revolution
2. War Communism policy: confiscation of banks, transportation heavy industry
3. Requisition of grain to feed the Red Army, allowed the Red Army to triumph,
but caused much resentment
Strikes in 1920-1; peasants resist requisitions; naval mutiny 1921
4. Suggest that the proletariat was opposed to the dictatorship of the proletariat

30
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
1. Lenin makes strategic retreat; allows private enterprise and farming for a profit
2. Capitalism tolerated

Stalin vs. Trotsky

1. Lenin dies in 1924 and there is fight for Party leadership; two factions develop
Left wing faction under Trotsky advocate rapid industrialization and
voluntary collectivization of farming to increase
agricultural production and to fund development of industry
Right wing faction (Stalin) advocates continuation of Lenin’s NEP
2. Stalin wins, Trotsky is exiled in 1929

Russia Under Stalin

Russia experienced tremendous industrial growth during the Great Depression

During Lenin’s NEP, a few farmers called kulaks became prosperous

1. Withheld grain from markets as prices dropped
2. Stalin collectivized farms (like Trotsky advocated) to finance industrialization
3. Gov tried to eliminate the kulaks as a class and a second revolution broke out
Kulaks slaughtered 100M horse + cows b/w 1929-33 in opposition
to collectivization, resulting in open warfare
4. Millions of peasants are killed; millions sent to labor camps, or gulags
5. Famine in Russia in 1932-1933, but Stalin persevered

Collectivized farms produced grain to feed workers in factories and provide exports to
generate revenues required to industrialize with foreign imports
1. Soviet industrial production rose 400% between 1928 -40

5-year plans organized by State Planning Commission

1. Set goals of production and organized the economy to meet them
Early plans focused on rapid industrialization
Increase in coal and iron productions
1933-1937, steel production increased to 17M tons, just behind GE
2. 13 five-year plans stretching from 1928-1991
3. Cost to meet plans was profound: millions killed, uprooted, relocated

The Great Purges

1. Stalin developed paranoid fears in 1933 as he faced opposition to his
departures from Lenin’s policies
2. Led to the most mysterious and horrendous political crimes in history
3. Assassination of Sergei Kirov (1934) gave Stalin the excuse to have thousands
arrested, tried, shot, or sent to labor camps
4. B/w 1936–38, “show trials” held in Moscow; high Soviet leader confessed to
political crimes and were executed

31
 a. Others tried and executed without trial or sent to labor camps
b. Lenin’s entire politiburo was executed
c. Supporters of Trotsky targeted and Trotsky himself assassinated
5. Next, heroes of the civil war executed (30K members of the armed forces)
6. Numbers will never be know, but ran into millions
End result was a Communist Party structure absolutely loyal to Stalin

Rise of Fascism
Authoritarian political experiment in Europe, which rose in opposition to Bolshevism
originated in Italy. The term fascist arose from movement led by Benito Mussolini
Fascist gov’ts were
1. Anti-Democratic
2. Anti-Marxist
3. Antiparliamentary
4. Anti-Semitic
Appealed to lower middle class and small farmers
1. Rejected liberalism
2. Consolidated all classes for great national purposes
3. Single party dictatorships characterized by terrorism and police surveillance

Rise of Mussolini
The Italian “Fasci di Combattimento” (Band of Combat) founded in 1919 in Milan
Consisted of war veterans dissatisfied with Versailles who feared socialism,
inflation, and labor unrest
“Il Duce” had been involved w/ Italian socialists but broke w/ them in 1914; supported
entry into WWI
1. An opportunist, quickly changed political position in order to keep power
2. Inclined to action rather than thought

Social Turmoil in Italy 1919-21

Strikes, factory occupation, peasants seized land; produced fear of communist revolution
Mussolini first supports factory occupations and land seizures, but reverses himself
1. No upper and middle class support for workers or peasants
2. Terrorized socialist supporters and attacked strikers and factory workers
3. By 1919, fascists control local gov in northern Italy

In 1922 with 100ks of supporters, fascists march on Rome

1. King Victor Emanuel III does not use the army to disburse
2. Oct 29, the king asked Mussolini to become PM—legally came to power

November 23, 1922 the king and Parliament grant Mussolini dictatorial authority
for 1 year to restore order
1. He continues to appoint fascists to office and changes election laws

32
 2. By 1926, Italy is transformed into single party dictatorial state

Lateran Accord of February 1929 brings Mussolini political dividends

1. Recognizes the Pope as ruler of the Vatican state
2. Italian gov agrees to pay an indemnity to the papacy for confiscated land
3. Catholicism becomes the national religion; the church is exempted from taxes

Weimar Republic
Always associated with national disgrace because of Versailles Treaty
Nationalists, military figures that brought on the tragedy of war blamed the young gov

Weimar constitution was an enlightened document

Civil liberties, direct election by universal suffrage of the Reichstag and president
Structural flaws eventually allow it to be overthrown and permit a dictatorship
1920s was a period of unrest, war reparations and assassinations of republican leaders…
violence was the hallmark of the first 5 years

Invasion of the Ruhr and Inflation

Post war deficit spending caused an immense rise in prices
1. Value of DEM collapsed from 4.2:1 in 1914 to 64:1 by 1921
2. Continued to issue paper money to redeem gov bonds

French invasion of Ruhr in 1923 caused further inflation and unemployment

Savings and pensions wiped out and contributed to the economic upheaval; would
tolerate almost any form of gov to bring order back to the system

Early Career of Hitler—ESSAY 1-------------------------------------------------------

Son of an Austrian customs official
1. Fought in the Great War for Germany, was injured, promoted to corporal, and
won the Iron Cross for bravery
2. Swept up in GE nationalism, hated Marxism which he associated w/ Jews

After the War, settled in Munich; became involved w/ the National Socialist German
Workers Party or (Nazis)
1. Called for Repudiation of Versailles treaty, unification of AU and GE,
exclusion of Jews from citizenship, agrarian reform, state administration of cartels
Socialism that Hitler and Nazi’s promoted had nothing to do with traditional German
Socialism
1. Not state ownership of the means of production for the benefit of the masses;
subordination of all economic enterprise to the welfare of the NATION

Found their support base in lower / middle class who were squeezed b/w big business and
socialist labor unions
Formation of the Stormtroopers of SA became the principal means of terror and

33
intimidation before the Nazi party controlled the gov’t

Unsuccessful putsch in Nov 1923 led by Hitler and General Erich von Ludendorff lands
Hitler in jail for a few months where he works on Mein Kampf (my struggle)
1. Decides that in the future he will take power in Germany by legal means

The Stresemann Years

Responsible for the reconstruction of the Weimar Republic
Abandoned the passive resistance in the Ruhr and re-denominated the currency by issuing
the Retenmark

After 4 months as Chancellor (President elected, chancellor appointed) became

Foreign Minister
As FM, Stresemann fulfilled Versaillles, but worked to revise them diplomatically
Looked to recover GE-speaking territories in Czech, Poland and
hoped for unification with AU
In 1924, reparation payments renegotiated and French leave the Ruhr in 1925
Paul von Hindenburg came to power in 1925
1. Governed in strict accordance with the constitution

The Locarno Agreement October 1925

Negotiated by Chamberlain of Britain, Briand of France and Stresemann
1. FR and GE accepted Western frontier established at Versailles
2. GB and Italy agreed to intervene if either side violated the border or if GE put
troops in the demilitarized zone of the Rhineland
3. However, no agreement made about Eastern Front
4. FR supported GE membership in the League of Nations

Brought new hope to Europe; 3 leaders above received the Nobel Peace Prize
Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 renounced “war as an instrument of national policy”
accepted by European powers, the US, and Japan

Optimism was NOT justified

1. FR showed it could not coerce GE into compliance w/out the help of GB
2. Countries like Czech and Poland remained exposed to GE invasion
3. GE continued to reject Versailles and saw Locarno as an extension of it

Depression and Political Deadlock: In Hitler Essay… know the years

Outflow of foreign capital, in particular American by 1928, began to undermine the
Weimar Republic
1. In 1928 a coalition of center parties and Social Democrats governed
2. When depression hit the coalition differed on economic policy and broke down
3. President von Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Bruning as chancellor

34
 a. Chancellor ruled through emergency presidential decrees
b. Weimar Republic became a presidential dictatorship

Unemployment rose from 2.3M in March 1930 to 6M by March 1932

1. Econ downturn, lack of parliamentary majority played to the advantage of
extremists like the Nazis and communists
2. Both made significant gains in the Reichstag

Unemployment led thousands of men to join the Nazi SA, which had almost 1M
members by 1933
1. SA attacked communists and Social Democrats
2. Nazis turned the econ despair and nationalistic frustration into electoral results

Hitler Comes to Power

In 1932, the 83-year-old president, von Hindenburg, ran for re-election; Hitler opposed
him and lost, BUT won 36.8% of the final vote

Hindenburg believed it reflected a loss of confidence of the German people in Bruning

1. Appointed Franz von Papen Chancellor, one of a group of conservative
advisors who had significant influence over the president

Papen wanted to draw the Nazis into cooperation w/out giving power to Hitler
1. Removed the ban on Nazi meetings that Bruning had imposed
2. Called a Reichstag election in July 1932; Nazis won 230 seats, 37.2% of vote
3. Hitler demanded to be named chancellor and Hindenburg refused

Dec 1932 Papen resigned and General Kurt von Schleicher became chancellor
1. Tried to form coalition of conservatives and trade unionists
a. Hindenburg did not trust his motives
2. von Schleicher resigned on January 28, 1933
3. Advisors convinced Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor
January 30, 1933 Hitler was appointed Chancellor came; to office by LEGAL means

Hitler in Power
Forged a rigidly disciplined party structure
1. Mastered the techniques of mass politics and propaganda
2. Support was strong among farmers, veterans, and the young…those that had
suffered most in the Depression
3. Promised a STRONG restored GE free from petty politics

Little evidence that business contributions made any crucial difference to the Nazi’s
success

Consolidation of power had 3 facets

35
1. Capture of Full Legal Authority
Feb 27, 1933 a mentally ill man set the Reichstag building on fire; the Nazis
turned to their advantage by claiming there was a communist threat to the gov
Hitler suspended civil liberties and arrested communists and alleged
communists…decree NEVER revoked for as long as Hitler ruled GE
2. Crushing of rival political groups
March 1933, Nazis captured 43.9% of Reichstag votes
Arrest of communists meant Hitler could control w/out a majority
The Enabling Act permitted Hitler to rule by decree
By end of 1933 all major institutions of potential opposition had been eliminated,
like trade unions, political parties + state gov
3. Personal consolidation of power within the Nazi Party
Ordered murder of SA officers in 1934
B/w June 30 + July 2, 1934 Hitler had 800 people killed including the former
chancellor

On August 2, 1934, president von Hindenburg died and offices of president and
chancellor were combined
1. Hitler was sole ruler—or Fuhrer—of Germany and the Nazi Party

The Police State

Terror and intimidation propelled the Nazis to office
Chief vehicle of the police state was the SS, commanded by Heinrich Himmler
1. More elite paramilitary organization than the SA
2. Carried out the blood purges of the Party in 1934

Jews suffered the most

1. Anti-Semitism was based on biological racial theories of inferiority as opposed
to religious discrimination
Attack on Jews went through 3 stages
1933 exclusion of Jews from civil service and boycott of Jewish businesses
1935 Nuremberg laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship. All persons w/
at least one Jewish grandparent were considered Jews.
1938, under orders of the Nazi party, thousands of Jewish stores and
synagogues were destroyed on Kristallnacht

Harassment allowed the Nazis to inculcate a sense of superiority among native Germans
or “Aryans”
After 1942 Hitler decided to destroy Jews in Europe and killed 6M

Women in Nazi Germany

Task of women to preserve racial purity
Women were educators of the young and therefore protectors of German cultural values

36
 Chapter 32
PUT EVENTS IN ORDER—TIMELINE

Destruction of Versailles
1933 GE withdrawals from international disarmament conference and League of Nations
1935 Hitler renounced the disarmament provisions of Versailles

1931 Japan invades Manchuria

1. China appeals to the League of Nations; powerless to do anything

Stresa Front between FR, GB and Mussolini to maintain status quo in Europe
1. GB makes treaty w/ Hitler allowing him to rebuild GE navy to 35% of GB’s

Italy Attacks Ethiopia

1935 Italians attack Ethiopia (challenging the L of N)
Avenge defeat in 1896; divert attention away from Fascist corruption at home

L of N votes for economic sanctions and embargo

GB and FR don’t want to alienate Italy, so… no oil embargo (L of N worthless)
Weak policy was disastrous as Italy was driven toward GE

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

March 7, 1936, Hitler sends a small, armed force into the DMZ of the Rhineland
Violates both Versailles and Locarno; GB and FR feebly protest
W powers respond with policy of “appeasement”
Belief that GE had real grievances and Hitler had limited ambitions

The Spanish Civil War

SP had established a republic in 1931. In February 1936 a left wing party won elections,
but falangists (SP fascists) refused to accept the victory

In July 1936, the fascists, led General Francisco Franco (1892-1975) led an army against
the republic
1. Hitler and Mussolini aided Franco; the Soviet Union aided the leftists
2. Leftists from all over Europe and America went to fight for the Republic
3. By 1939, the fascists win control of Spain

Germany & Italy grow closer and sign the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact in 1936. Joined by
Japan under the Anti-Commintern Pact against communism

Austria and Czechoslovakia

March 1938, Hitler annexes AU in the Anschluss.
1. Surrounds Czechoslovakia on 3 sides; has designs on the Sudentenland which
is occupied by 3.5M Germans near the border

37
GB PM, Neville Chamberlain, determined to avoid war at all costs
1. Pursued a policy of appeasement

Munich Conference
1. Organized by Mussolini
2. September 1938 conceded almost all of Hitler’s requests
3. Czechs now have no chance of self-defense—sold out by Chamberlain

Poland and Romania occupied bits of Czechoslovakia; Slovaks demand independence

Hitler renege on pledge; occupied Prague in March 15, 1939; ended Czech independence

Poland becomes next target of German expansion

In spring 1939, GE pressured Poland to restore the German city of Danzig
1. Demand railroad through Polish corridor to reconnect with East Prussia

March 31, 1939, Franco – British guarantee of Polish independence

1. Isolated from Poland; needed alliance w/ Soviet Union to be effective, but any
negotiations were slow and cautious because of a distrust of communism

Nazi – Soviet non-aggression Pact on August 23, 1939

Further secret provisions divided Poland, allowed Soviets to annex the Baltic States
On Sept 1, 1939 GE invaded Poland; GB and FR declared war on GE

German Conquest of Poland, Denmark, Low Countries

Soviets invade Poland from the East on Sept 17
1. Absorb Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia
2. November 1940, attempt to invade Finland but fail
April 1940, Germans invade Denmark and Norway

May 1940, Germans invade Holland and 2 weeks later Belgium falls
1. GB + FR armies forced to flee Dunkirk; 200K GB, 100K FR escape across the
Channel

German Occupation of France

Maginot Line ran from Switzerland north to Belgian border
Hitler advanced through Belgium, circumvented the Maginot line; FR army collapsed

Different outcome from the Schlieffen Plan; Italy attacked FR June 10, 1940 (failed)
FR under leadership of Henri Philippe Petain negotiates for an armistice
1. GE occupied over ½ FR, including Atlantic and Channel coasts
2. S FR unoccupied; Petain sets up a dictatorship based in town of Vichy and
collaborates with GE (much despised by the FR)

38
Charles de Gaulle fled to GB; organized French National Committee of Liberation or
French resistance

Battle of Britain
Churchill came to power in May 1940; possibility of surrender to GE disappeared
1. Close relationship w/ FDR and the US; sent military supplies, convoys to GB

Hitler contemplated an invasion of GB and the Luftwaffe began a series of nightly

bombings, primarily of London, called The Blitz
1. Much of the city was destroyed; 15K people killed in London, 43K in total
Abandons plan of invasion as RAF takes heavy toll on Luftwaffe

German Attack on Russia

Operation Barbarossa to knock Russia out of the war before winter of 1941
Mussolini again fails in his attempts
1. GB repulse Italians in Egypt; Greeks repulse Italians
Hitler diverts attention to Balkans+Africa, causes a 6-week delay in Russian campaign
Barbarossa launched in June 1941; Hitler drives to outskirts of Leningrad and Moscow

Winter set in, Russians counterattacked in Nov / Dec; became a war of attrition

The Holocaust
Hitler considered the vanquished a source of slave labor, their land as free to be exploited
Inhumanity inherent in Hitler’s race based doctrines
1. Slavs considered inferior or untermenschen
2. In Poland, upper and professional classes deported or killed
3. Russian campaign was referred to as a war of extermination

SS formed extermination squads to purge 30M Slavs to make way for GE (Lebensraum)
1. 6M Russian civilians and POWs killed by SS

Europe was to be Judenrein (free of Jews)

1. Death camps set up in GE and Poland and 6M exterminated
Not just limited to Jews… mentally retarded, homosexuals, gypsies, and others

America’s Entry into the War

December 7, 1941 the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor
1. The US and GB declare war on Japan
2. The next day, GE and Italy declare war on the US

US casualties, 2403 dead, 1178 wounded, 5 battleships, 3 destroyers, 3 cruisers, 188

39
aircraft destroyed. Japanese: 64 dead and 29 planes destroyed

US was ill prepared for war; needed time to mobilize and reallocate industrial output to
military production
By the summer of 1942, the Japanese Empire stretched from Burma to Gilbert Islands to
Australia
GE expanded territory to N Africa, where Rommel (Desert Fox) drove GB back toward
the Suez Canal
Relations between democracies and Soviet Union were poor

Important Victories that Turned the War

Battle of Midway in Pacific w/ destruction of 4 Japanese aircraft carriers (June 1942)
1. US began campaign of island hopping, slowly strangling Japanese supply lines
Guadalcanal, Tarawa / Gilbert Islands, Solomon Islands, Guam, Saipan, Iwo Jima

Africa Campaign
1. GB Bernard Montgomery (Monty) stopped Rommel at El Alamein, drove west
2. General Eisenhower pushed east through Morocco and Algiers and trapped GE
in Tunisia, where they were crushed

Fall of Italy
1. July 1943, Allies captured Sicily and drove Mussolini from power
2. Mussolini hung in public by piano wire
3. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, new leader of Italy, declared war on GE… resistance
was tough on the peninsula

Battle of Stalingrad: Aug 21, 1942–Feb 2, 1943

1. Battle for the city (on Volga river) was critical to Hitler to access the oil fields on the
Caspian Sea
2. Fierce battle: Stalin would not give up, Hitler would not retreat; largest single battle
in human history
3. GE and allies (Romania, Italy, Hungary) against the Soviets (1,500,000 men)
4. On July 27, 1942, Stalin issues Order 227, “Not a step back.” All retreating soldiers
were shot by officers.
a. More men than rifles sent into assaults
b. Life expectancy of new Soviet soldier was one day
c. Door to door street fighting was called Rattenkreig or Rat War
5. Casualties
a. Soviet roughly 479K killed, 651K captured / wounded. 40K civilians also
killed 1,130,000
b. Estimated that Axis 750K killed + wounded, w/ 91K troops captured when
Field Marshall Paulus surrendered (first to do so)
c. Of 91K prisoners, only 6K repatriated to GE. The rest executed or died in

40
 labor camps. Last came home in 1955.
6. Compare to the Battle of the Somme (July - November 1916). First day of battle,
July 1, British suffered 57K casualties of which 19K were killed.
a. Total casualties for GB and FR 623K
b. GE casualties 450K

D-Day: June 6, 1944

1. GB landed at SWORD + GOLD, Canadians at Juno, and Americans at Omaha + Utah
2. US casualties heaviest on Omaha, were 2400 men killed in the first day
3. Mulbury Harbors towed from GB and constructed at Arromanche and Omaha
a. By June 16, US and GB put ashore roughly 300K men each and 110K tons of
supplies each
4. Opened the Western front of the war

Strategic Bombing
1. Allied technology introduced long-range fighters, bombers that could target GE cities
2. Civilian casualties
a. Jul 1943, 40K civilians killed in bombing of Hamburg
b. Feb 1945, Dresden + Pforzheim bombs killed 47K civilians
3. By 1945, the GE people were brought to their knees
May 7, 1945, General Jodl signed unconditional surrender documents for all
German forces. VE Day.

Defeat of Nazi Germany

Despite GE counterattack in December 1944, Battle of the Bulge, allies recovered
Russians were at the outskirts of Berlin by March 1945

GE fought until May, but once Hitler committed suicide (May 1, 1945) the Third Reich
fell (lasted only 12 years)

Defeat of Japan
Aug 6, 1945, Americans dropped first atomic bomb on Hiroshima and killed 70K of its
200K occupants (Enola Gay, B-29)
Aug 7, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki
Aug 14, Emperor Hirohito forced the gov to surrender; peace was signed on Sept 2, 1945,
by the US president Harry Truman

Cost of the War

Military deaths of 15 million (civilian deaths of same number)
Europe and Asia devastated

German Domestic Front

41
Failure to defeat Russia forced GE to focus all resources on war effort
Food rationing, labor shortages
Women fulfilled special role for Nazi propaganda machine
Intensified propaganda
The war brought increased power to the Nazi party

French Collaboration and Resistance

Vichy government cooperated with Nazis
Organized resistance took hold in late 1942; only 5% of population believed to be
involved
Early 1944, Allied victory seemed certain, only then did active resistance assert itself
October 21, 1945 FR voted to adopt a new constitution on the basis of the Fourth
Republic

Great Britain Organizes for Victory

On May 22, 1940, parliament gave the government emergency powers
Churchill mobilized industry, by end of 1941 industrial production exceeded Germany
The “Blitz” conducted by Luftwaffe in 1940-1941 had dramatic effect
Propaganda machine in broadcasts of the BBC
Most people’s standard of living and health improved

Soviet Union: The Great Patriotic War

Greatest casualties of the war
1. 16M people, 100s of cities and towns destroyed
2. ½ in industrial and transportation facilities destroyed

Stalin made peace with the Orthodox Church

Resistance against Germans in occupied portions of the country

The Atlantic Charter

WHAT INVOLVED, WHAT DISCUSSED
In August 1941 Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to a broad set of principles for peace

In 1943, following US and Russian entrance into the war, powers agreed to put aside
differences and fight until the enemy surrendered unconditionally

Tehran
First meeting of the 3 was in 1943
1. Agreement by the west Allies to open a new front in FR in summer 1944
2. Russian promises to attack Japan in the East once GE is defeated

Western allies did not see risk of Russia occupying and controlling eastern Europe as they
were currently fighting deep in their own territory

42
By August 1944, Soviets were in sight of Warsaw and the Poles rose up
1. Soviets allowed the Poles to be annihilated by the Germans

Russians gained control of Romania and Hungary

1. Churchill was alarmed; attempted to agree shared power over Eastern Europe
2. Americans were hostile to such concepts of “spheres of influence”

Agreed on GE’s disarmament and denazificaiton

1. Division into 4 zones of occupation
2. Churchill balked at Stalin’s demand for $20 billion in reparation payments

Stalin promised independent democratic governments in Eastern Europe… soon to

violate these principles

Yalta
Meeting in the Crimea in February 1945
Roosevelt, a Wilsonian, suspected Churchill of wanting to maintain the British empire
and set up spheres of influence
1. Concerned that this could lead to war with Russia in the future
2.
Extensive concessions made to encourage Russia to fight Japan and to accept a United
Nations

Postdam
Meeting in Berlin suburb in July 1945; progress slow
Leaders had changed
Attlee for Churchill; Truman for FDR

Polish borders redrawn to give Russia land to the east and take land from GE in the west
Council of Foreign Ministers established to draft peace treaties

43
 Chapter 33
The Cold War Era
Tense relations between the Soviet Union and the US that existed in the 2nd half of the
20th century originated in the closing months of WWII
1. Split of ideology and interests
2. Soviet expansions in East Europe + south were an extension of Tsarist policy
3. The US replaced Britain as the force to keep the Soviets in check
Soviet ideology to overthrow democracies and Stalin’s leadership left the US no choice

US made no attempt to force a rollback of Soviet power where it existed, despite our
huge post-war military presence
1. US industrial power unmatched, monopoly on atomic weapons
2. 3.5M armed troops in Europe, reduced to 500K by end 1946

US supported
1. Self-determination
2. Free trade
3. Economic Open Door policy

Soviets saw American resistance to their expansion as threat to their security

Growth in Italy and FR of communist parties taking orders from Moscow caused the US
to suspect Stalin involved in a worldwide plot to subvert capitalism

Early Cold War Conflicts

In February 1946, Stalin and Molotov, Foreign Minister, refer to Western democracies as
enemies
Churchill gives famous speech in Missouri citing an “Iron Curtain”

Cooperation on atomic energy was scrapped; the US and the Soviets developed separate
atomic weapons programs
1. The Soviets had the bomb by 1949

Resistance to Soviet intransigence and subversion in Greece

1. Civil war had been raging since 1944: GB backed the royalist government,
Communists backed the insurgents
2. In 1947 GB informed the US it could no longer afford to support the Greeks
3. On March 12, 1947, Congress approved funds for the Truman Doctrine
a. Support for both Greece and Turkey
b. Policy actually extended throughout the world

Communism grew b/c people were suffering from post war poverty and hunger
1. European Recovery Program, known at the Marshall Plan, implemented
broad economic support to European nations on the condition they work together
2. The Soviets prohibited their satellites from participating
3. Led to economic prosperity and solid economic regimes

44
Stalin’s response was to install oppressive communist regimes directly under his control
in all satellite countries
1. Formation of Communist Information Bureau
2. Spread of revolutionary communism throughout the world

Brutal suppression on Czechoslovakia in February 1948

1. Communists expel democrats in multi-party coalition murder Foreign Minister
3. Brought totally under Soviet rule

US Resolve and Germany

Soviets dismantled Germany industry in the East
The Americans wanted a self dependent Germany, so invested in reconstruction of
industry

Western powers pushed forward with a separate constitution for the western sectors of
Germany in February 1948
1. Soviets walked out of the Allied Control Commission, cut off Berlin from west

Allies respond to the Berlin Blockade with an airlift of supplies that lasts a year
1. In May 1949 the Soviets are forced to re-open access to Berlin
2. GE is divided into two states, The German Federal Republic (west) and
the German Democratic Republic (east)

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, FR, Britain, Italy, Denmark, Norway, Portugal,
Iceland, Canada, and the US formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
in April 1949
1. West GE, Greece, and Turkey joined later

May 1955, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East GE, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and
the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact
1. Merely gave formal recognition to a system that already existed
2. Local communist govs under direct control from Moscow
Europe clearly divided into 2 blocks

Crises of 1956
In July 1956 President Gamal Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal
1. GB and FR concerned oil supply from the Gulf at risk
2. War broke out in October 1956 b/w Egypt and Israel
a. GB and FR sent military forces (not supported by US)
b. The Soviets objected vehemently
c. Troops withdrawn and Egypt maintained control
3. Without the US, European powers were ineffective… go America?

45
Poland
1. PM dies but the Polish Communist Party refuses to accept a successor directly
chosen by Moscow
2. Wladyslaw Gomulka emerges as acceptable to Moscow and keeps Poland in
the Warsaw Pact
a. Halts collectivization of agriculture
b. Improves relations with the Polish Catholic church

Hungary
1. In October fighting erupts in Budapest; Imre Nagy emerges as leader and calls
for Hungarian independence and withdrawl from the Warsaw Pact
2. Soviets depose Nagy (and later try and execute him) and he is replaced by
Janos Kadar

Intensification
Two superpowers begin to talk about “peaceful coexistence”
1. Nikita Khrushchev toured the US in 1959
2. In May 1960 a summit meeting was scheduled for Paris
3. President Eisenhower was to tour the Soviet Union

Soviets shoot down an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory
1. Soviets had been aware of these flights in the past, so why act now?
Hope to divide the allies of GB, FR and US over the future of GE
By 1960, the communist world was divided b/w the Soviets and
the Chinese
Khrushchev wanted to show the Soviets were hard liners

Throughout 1961, thousands of East German refugees fled to West Germany

1. In August 1961, the Soviets erected the Berlin Wall b/w East + West Berlin
2. Remained until 1989

In October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis

1. Soviets place missiles in Cuba
2. US blockades Cuba and demands removal of the missiles
3. Soviets back down

Detente
In 1963, superpowers conclude the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Lessening of tensions accelerated under Richard Nixon
1. Trade agreements and arms reductions

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 hardened relations again

1. US Senate refused to ratify the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty of 1979

46
Reagan and Gorbachev held a friendly summit in 1985
1. In 1987, US and Soviets agreed to dismantle 2K med- and short-range missiles
2. 1989 upheavals in Eastern Europe
By 1991 Soviet Union had collapsed

Western European Unification

Formation of European Economic Community or Common Market in 1957
1. Sought elimination of tariffs, free flow of capital and labor, similar wages and
social benefits
2. Chief institution was the High Commission
3. FR, West GE, Italy, France, Belgium, Luxembourg

By 1968, huge success, with all tariffs removed

1. Non-member states began to seek membership
2. In 1973, Britain, Ireland and Demark joined
3. SP, Portugal, Greece, Sweden, Finland, and AU admitted

1988 a trade-free zone created throughout the community

1991 Treaty of Maastricht called for a unified currency and a strong central bank
1. European Community was re-named the European Union
Introduction of Euro in 1999
1. The currencies of AU, FR, Belgium, Finland, GE, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg,
the Netherlands, Portugal, and SP were fixed according to the value of the Euro
2. In 2002, their currencies were replaced along with Greece’s with Euros

Evolution of a Consumer Society

Eastern Europe favored capital investment and military production
1. Inadequate food and shoddy consumer goods

In the West, consumerism flourished

1. People of the East became aware of the discrepancies; associated the higher
standard of living with democracy and free market economics
Brought down the communists governments and the Soviet Union

Movement of Peoples
Migration away from Europe
1. From 1945-1960, 500K Europeans migrated to other parts of the world

Decolonization contributed to a huge inward flow of European colonial subjects to the

home countries
1. In GB clashes b/w police and West Indians in the 1980s
2. FR had similar issues with North Africans
3. Large Islamic populations in FR, GE caused assimilation issues, social conflict

47
Internal migrations
1. Movement to northern and western from southern and eastern countries in
search of better wages facilitated by the EEC (1957)
2. Migration of workers into FR and GE snowballed after 1960
3. Civil war refugees and the collapse of communist governments of Eastern
Europe in 1988-1989 further migrations

New Patterns for Women

Assumption of larger economic and political roles
Both middle-class and working-class women work outside the home
Concerns about retirement and employment in post child-bearing years have contributed
to a declining birthrate, as well as desire for higher standard of living

NOTE: the following sections on American history are to be INCLUDED because

we were not quizzed on Chapter 33!
Postwar America
Truman Administration
1. Foreign policy directed against communist expansion in Europe and East Asia
2. Continuation of the New Deal
3. 1947 Taft-Hartly Act passed by Republicans limited union activity
4. Barely won re-election in 1948
5. Economic security through his Fair Deal

Republican victory in 1952

1. Senator Joseph McCarthy—communist-phobe
2. Frustration with Korean War; tired of 20 years of Democratic administrations

Eisenhower Administration (1952-1960)

1. Period of calm and prosperity

Civil Rights
In 1954, US Supreme Court declared racial segregation unconstitutional
Southern states resisted desegregation
1. 1955 Reverend Martin Luther King organized a boycott in Montgomery, AL
against segregated buses
2. Marked the start of civil disobedience

Civil Rights Act of 1964 desegregated public accommodations

Voting Rights Act of 1965 cleared the way for Blacks to vote
Race riots in 1967
Assassination of Martin Luther King in 1968 weakened the movement

48
 New Social Programs
1960 Kennedy narrowly wins election
1. Attempted to expand medical care under social security
2. Assassinated in 1963

Lyndon Johnson, successor, pressed for activist legislation

1. War on Poverty: major federal programs to create jobs and provide job training
2. New entitlements added to social security including Medicare
3. Era that started with FDR came to an end by the late 1960s as the country
became more conservative

Vietnam War and Social Turmoil

1965 Johnson sends US troops to Vietnam
1. At home the war and the draft provoked large-scale protests

Johnson doesn’t seek reelection in 1968; Richard Nixon won an easy victory Republicans
1. Established relations with the People’s Republic of China
2. Concluded the war in 1972

Watergate Scandal
Burglary of Democratic Party national headquarters

Bigger issues revolved around presidential authority and the right of government to
intrude on lives of citizens
1. 1973 Congress investigates
2. 1974 it becomes clear through tape recordings that the White House tried to
cover up it involvement in the burglary
3. Nixon resigned
Succeeding administrations of Ford (1974-77) and Carter (1977-81) battled inflation and
high interest rates without success

Triumph of Political Conservatism

Reagan elected by a landslide in 1980 and re-elected in 1984
1. First conservative ideologue in the postwar era
2. Reduction of the role of government and tax cuts
3. Vast defense spending increased deficit, inflation controlled, econ. expanded

George H. W. Bush elected in 1988

1. In 1990 fought 1st Iraqi War
2. Economic problems cost him re-election

1992 Bill Clinton won the election for the Democrats

1994 Republican Party won majorities in both the House and Senate and continued the
conservative policies of the Reagan years

49
Clinton impeached for perjury related to a sex scandal in 1998, but acquitted in 1999
1. Moved the Democratic Party toward the center

George W. Bush defeated Al Gore in closest election in history in 2000

1. Senate evenly divided until Jeffords from Vermont declared himself an
independent and voted with the Democrats
2. 9/11 terrorist attack on the US
a. US responded by overrunning the Taliban in Afghanistan
b. April 2003, a US led coalition overthrew the regime of Saddam
Hussein

Soviet Themes Post 1945

Rivalry with the US for world leadership
Rivalry with China for leadership of the communist nations
Effort to sustain Soviet dominance over Eastern Europe
Unsuccessful attempts to reform the Stalinist state

The Khrushchev Years

Stalin died on March 6, 1953, and no single leader immediately replaced him

In 1956 Khrushchev replaced him, but without the extraordinary powers of Stalin
1. At the 29th Congress of the Communist Party, Khrushchev denounced Stalin in
what was called the “Secret Speech”

Attempted to reform Soviet economic policies

1. Decentralize economic planning
2. Defense budget and space program were a huge strain on resources
3. Removed restrictions on agricultural policy, but still could not produce enough
food to feed Soviet people

Foreign policy considered a failure because of having to back down in Cuba

Forced to resign on October 16, 1964 and replaced by Leonid Brezhnev

The Brezhnev Years

Soviet government becomes more repressive after 1964
1. Intellectuals are stifled; Jews are harassed
Internal repression gave rise to a dissident movement
1. Criticism for human rights violations
2. Andrei Sakharov, Noble Prize winning physicist

Foreign policy
1. Accommodate the US, but continue to expand Soviet influence and leadership
of the communist movement

50
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
1. Hampered ability to react to developments in Poland in the 1980s
2. Lost support at home and abroad as losses mounted

Solidarity in Poland
July 1980 strikes across the country
1. Lenin shipyard in Gdansk spread to other workers
2. Strikers, led by Lech Walesa, refused to negotiate in gov-controlled unions

Strike ended on August 31 after workers promised an independent union, Solidarity

1. Polish communist head of state replaced
2. Summer of 1981saw elections with real choices
3. Poland remained communist but debate was permitted
In December 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski became party head and martial law was
declared

Gorbachev’s Efforts to Redirect the Soviet Union

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985
1. Greatest changes since the 1920s
2. Perestroika, or restructuring, saw major political and economic reforms
a. Centralized economic ministries were streamlined
b. By 1990 advocated private ownership of property
c. However the economy stagnated

Public criticism of Soviet history and Communist Party policy tolerated in what was
termed glasnost
1. Censorship was relaxed
2. Dissidents released from prison
3. 1988 new constitution permits contested elections
4. Discontent of vast conquered nationalities surfaced

1989 Year of Revolution in Europe

None could have taken place if the Soviet Union had not refused to intervene militarily as
it did in 1956 and 1968
1. Once it was clear the Soviets would stand back, thousands denounced the
Communist Party and called for democracy
2. Peaceful character of the revolutions was likely a calculated response the
world’s shock toward the Chinese repression at Tiananmen Square in May 1989

Solidarity re-emerges in Poland

1. In the mid-1980s martial law was relaxed
2. Solidarity again pressed for free unions and democracy
3. By 1988 economy stagnated and new strikes emerged

51
 4. Solidarity was legalized
5. Free elections in 1989 saw the Communists ousted
6. Tadeusz Mazowiecki named first non-Communist Prime Minister with express
approval of Gorbachev

Hungary moves toward independence

1. In early 1989 the Hungarian communist government permitted independent
political parties
2. Free travel between Hungary and Austria…first break in the Iron Curtain
3. In May 1989 Janos Kadar voted from office
4. By 1990 a coalition of democratic parties governed

German Reunification
1. In fall of 1989, demonstrations erupt in East German cities
2. Demand for end to communist rule; no Soviet backing
3. In November 1989 the Berlin wall was ordered opened
4. By early 1990 communist government had been swept away
5. Citizens of the two Germanies were determined to reunify

The Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia

1. In November 1989 Communist Party retreats from office
2. Younger communists replaced the older ones, but change was inadequate
3. Vaclav Havel, a playwright, who had been imprisoned, was elected President
in December 1989

Violent Revolution in Romania

1. Nicolae Ceausescu had been unopposed for 25 years
2. Stalinist regime, supported by a loyal security force, refused to reform along
the lines of Gorbachev
3. Demonstrators on Dec 15 in Timisoara (w Romania); security killed hundreds
4. By December 22, Bucharest was in full-scale revolt
5. Ceausescu and his wife tried to escape, but were captured and executed
6. Provisional government announced first free elections since WWII

Renunciation of the Communist Political Monopoly

Early 1990 Gorbachev proposes that the Soviet Communist Party abandon its monopoly
on power
Faced challenges from three factions
1. Conservatives wanted to maintain influence of the Communist Party and the
Soviet army (Gorbachev placed these people in positions of influence)
2. Boris Yeltsin who wanted to move toward a market economy and more
democratic government: elected president of the Russian Republic in 1990
3. Force of regional unrest, especially in Balkans
a. 1989-1990 increased independence and Lithuania actually
declared herself independent

52
 b. Discontent in Soviet Islamic Republics

The 1991 Coup

Conservative forces attempted a coup in August 1991
1. Armed forces occupied Moscow
2. Gorbachev under house arrest in Crimea
3. Yeltsin denounced the coup and called for world help

Coup collapsed in two days

1. Gorbachev returned to Moscow humiliated
2. Communist Party, compromised by its participation collapsed

On December 25, 1991 the Soviet Union ceased to exist

1. Gorbachev resigned
2. Commonwealth of Independent States came into being

The Yeltsin Years

Head of the largest and most powerful of the new states, but faced problems by 1993
1. Opposition to economic and political reforms
2. Former communists wanted to slow the pace

September 1993 Yeltsin suspends Parliament

1. Parliament deposed him; military backed Yeltsin
2. Oct 4, 1993 Yeltsin has tanks to attack Parliament, the revolt was put down

Crushing of Parliament left Yeltsin more dependent on the military

1. Radical nationalists made strong showing in 1993 elections

War with province of Chechnya in 1994 and 1999

December 1999 Yeltsin resigned due to poor health and was replaced by Vladimir Putin
1. Crushed the Chechens
2. Supported US in defeat of terrorists in Afghanistan following 9/11

The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War

Within Yugoslavia’s borders had six major national groups: Serbs, Croats, Slovenes,
Montenegrins, Macedonians, and Bosnians (Muslims)
1. Croats and Slovenes are Roman Catholic and use Latin alphabet
2. Serbs, Montenegrins, and Macedonians are Eastern Orthodox and use Cyrillic
3. Bosnians are Muslims

First communist leader was Marshal Tito (1892 -1980)

1. Acted independently of Stalin in late 1940s

53
 2. Muted ethnic differences by building a “cult of personality” around himself
3. After his death economic difficulties undermined the central government and
civil war ensued

In late 1980s old ethnic differences came to the fore again

1. Milosevic in Serbia
2. Tudjman in Croatia

During summer of 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia
and recognized by the European community
1. By June 1991 full-scale war between Serbia and Croatia (ethnic conflict)

In 1992, Croatian and Serbian forces were determined to divide Bosnia-Herzegovina

1. Muslims in Bosnia were crushed between the opposing forces
2. Serbs employed a policy of ethnic cleansing

NATO intervened with force in 1995

1. US brokered a peace agreement in Dayton, OH
2. Bosnia gained independence

During 1997-98 Serbia moved against ethnic Albanians living in the province of Kosovo
1. NATO again used airstrikes against the Serbians

In 2003, Serbia and Montenegro became autonomous

54
“ISM” Review

Liberalism: Derived from Enlightenment, legal equality, religious toleration, freedom of

press, but MOST importantly, legitimacy of gov’t emanated from the electorate and state
ministers are accountable to the parliament, NOT the monarch
NOT liberals as in democrats. Despised lower classes. Privilege based on wealth and
property.

Nationalism: One is part of a nation, sharing common language, traditions, customs,

history, and becomes the focus on a person’s loyalty and sense of identity.

Racism: Pseudoscientific theory that biological features of race determine character and
worth.

Romanticism: Reaction to Enlightenment with focus on folklore, national languages,

spiritual value and customs. Combined with nationalism, state derives legitimacy
through unity of those it governs. Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People

ESSAYS: two of the four will be chosen for the exam

1. What were the tenets of liberalism? Who were the liberals and how did liberalism
affect the political developments of the early 19th century? What relationship does
liberalism have to nationalism?

2. Who was Bismarck and why did he unify Germany? What was Bismarck’s policy
of unification and why did he succeed? What effect did the unification of
Germany have on the rest of Europe? What diplomatic treaties did he negotiate in
hopes of preserving Germany’s role as a broker for peace and stability?

3. Beginning with the first Moroccan Crisis, discuss, in chronological order, those
events which lead up to the start of the Great War. Be certain to relate each crisis
to those late 19th century alliances which had been established in hopes of
maintaining a balance of power in Europe.

4. Discuss the rise and fall of Hitler and the Nazi party. Start with the Munich beer
hall putsch in 1923 and conclude with his suicide. Focus on the rise of the Nazi
party in the late 1920s and early 1930s. What were his demands and how did the
other European powers respond in the late 1930s? Cite both the important early
German military victories as well as later defeats with details of allies/axis powers
involved, dates (month and year), and approximate casualty figures.

EXAM 25% of final grade

30 Multiple Choice (2 pts each)
10 Matching (1 pt each)
2 Essay Questions (

55