Lab Man 2426 So 2013

By Xiang-Ning Song
PHYSICS 2426
University Physics II Laboratory Manual
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere thanks to all of the people whose support, help, and assistance have been important in the completion of this lab manual. I am grateful for the support from Ray Canham and Rita Maher. My gratitude goes to Afaf Abughazaleh, Claudiu Rusu, Fred Wittel, and Justin Song for reviewing the manual and providing so many helpful suggestions. I am especially thankful to Claudiu Rusu and Justin Song for assistance in creating some of the graphics.
Xiang-Ning Song Richland College
Physics 2426
Table of Contents
Lab Guide 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Standing Waves on a Stretched String The Speed of Sound in Air Electrostatic Charge Equipotential and Electric Field Lines Capacitors in Series and Parallel Resistors in Series and Parallel The RC Circuit: Measuring a Voltmeters Resistance Magnetic Fields Magnetic Force and Measuring the Permeability 5 11 19 27 37 47 55 63 73 83 91 101 111 119
10. The Oscilloscope 11. The AC Circuits 12. Laws of Reflection and Refraction 13. Thin Lenses and Lens Combinations
14. Diffraction and Interference
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LAB REPORT GUIDE

I. Format of Lab Report
PRE-LAB FORMS You are expected to have completed a Pre-Lab form for each of the experiments that we do this semester, unless instructed otherwise by your teacher. These Pre-Lab forms consist of basic questions designed to familiarize you with the concepts involved in the lab experiment. Lab data are recorded on separate paper during the course of the lab period. These forms are to be turned in (deposited) on the front desk in the laboratory before the class begins. COMPLETED LAB REPORTS The lab report containing data, analysis, answers to questions, etc., is to be turned in on the date specified by your teacher, usually at the beginning of the next lab period. Stack these next to the Pre-Lab forms that you turn in for that days experiment. A stapler is available to help you make these reports a neat package. The complete graded lab report will consist of a Pre-Lab form and final report that are put together by the lab teacher and given a unit grade. The instructor will decide the relative weighing of each part of the lab report. NEATNESS All papers must be reasonably neat and organized. The margins should not have stray notes. If there is not sufficient space available on the lab forms to answer the questions, then you should write the answers on a separate sheet of paper and staple this to the lab report. The neatness, organization, and explanation of your measurements in the lab report represent the quality of your work. REPORT FORMAT. FORMAL REPORTS Lab report has the format of the outline below. Formal reports are more detailed, and you are to type these using a word processor. Your lab teacher will specify which labs reports are to be formal reports. EXPERIMENT TITLE AUTHORS NAME LAB PARTNERS NAMES OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENT BASIC THEORY. Develop the calculation relations from first principles. DATA AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS with units and appropriate significant digits. Please show only one sample of each non-trivial type. ERROR ANALYSIS. This is described in this LAB GUIDE CONCLUSIONS. What have we learned? You may critique the lab experiment.
QUESTIONS. Answer these on separate sheet of paper unless adequate space is available in the informal reports
ORIGINALITY Work in the laboratory is usually performed with one or more lab partners who share your data. You are expected to discuss the lab work and the data with partners, but please write your own sentences. You are to understand the mathematics you use in your report. You are to construct your own graphs and make independent calculations (for example, a slope). Do not copy work you do not understand.
II.
Experimental Error and Data Analysis
RECORDING DATA. Uncertainty in measurements. LEAST COUNT: The smallest division on a measurement scale is called the least count. Most metric rulers have a least count of 1mm (0.1 cm). The triple beam balance that we use to measure mass in this lab has a least count of 0.1g. RECORDING DATA: When you record a measurement you must record all the digits that the measuring tool is capable of producing. As a concrete example, consider measurements of the width, W, of this page with a standard metric (cm) scale. After making a few measurements, the smallest value that seems reasonable is Least W = 21.49 cm The largest value that I made (or seems reasonable) is Largest W = 21.52 cm I would record the width as W = W0 W = 21.5 0.02 cm. The 0.02 cm is my estimate of the limits of precision for this instrument. I feel that I can measure to 1/5th of the smallest division on the scale. Similarly I have measured the length, L, and I record L= L0 L = 28.00 0.02 cm. Recording L = 28 cm wont do since this implies that I dont know the digit that follows the 8. Another reasonable person might have measured and recorded 28.01cm or perhaps 27.98 cm. The last digit recorded is an uncertain or estimated digit. You can use the least count of the measuring device, repeated measurements of a value, or other reasonable approach to decide the uncertainty of a measurement and the corresponding precision that you should use to record the data. It is responsibility of the student to decide what the uncertainty of a measurement is. Some numbers are exact numbers. How many ears do you have? We record this as 2 and not 2.00
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AND SCIENTIFIC NOTATION As an example let us consider the size of a proton (which is a unit in the nucleus of an atom). A protons radius is about 0.000,000,000,000,0075 m. How many significant figures (or digits) does this number have? It has 2 significant digits. The leading zeros are not significant in the sense that they relate to the precision of the value. It is rather silly to make the reader count all those zeros to understand the size of the number. You are expected to write very large or very small numbers in scientific notation form. For the case of the proton, r = 7.5 x 10-15 m. We could use an appropriate prefix to indicate the multiplier, femto f = 10-15, r = 7.5 fm. When you record data you must write all the digits that are significant for the measuring device and the proper units. In the above example the length of the paper, L, is recorded to 4 significant digits. The last digit recorded is an uncertain digit. UNCERTAINTIES FOR ARITHMETIC COMBINATIONS When you combine numbers through arithmetic, i.e., multiplication, addition, etc., the number of significant digits in the result is to agree with the least precise number that was used in the calculation. As an example, let us compute the area, A, using the data from previous example. The area is computed as length times width: A0 = L0W0 = (28.00 cm)(21.50 cm) = 602.0 cm2 The area is recorded using 4 significant digits since the numbers that went into the calculation was good to only 4 digits. Do not simply write down all the numbers that might be on your calculator. Exact numbers, like 602, is what the calculator yields. You have to record it as 602.0 for 4 significant digits. When numbers like or (2) appear, use the appropriate keys on your calculator to make the calculations, then use the data to determine the appropriate number of significant digits for the final result. Do not round off before you have finished calculating. How does one estimate the relative uncertainty in this area? (Relative uncertainty is the uncertainty in a number divided by the number.) The relative uncertainty is given by A/ A0 = (L0W + W0L)/ A0, where W and L were both estimated to be 0.02 cm. After arithmetic, the uncertainty of area is A = 0.99 cm2, and then you can express area as A = A0 A = 602.0 0.99 cm2 . NOTE ON COMBINATION OF ERRORS: The calculation of the areas relative uncertainty as A/ A0 = (W/ W0) + (L/ L0), using positive values, is a simple approach that gives a larger relative error that one would expect from an analysis statistics. In the case of a random source of measurement variations, the correct expression would be A/ A0 = ((W/ W0)2 + (L/ L0)2)) .
PERCENT ERROR. PERCENT DIFFERENCE The standard values can be found in textbooks or references. You will compute the percent error of an experimental result using the following basic relation: % Error = (100%)(Your Result Truth/ Truth) Here Truth means the standard value of the measured quantity. The % difference between two different measured results for a quantity is computed in much the same way. The % difference is taken as positive. % Difference = (100%)x (Difference in Values/Average Value).
GRAPHS Choose graph scales so that a graph is as large as practical. Label the axes of the graph with units and numbers. Simple whole numbers are preferred. You can factor out powers of ten in the scales so that the numbers along the axes are simple whole numbers. Make the plotted points easy to see, say by small circles or crosses. Make it easy to check the accuracy of your plots. As an example consider experimental data that relates the length of a simple pendulum to the squared period of the motion which obeys the relation L= g/(4 2) T2. The pendulum length is plotted against the squared period, and the slope is computed.
Length (m) 0.25 0.44 0.70 0.95 1.25 T (s) 1.02 1.37 1.64 1.98 2.26 T 2 (s ) 1.04 1.88
Length of Pendulum (m) 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 2 4 6 Period Square (s.s)
2
Linear Graph For Pendulum
2.69 3.92 5.11
The length values are plotted on the y-axis, and the squared time on the x-axis. The plotted points are marked so that they can be readily seen. A straight line fits these data. 8
Note that the first and last points are NOT special points. The slope is computed from two points on the line that are far apart. These are not data points. Why? The graph is a tool used to average all your data and two arbitrary points on the line weight all the data. You should mark the slope calculation points and list their coordinates. The slope is defined as the ratio of (the change in the y-values) divided by (the change in the x-values). For the case illustrated, two points on the line are (0.6, 0.15) and (4.0, 0.99). Slope = {(0.99 0.15) cm}/{(4.0 0.6)s2} = 0.247 m/s2. (Note: the free fall acceleration is g = 42(slope) = 9.8 m/s2.) Lets summarize the requirement for graph. It has an appropriate title. The axes are labeled with whole numbers, and the units are indicated. The data points are marked. The slope calculation points are labeled. A larger graph would be preferred in a lab report.
III.
Basic Formulas in Data Analysis
1. Percent error: % error is used to compare your measured value with the standard value. % error = {Measured Value Accepted Value/(Accepted Value)}100% 2. Percent difference: % difference is used to compare two measured values. % difference = {Difference in Values / [Average Value]}100% ={ Value1 Value2 / [ (Value1 + Value2)/2]} 100% 3. Mean value for a set of N measurements: xav = [x1 + x2 + .....+xN] / N 4. Deviation from the mean: Di = xi - xav 5. Mean deviation (uncertainty): Dav = [D1 + D2 + + DN] / N 6. Record the accuracy of the mean value in terms of mean deviation: Measured Value = xav Dav 7. Standard deviation(uncertainty): = ( D1 D2 ... D N ) / N
2 2 2
8. Record the accuracy of the mean value in terms of standard deviation: Measured Value = xav Note: Both the mean deviation and standard deviation represent the dispersion of experimental measurements about the mean. They are used as terms in your measured value to indicate the precision of your measurement.
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Experiment 1
STANDING WAVES ON A STRETCHED STRING

EQUIPMENT PASCO Mechanical Wave Driver Sine Wave Generator and its Power Supply Pulley attached to its rod Universal Table Clamp Two patch cords with banana plug connectors One string (length between 1.2 and 1.5 meters) Weights and Balance Meterstick
Figure 1: Experimental Setup OBJECTIVES When you have completed this experiment, you will be able to use a mechanical vibrator and sine wave generator to produce standing wave on a stretched string. You will be able to determine the speed of wave on the string and measure the first four harmonics on the string. CONCEPTS A wave is a disturbance that propagates through the space. Although the wave carries energy from one place to another, the medium that carry the wave do not transport through the space. Instead, they oscillate back and forth or up and down about their
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equilibrium position. In this experiment, as shown in Figure 1, a mechanical vibrator and sine wave generator are used to generate waves on a stretched string. Harmonic waves are generated on a stretched string in this experiment. When a wave vibrator is attached to the stretched string and moves up and down in simple harmonic motion, a continuous wave on the string will have the shape of a sine or cosine curve; such a wave is called a harmonic wave. In this experiment, transverse waves are generated along the stretched string. Although the wave generated by the wave vibrator propagates along the string, every element on the string oscillates up and down while the wave passes through it. The displacement of every element on the string is at the right angle to the direction of propagation of the wave; such traveling wave is referred as a transverse wave. Standing waves are formed on a stretched string for a group of resonant frequencies in this experiment. While the wave vibrator continuously generates harmonic waves, the incident wave traveling to the other end of string will reflect back. The incident and reflected wave have the same frequency and amplitude but traveling in opposite direction along the string. The interference between incident and reflected waves produces a standing wave. The special feature of the standing wave is that there are fixed nodes and antinodes along the string. The node, indicated by N in Figure 2, is where the string never moves. The antinode, indicated by A in Figure 2, is where the string has maximum displacement. The antinodes are located halfway in between adjacent nodes.
1 =2L, f1= /1
2 = 1/2, f2 = 2f1
2 = 1/3, f3 = 3f1
Figure 2: A stretched string with both fixed ends oscillates in standing wave pattern. (a) The first harmonic-lowest possible frequency produces one loop of standing wave. (b) The second harmonic yields two loops. (c) The third harmonic gives three loops.
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For a stretched string with fixed ends, standing waves can only be generated with certain frequencies. These frequencies are called resonant frequencies, or natural frequencies, or normal modes of the string. The collection of all possible resonant frequencies are called the harmonic series. They are given by fn = nf1 = n/2L n = 1, 2, 3, (1)
where f1 is the lowest frequency that can produce standing wave and is called the fundamental frequency or first harmonic, as shown in Figure 2 (a). is the speed of wave on the string. The speed of a harmonic wave on the stretched string is given by
= fn n =
Ft
(2)
where f is frequency, defined as number of oscillations per unit time. is wavelength, defined as the repetition distance of wave along the waves travel, such as the distance from the top of one crest to the next, shown in Figure 3. The time for one complete oscillation is called period T, T = 1/f. Ft is the tension in the string. is linear mass density, defined as mass of string divided by length of string, = m/l.
Figure 3: A stretched string with both fixed ends oscillates in third harmonics of standing wave
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PROCEDURES Part A: Measuring the Linear Mass Density of String 1. 2. 3. Use the meterstick to measure the total length of the string l. Record its value in Data Table 1. Measure the mass of string, m, using the balance. Record it in Data Table1. Complete the calculation of linear mass density, = m/l, in Data Table 1.
Part B: Setting up Lab Apparatus and Predicting the Harmonic Frequencies 1. Clamp the pulley on the edge of lab table (or on a wood board if provided). 2. Attach and tie the string to the wave driver. 3. Stretch the string over the pulley. Adjust the distance between the tip of wave driver and the top of the pulley to be 0.8 m (80 cm). Note: This is the length of vibrating string, L=0.8 m, and the longest wavelength of standing wave is 1 = 2L. 4. Hang mass, M = 0.070 kg (70 g), at the end of the string over the pulley. Note: Leave this mass for the experiment of Part C. 5. Complete the calculations for three different masses in Data Table 2 for the following quantities: tension in the string Ft = Mg; speed of wave, =
F t , is
from Data Table 1; predicted driving frequency of first harmonic, f1 = / 1 ; second harmonic, f2 = 2f1; third harmonic, f3 = 3f1; and fourth harmonic, f4 = 4f1. Part C: Measuring First to Fourth Harmonics 1. There is a lock switch on the wave driver, unlock it. Note: Make sure you do not change the distance, L = 0.8 m, between the tip of wave driver and the top of pulley in the operating process. 2. Connect the wave driver and the Sine Wave Generator using the pair of banana patch cords. Note: The polarity is not important. 3. Connect the power supply to the power input of the Sine Wave Generator. Slide the ON/OFF switch to the right to turn it on. 4. Set the Amplitude knob about midway on the Sine Wave Generator. 5. Initially adjust the frequency knobs of Sine Wave Generator to the predicted value, f1, from Data Table 2. Then, adjust the fine tuning knob slowly to achieve the best standing wave with one loop. Record the value of frequency from the display of Sine Wave Generator in Data Table 3. 6. Double the frequency on the display of Sine Wave Generator. Adjust the frequency knob till the best two loops are observed. Record it as f2 in Data Table 3. Repeat the similar procedure for 3rd and 4th harmonics. 7. Repeat steps 5 to 6 for masses 0.100 kg and 0.120 kg. 8. Calculate the % difference for the 4th harmonics between values in Data Table 2 and 3. 9. Turn off the Sine Wave Generator. 10. Lock the wave driver and return all equipments.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. What is a standing wave and how are standing waves are formed?
2. Define nodes and antinodes?
3. What is the relationship between the nth harmonics and the fundamental frequency?
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4. Referring to Figure 2, what is the relationship between the length of the string and wavelength?
5. Referring to the three loops of standing wave in Figure 3, calculate the wavelength and wave speed of the standing wave. The wave generator has a frequency, 24 Hz. The length of the string between wave generator and pulley is 0.8 m.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Part A: Measuring the Linear Mass Density of String Data Table 1 m (kg) mass of string l (m) total length of string = m/l ( kg/m) linear mass density
Part B: Predicting the Harmonic Frequencies Data Table 2 Length of String, L = 0.8 m M (kg) Hanging Mass 0.070 0.100 0.120 * g = 9.8 m/s2 is from Data Table 1. Ft = Mg (N) Tension Wavelength, 1 = 2L = 1.6 m
Ft (m/s)
Speed of Wave
f1 = / 1 (Hz)
f2 = 2f1 (Hz)
f3 = 3f1 (Hz)
f4 = 4f1 (Hz)
Part C: Measuring First to Fourth Harmonics Data Table 3 M (kg) Hanging Mass 0.070 0.100 0.120
f1 (Hz) 1st Harmonic
f2 (Hz) 2nd Harmonic
f3 (Hz) 3rd Harmonic
f4 (Hz) 4th Harmonic
% Diff For f4
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QUESTIONS 1. Use your own words to describe the characteristics of the harmonics based on your observation from this experiment.
2. What would be the wavelength and frequency of the tenth harmonic for the M=0.100 kg case?
3. According to the data of Data Table 2, if the tension is increased, how did the wave speed and the first harmonic change?
4. If the length between wave generator and pulley is 0.4 m and linear mass density of the string is 4.0 g/m, what are the tension and the hanging mass values to produce one loop of standing wave with f1 = 8 Hz?
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Experiment 2
THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

EQUIPMENT Air Column Resonance Tube Three Tuning Forks (< 1000 Hz) Rubber Mallet Beaker Thermometer
(a)
(b)
Figure: (a) Experimental Apparatus (b) Standing Wave: An antinode is near the open end. A node is at the level of water. OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lab you will understand the concept of resonance and relations between velocity, wavelength, and frequency. You will be able to set up and operate an Air Column Resonance Tube, and measure the velocity of sound in air.
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CONCEPTS A disturbance in an elastic medium travels with a speed given by the following relationship. V =
ElasticModulus Density
(1)
For a sound wave in air, the speed of the wave can be determined for a specific air temperature using VT = 331 where:
TK / 273
(2)
VT = Speed of sound in air m/s TK = Absolute temperature K
The absolute temperature is determined as follows:
TK = ( 273 + TC ) where:
(3)
TC = temperature in degrees Celsius.
For a longitudinal wave in a metal rod,

V Y
(4)
where:
Y = Young's Modulus for the metal = Density of the metal
In this experiment a tuning fork is used to produce traveling wave of sound. This wave is sent to a tube partially filled with water. When the incident wave meets the surface of water, the wave is reflected back. These two waves can produce standing waves. When standing waves are produced in the tube, the amplitude of the resultant wave becomes very large and the system is said at resonance. When the resonance occurs, a loud sound occurs. Measuring the position for occurring resonance, the speed of the wave can then be determined experimentally using the following expression. V = f (5)
where :
f = frequency Hz, specifies the number of vibrations per unit time.
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= wavelength m, is the distance between two identical parts of wave in space. V = Speed m/s
In the Air Column Resonance Tube, the resonant length in air is adjusted by the water level in the tube. See the Figure. The vibrations will be stimulated by a tuning fork having a known frequency. For each turning fork, the air column will exhibit two resonant points dependent on the frequency of the sound wave and available resonant tube length. As seen in the Figure (b), these two resonant points are distances of X1 and X2 from the top of the tube. Distance X1 corresponds to /4 for this wave and distance X2 corresponds to 3 /4. This means that the length (X2 - X1) is equal to /2. Thus, the wavelength of the wave can be determined using the following expression. = 2 ( X2 - X1 )
(6)
PROCEDURES
Part I: Predicting the Resonance Positions 1. Record the room temperature in Data Table 1. 2. Calculate the speed of sound using equation (2). 3. Ask your instructor to select three tuning forks and record their frequencies in Data Table 1. Note: The frequencies of the chosen tuning forks should be higher than 380 Hz. 4. Complete the calculations in Data Table 1. X1 and X2 are the predicted resonance positions.
Part II: Measuring the Speed of Sound 1. Raise the water can to its highest position. 2. Add water to the Air Column Tube until the water level is at least 10cm below the top. 3. Strike the first tuning fork with the rubber mallet causing it to oscillate. Hold the tuning fork directly above the air column and lower the water level until the first
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resonant point (adjust the water level around the predicted X1 ) is located. Resonance occurs at the position where the amplitude of the sound is a maximum. Record this location as X1 and the frequency of the tuning fork in the Data Table 2. 4. Repeat two more times of the procedure in step 3 for the first resonant position X1. 5. Repeat steps 3 - 4 for the second and third tuning forks. 6. Carefully pour half of water into the sink. 7. Repeat steps 3 - 5 for the second resonant point which should be located in the lower part of the tube. Record this location as X2 in the Data Table 2. Note: The predicted X2 is X2 = 3 X1. Lower or raise the water level around the predicted X2. 8. Compute and record the wavelength of the sound wave using equation (6). 9. Compute and record the average of wavelength and velocity of the sound wave using equation given in Data Table 2. Also, compute and record the % Error between your measured value of V and the true value, VT, computed in Data Table 1. 10. Remove the water from the air column tube and secure this equipment.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. Write a brief definition of resonance.
2. How does the speed of sound vary with temperature?
3. Calculate the speed of sound in air at a temperature Tc = 24 oC.
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4. What are the approximate x1 and x2 values that you expect in an air column resonance experiment performed at 24 oC with a tuning fork frequency, f=540Hz?
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1: Predicting the Resonance Positions Room Temp = _________ Co VT = 331 f (Hz) TK = ________ K
TK / 273 = ________ m/s

= VT /f (m) X1 (m) X2 (m)
Data Table 2: Measuring the Speed of Sound = 2( X2 - X1 ) (m) AV (m) V = f AV (m/s)
f (Hz)
Trial
X1 (m)
X2 (m)
% error
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
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QUESTIONS 1. What is the fundamental frequency?
2. How are the harmonics related to the fundamental frequency for the resonance tube used in this lab but with a fixed length?
3. Draw three patterns of the longitudinal standing waves which possibly exist inside the resonance tube used in this lab.
4. Given the following data for aluminum, compute the speed of sound in an aluminum rod. Y = 6.90 x 1010 N/m2 = 2.70 x 103 kg/m3
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Experiment 3
Electrostatic Charge
EQUIPMENT: Electroscope Three Rods: Ebonite, Glass, Acrylic Five Materials: Fur, Cotton, Wool, Silk, Nylon Charge Sensor, Faraday Ice Pail Charge Producers (one with white surface and one with blue surface)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus: (a) Two Types of Electroscope (b) Faraday Ice Pail OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lab, you will investigate the nature of charging an object and verify the concepts of electrostatic interactions. This includes electrostatic charging methods: by friction, by contact, and by induction. It also includes the attractive and repulsive aspects of the electric interaction, as well as properties of conductors and insulators. A Charge Sensor computer probe is used in the investigation. CONCEPTS Electrostatics is the study of electrical charges and their characteristics. As you will verify by this experimentation, there are two different types of electrical charges. These two types are designated positive (ex. protons) and negative (ex. electrons). Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.
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The Electroscope: An electroscope is a charge-detecting device with two thin gold leaves vertically suspended from a common point. When a charged object is brought near (or touch) the electroscope, the gold leaves separate, roughly indicating the magnitude of the charge, as shown in Figure 1(a). Unfortunately, this device is relatively insensitive and does not have a quantitative reading. The Charge Sensor: The Charge Sensor, as shown in Figure 1(b), is somewhat like an electronic electroscope. It is a very sensitive electroscope. Unlike the traditional electroscope, the Charge Sensor can make quantitative measurements as well as indicate charge polarity directly. Charging by Friction: The atomic structure of all materials involves elementary positive charges (nuclear protons) and negative charges (atomic electrons). Most objects around us are electrically neutral. When different types of materials are rubbed together, electrons are transferred from one to the other. The transferring charges are the negative electrons. The positive charges, within the atomic structures, are bound too securely to be effected by ordinary physical or chemical processes. The object losing electrons becomes positively charged. The object receiving electrons becomes negatively charged. In this lab you will identify which material is easy to loose electrons and the efficiency of charging material through rubbing. Charging by Contact: If a primary charged object, say a negative ebony rod, makes direct contact with the electroscopes ball, some of the charge will be shared with the electroscope and remain after the primary charge has been removed. This charge is shown on the electroscope, because the foil continues to diverge after the primary charge is removed. Charging by Induction: An isolated conductor may be charged to an opposite sign of a primary charge by a process called charging by induction. If a primary charge is brought near to the isolated object, that object becomes polarized, but still neutral, with the side nearest the primary charge having the opposite sign and the side furthest the primary charge having the same sigh of the primary charge. The second step is to ground the object on the side furthest to the primary charge (contacting it with a conductor, say your finger, connected to much larger body or the earth). Charge having the same sign as the primary charge will leave the grounded object. What happens is that the electrons either go from the ground to the object or go from the object to the ground. Next, the ground contact is broken, while the primary charge is still nearby. The second object is left with a charge opposite to that of the prime charge.
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PROCEDURE Part A: Using Charge Sensor to Determine the Polarity and the Amount of Charge 1. Turn on the interface first and then turn on the computer. 2. Connect the cable, Charge Sensor (set gain at one), and the Faraday Ice Pail in place, as shown in the Figure 2. Make sure that the red alligator connector is connected with the inner cylinder of the Faraday Ice Pail. 3. Open the DataStudio file on window. Choose the Create Experiment. 4. Double click on the Charge Sensor under the Sensors window. 5. Double click on the Graph icon under the Display window.
Figure 2: Faraday Ice Pail Setup 6. Ground the Faraday Ice Pail: touch the inner pail and the shield (outer pail) at the same time with one of your finger and press the ZERO button on the Charge Sensor to discharge the sensor. 7. Rub the blue and white surfaces of the Charge Producers together several times (Dont rub too hard!). 8. Click the Start button to start recording data. 9. Without touching the Pail, lower the white Charge Producer into the center of the pail. Remove the white Charge Producer and lower the blue Charge Producer into the Pail. 10. Click the Stop button. Click the Scale to Fit button (1st button on the tool bar menu) for better view of your data. 11. Click on the button (11th button on the tool bar menu). Record the polarity ( + or ) and amount of charge (Q in C) in the Data Table I. 12. Rub the glass rod (smooth side) with fur. Click the Start button to start recording data.
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13. Without touching the Pail, lower the glass rod into the center of the pail. Click the Stop button and click the Scale to Fit button. 14. Click on the button. Record the polarity ( + or ) and amount of charge (Q in C) in the Data Table II. 15. Complete the Data Table II by repeating steps 12-14. 16. Identify the most positively and negatively charged rods as well as rubbing materials. You will use them in the Part B of this lab. 17. Turn off computer. You do not need computer for Part B Part B: Using the Electroscope 1. Response of a Neutral Electroscope a) Ground (discharge) the electroscope by touching it with your finger. b) Use the most negatively charged rod identified from Part A. Charge the rod by friction. c) Bring the negatively charged rod near the ball of the electroscope (but do not touch the ball). Observe what happens to the gold leaf of the electroscope. d) Repeat the procedures for the positively charged rod. e) Explain your observations in Data Table B1. 2. Response of a Charged Electroscope a) Use the most negatively charged rod identified from Part A. Charge the rod by friction. b) Charge the electroscope by making contact between the negatively charged rod and the ball of the electroscope. The electroscope is now negatively charged. c) Bring the negatively charged rod near the ball of the electroscope without touching it. Observe the response of electroscope. d) Take away the negatively charged rod. Charge another rod positively by friction. Bring the positively charged rod near the ball of the same electroscope, but do not touch it. Observe the response of electroscope. e) Explain your observations in Data Table B2.
3.
Charging Electroscope by Induction a) Ground (discharge) the electroscope by touching it with your finger. b) Bring a negatively charged rod near the ball of the electroscope (but do not touch the ball). c) With the charged rod still near the ball on one side of the ball, ground the electroscope by touching the other side of the ball with your finger. d) With the charged rod still near the ball, remove your finger from the ball. e) Remove the rod. Explain your observations in Data Table B3.
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PRE-LAB FORM
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
1. List at least three properties of electric charges.
2. What is the process of charging by friction?
3. What is the process of charging by induction?
4. Explain how an electroscope can detect charge.
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5. There are three charges q1 = 4.0 C, q2 = -3.0 C, and q3 = 6.0 C, located at x1 = 0m, x2 = 0.3m, and x3 = 0.4m, respectively. Determine the electrostatic force on q3.
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LAB REPORT FORM
ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE
Part A: Using Charge Sensor to Determine the Polarity and the Amount of Charge Data Table I Polarity of Charge +/White Charge Producer Blue Charge Producer Data Table II Rubbing Materials Glass Rod (smooth side) Polarity Q(C) Acrylic Rod Polarity Q(C) Ebony Rod(Black) Polarity Q(C) Amount of Charge( C)
Fur Silk Cotton Nylon Wool Identify: 1. The most positively charged rod: 2. The most negatively charged rod: Rubbed by material: Rubbed by material:
These two rods and rubbing materials will be used in Part B experiment.
By Xiang-Ning Song
33
Part B: Using the Electroscope Data Table B1: Response of a Neutral Electroscope Explain why the gold leaf of the electroscope diverges from the plate. (You can draw pictures instead of words as your explanations.)
Data Table B2: Response of a Charged Electroscope Explain why a charged electroscope responds in a different way to negatively and positively charged rods. (You can draw pictures instead of words as your explanations.)
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Data Table B3: Charging Electroscope by Induction Explain (1) how you can prove the sign of the charge on the ball and (2) where the charges come from.
By Xiang-Ning Song
35
QUESTIONS 1. Without doing the experiment, please predict the outcome: If you bring one uncharged pith ball (a very light and tiny ball), suspended by its thread near a well charged rod. (a)Explain the attraction of the pith ball as you bring it near the charged rod.
(b)Explain the behavior of the pith ball shortly after it touches the rod.
2. If a balloon is rubbed with soft tissue, the balloon can be hung on the wall. (1) Explain this phenomenon. (2) Why doe the balloon eventually fall?
3. There are three charges q1 = 4.0 C, q2 = -3.0 C, and q3 = 6.0 C, located at (0, 0), (0, 0.3m), and (0.4m, 0.3m), respectively. Determine the electrostatic force on q3.
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Experiment 4
EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

EQUIPMENT Electric Potential Mapping Equipment with Electrodes and Conducting Paper DC Power Supply Digital Multimeter Lead Wires
Figure 1: A: Mapping Equipotential Lines B: Experimental Setup OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to a. Define and use the electric potential difference concept. b. Understand the relation between electric fields and the electric potentials. c. Construct diagrams of equipotential lines and electric field lines for common charge and conductor configurations.
By Xiang-Ning Song
37
CONCEPTS: The electric potential difference V between points C and D in an electric field E, as shown in Figure 1 A, is defined as V = -
D E dr = - E cos dr
C
(1)
where is the angle between E and dr. An equipotential surface is one on which all points have the same electric potential. It means that V equals zero on this surface. Based on equation (1), the angle, , between E and dr is 90 degree at every point on this surface. Electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential surfaces. In this lab you will measure and map the equipotential surfaces. Then you will construct the electric field lines. How do you do it? As the illustration in Figure 1, lead wires are connected from a power source to electrode probes A and B. Current flows between these probes through a conductive paper. The probes of a sensitive voltmeter (digital voltmeter) make contact at points C and D on the conductive paper, and the voltage between points C and D are indicated by the voltmeter. Probe D is moved until the voltage is a zero or minimum value. For a fixed position of probe C there will be a line of points for probe D where the voltmeter indicates a zero. This is an equipotential line. Equipotential lines are similar to elevation contour lines on a geological survey map. Electric field lines are drawn as lines that connect the two voltage source electrodes and are perpendicular to the equipotential lines. The rules for drawing electric field lines are: 1. The electric field lines begin on positive charges and end on negative charges. 2. The electric field lines are perpendicular to equipotential surfaces. 3. The density of electric field lines is proportional to the magnitude of the charge. 4. No two field lines can cross. Conductors: Conductor is a synonym for metal. Within a conductor the electric field E = 0. V = 0 between any two points in or on a conductor. In particular, the surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface. It follows that just outside the surface E lines must be perpendicular to the surface and these lines terminate on the conductor.
PROCEDURE: Part A: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for Two Opposite Point Charges. 1. Place source electrodes about 8 cm apart on the conductive paper, and connect the DC power supply to these probes. Setting the DC power supply at 6 V would be appropriate. Lets call the negative terminal 0 volts and the line between the terminals as the x-axis. Mark the positions of the source electrodes on the LAB REPORT FORM.
38
2. Turn on the digital multimeter for DC voltage measurements. Make sure that current is flowing through the paper by measuring the voltage between the source probes, between a probe and an arbitrary point on the paper, and between two points on the paper. Sometimes poor contacts with low voltage and very low current circuits can be frustrating. 3. With the negative voltmeter probe on the negative source electrode and the positive voltmeter probe on the conductive sheet, record the voltage at positions on the x-axis at 1.0 cm, 2.0 cm, 3.0 cm, 4.0 cm, 5 cm, 6 cm, and 7 cm from the negative source electrode. 4. Fixing the negative probe of the voltmeter at 1.0 cm from the negative electrode, determine positions of the positive probe such that the voltage between these points on the conductive sheet is zero. Employ a systematic approach, such as moving the positive probe on a radial line towards the positive/and or negative electrode until the voltage is zero. The voltage changes sign as you cross the equipotential line. Just a few points (about six points) are needed to draw the equipotential line with reasonable precision. Transfer these equipotential points onto your data paper. Smoothly connect these points to construct an equipotential line. 5. Repeat this process for the points at 2.0 cm, 4.0 cm, 6.0 cm, and 7cm. Draw the equipotential lines on your data paper. 6. After completing the equipotential lines, draw the electric field lines with arrows. Use your judgment to decide how many lines result in a fair description of the electric fields. Note: When you draw the electric field lines, you should try to construct the electric field lines perpendicular to the equipotential lines at all points. Consult with your instructor if you do not know how to draw it.
Part B: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for One Positive Point Charge and One Negative Conducting Plate. 1. Place a flat conducting plate on the conductive paper and then place the negative electrode on the top of the plate. Place the positive (red) electrode 8 cm apart from the front edge of the plate. 2. Connect the DC power supply between the electrodes. Draw the exact shape of the plate and the position of the source electrodes on your part B data paper. They should look something like the illustration of the figure 2.
By Xiang-Ning Song
39
Figure 2: Point charge and Charged Plate 3. Repeat steps 1 to 6 of Part A. Note: The x = 0 position is the front edge of the plate. 4. Measure the potential difference between arbitrary two points on the axis of the electrodes, but behind the plate, and separated by 2 cm.
Part C: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for One Positive Point Charge and One Negative Conducting Cylinder (Washer). 1. Place a conducting cylinder (washer) on the conductive paper. Place a flat conducting plate on the top of the cylinder (same plate as used in Part B) and then place the negative electrode on the top of the plate. Place the positive (red) electrode 8 cm apart from the front edge of the cylinder. 2. Connect the DC power supply at 6V between the electrodes. Draw the exact shape of the cylinder and the position of the source electrodes on your part C data paper. They should look something like the illustration of the figure 3.
Figure 3: Point Charge and Charged Cylinder 3. Repeat steps 1 to 6 of Part A. Note: The x = 0 position is the front edge of the cylinder. 4. Measure the potential difference between arbitrary two points within the cylinder. 5. Properly return all lab equipments.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. What is an equipotential line?
2. Why are the families of electric field lines perpendicular to the equipotential lines?
3. Why is the surface of a conductor an equipotential surface?
4. Referring to Figure 1, the potential difference between the two electrodes is 6 V. (a) How many possible equipotential lines can you draw in the space between them?
(b) How many equipotential lines do you plan to draw in this lab?
(c) How many equipotential points do you plan to locate in order to construct each equipotential line?
By Xiang-Ning Song
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5. A map of equipotential lines that might arise from a conductor placed between two opposite point charges (+ on the far left, - on the far right) is shown in the illustration. Draw in a family of electric field lines that are consistent with these equipotential lines.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Part A: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for Two Opposite Point Charges. Position from Electrode (cm) Voltage (V)
By Xiang-Ning Song
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Part B: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for One Positive Point Charge and One Negative Conducting Plate.
Position from Electrode (cm) Voltage (V)
Potential difference between arbitrary two points on the axis of the electrodes, but behind the plate, and separated by 2 cm: V.
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Part C: Mapping the Equipotential and E Lines for One Positive Point Charge and One Negative Conducting Cylinder (Washer).
Position from Electrode (cm) Voltage (V)
Potential difference between arbitrary two points within the cylinder:
V.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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QUESTIONS 1. MEANING OF ELECTRIC FIELD LINES: a. What is the significance of the number of lines per unit area, or density of the electric field lines?
b. What is the relation between the direction of the electric field and the electric field line at some point on the line?
2. UNIQUENESS OF EQUIPOTENTIAL AND FIELD LINES: a. Explain why two equipotential lines can not cross each other.
b. Explain why two electric field lines in space can not cross. [Hint: What direction(s) would the field have at the intersection point?]
3. Conductors provide shielding from electric fields. Discuss this aspect of Part B and C using your data. (Note: This experiment has limitations arising from the nature of the conductive paper and the contacts with the conductors.)
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Experiment 5
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

EQUIPMENT Digital Multimeter Capacitance Meter PASCO Electronics Board Capacitors: 470 F (C1), 330F (C2), 100 F (C3), 10 F (C4). Lead Wires DC Power Source
Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to a. Construct capacitors in series and parallel on the circuit board. b. Measure the equivalent capacitances for different combination of capacitors and the voltages across the capacitors. CONCEPTS A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge. A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator. The charge Q on each plate of a capacitor is proportional to the voltage V across the plates: Q = CV (1)
By Xiang-Ning Song
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where C is the capacitance. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad (F), 1 F = 1 C/V. The capacitance is a measure of a capacitors ability to store charge. Capacitors not only store charges, but also store energy. The energy stored in the capacitor can be decided by Uc = QV/2 = CV2/2 = Q2/(2C) The capacitors can be connected in series or parallel as shown in Figure 2. C1 C2 C2 Figure 2: (a) Capacitors in series (b) Capacitors in parallel C1 (2)
The following are the properties for capacitors wiring in series: in parallel: Q = Q1 = Q2 = V = V1 + V2 + 1/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + Q = Q1 + Q2 + V = V1 = V2 = Ceq = C1 + C2 +
where Ceq, C1, and C2 are the capacitance for the equivalent capacitor, capacitor 1, and capacitor 2, respectively. The Q, Q1, and Q2 are the charges on Ceq, C1, and C2. V, V1, and V2 are the voltages across Ceq, C1, and C2 . On the circuit board in this experiment you will first demonstrate the properties of capacitors in series only, in parallel only, and then in a combination of the two.
PROCEDURE 1. Technical Reminder: Some of the capacitors have a polarity, which means when you are connecting them to the board you have to pay attention to which way you connect them. You must avoid bending the wires on the capacitor because they can break. If you need to bend the wire on the capacitor, make it a smooth one. 2. From the PASCO Electronics kit take out all of the gray, blue and black capacitors. You will use only four of capacitors. The given value of the capacitance is printed on each capacitor. Check their polarity with yes or no. Measure the actual value of the capacitance of each capacitor using a Digital LCR Meter with the closest scale and record the values in Data Table 1. The percentage error can be determined by subtracting the given value from the measured value, dividing by the
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given value, and then multiplying by 100. Use the measured value of capacitance for your experiment.
3. Series Connection Connect the C1 and C2 capacitors in series on the circuit board, as shown in Figure 2(a). Measure the equivalent capacitance with a Digital LCR Meter (Make sure you know how to use it.) and record the value on the Data Table 2. Use the measured value C1 and C2 in Data Table 1 to calculate the theoretical value of Ceq. 4. Parallel Connection Connect the C1 and C2 capacitors in parallel on the circuit board, as shown in Figure 2(b). Measure the equivalent capacitance and record the value on Data Table 2.
5. Combined Circuit One Connect the C1, C2, C3, and C4 capacitors on the circuit board, as shown in the following figure. Measure the equivalent capacitance and record the value on Data Table 2. C1 C2
C4
C3
6. Combined Circuit Two <I> Connect the C1, C2, and C3 capacitors on the circuit board, as shown in the following figure. Measure the equivalent capacitance and record the value on Data Table 2. C1
C3
C2
By Xiang-Ning Song
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<II> Connect a 6V DC power source on the Combined Circuit Two. Measure the voltage across each capacitor with a digital voltmeter, complete the required calculations, and record your results on Data Table 3.
C1
C3
C2
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. What is a capacitor?
2. Define the capacitance?
3. Describe the properties of combining three capacitors (a) in series and
(b) in parallel.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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4.
C1
C3
C2
Using the given circuit, where V = 6V, C1 = 470 F, C2 = 330 F, and C3 = 100F, determine charges and energies stored on each capacitor.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1: Identify Capacitor and Measure Capacitance
Polarity Capacitors (Yes/No) C1 C2 C3 C4 Given 470 F 330 F 100 F 10 F Measured % Error
Data Table 2: Equivalent Capacitance

Circuit Series Parallel Ceq Ceq Theory Measured % Error
Combined 1 Ceq Combined 2 Ceq
Data Table 3: Combined Circuit Two

Theory Measured % Error V1 V2 V3 ----Q1 ----Q2 ---------
By Xiang-Ning Song
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QUESTIONS
If V = 12 V, C1 = 470 F, C2 = 330 F, C3 = 100 F, and C4 = 10 F, calculate the followings: 1. the equivalent capacitance,
2. the charge stored in C2,
3. the voltage across C3.
4. the energy stored in C4.
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Experiment 6
RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

EQUIPMENT Digital Multimeter Ammeter PASCO Electronics Board Resistors: 100 (R1), 330 (R2), 560 (R3), 1 k (R4). Lead Wires DC Power Source
Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus
OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to a. Construct resistors in series and parallel on the circuit board. b. Measure the equivalent resistances for different combinations of resistors and the voltages across the resistors. CONCEPTS A resistor is a resistance device, which provides the electrical resistance to charges flow. The resistance R of a resistor is defined as R = V/I (1)
By Xiang-Ning Song
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where the V is voltage across the resistor and I is the current passing through the resistor. Resistors are often used to control the current level in the different parts of the circuits. There are two basic types of resistor circuits. Resistors may be connected in series or in parallel, as shown in Figure 2a and 2b, respectively. R1 R2
Figure 2: (a) Resistors in Series
R1 (b) Resistors in Parallel
R2 The following are the properties for wiring resistors in series: in parallel: I = I1 = I2 = V = V1 + V2 + Req = R1 + R2 + I = I1 + I2 + V = V1 = V2 = 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +
where Req, R1, and R2 are the resistance for the equivalent resistor, resistor 1, and resistor 2, respectively. I, I1, and I2 are the currents flowing through Req, R1, and R2. V, V1, and V2 are the voltages across Req, R1, and R2. Two types of resistors, commonly used in physics labs, are the wire-wound resistor, which consists of a coil of wire, and the composition resistor, which contains carbon. Values of resistors in ohms are normally indicated by color-coding, as shown in Figure 3. In this lab you will first recognize resistors based on their color coding. Then, on the circuit board, you will demonstrate the properties of resistors in series only, in parallel only, and construct a combined circuit.
Figure 2: Color Coding for Resistors
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PROCEDURE 1. Technical Reminder: You must avoid bending the wires on the resistor because they can be broken. If you need to bend the wire on the resistor, make the bend smooth. 2. Take out all of the resistors from the PASCO Electronics kit. Refer to Figure 2 and select the five resistors whose values are listed in Data Table 2. Measure the actual value of the resistance of each resistor using a Digital Ohmmeter with the most closed scale and record the values in Data Table 1. The percentage error can be determined by subtracting the coded value from the measured value, dividing by the coded value, and then multiplying by 100. Use the measured value of resistance for your experiment. 3. Series Connection Connect the R1 and R2 resistors in series on the circuit board, as shown in Figure 2(a). Measure the equivalent resistance with the Digital Ohmmeter and record the value in Data Table 2. Use the measured value R1 and R2 in Data Table 1 to calculate the theoretical value of Req. 4. Parallel Connection Connect the R1 and R2 resistors in parallel on the circuit board, as shown in Figure 2(b). Measure the equivalent resistance and record the value in Data Table 2. 5. Combined Circuit #1 Connect the R1, R2, and R4 resistors on the circuit board, as shown in the figure. Measure the equivalent resistance and record the value in Data Table 2. R1
R2
R4
By Xiang-Ning Song
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6. Combined Circuit #2 Part A: Connect the R1, R2, R3, and R4 resistors on the circuit board, as shown in the figure. Measure the equivalent resistance and record the value in Data Table 2. R1
R3
R2 R4
Part B: Connect a 6V DC power source on the Combined Circuit #2, as shown in following figure. Measure the power source voltage, the total current output, and the voltage and current across each resistor. Complete the required calculations, and record your results in Data Table 3. Attention: You have only one ammeter. Wire the ammeter properly in your circuit to measure the current flowing through each resistor. Ammeter must be connected in series within the circuit. Double check your connection for the ammeter.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. Describe the Ohms law.
2. What is the resistance?
3. Explain the difference between series and parallel connections of resistors.
4. If V = 6V, R1 = 100 , R2 = 330 , R3 = 560 , and R4 = 1 k , R1
R3
R2 R4
Calculate: (a) the equivalent resistance
By Xiang-Ning Song
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(b) the voltages across each resistor.
(c) the dissipating power of each resistor.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1: Identify Resistor and Measuring Resistance
Colors 1st 2nd 3rd 4th brown, black, brown, gold orange, orange, brown, gold green, blue, brown, gold brown, black, red, gold Coded Resistance 100 330 560 1,000 Measured Resistance % Error
R1 R2 R3 R4
Data Table 2: Equivalent Resistance

Circuit Series Parallel Combined #1 Combined #2 Theoretical Req Req Req Req Measured % Error
Data Table 3: Combined Circuit #2

Emf V = Theoretical V1 V2 V3 V4 Itotal I1 I2 I3 I4 V Measured % Error
By Xiang-Ning Song
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QUESTIONS
R3
V = 12V R2
R1 R4
R5
If R1 = 100 , R2 = 330 , R3 = 560 , R4 = 1 k , and R5 = 10 k, calculate the following: 1. the equivalent resistance,
2. the current passes R1,
3. the voltage across R5,
4. the rate of thermal energy being generated in R2.
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Experiment 7
THE RC CIRCUIT: MEASURING A VOLTMETERS RESISTANCE

EQUIPMENT Resistor-capacitor Circuit Board Ammeter and Voltmeter DC Power Supply Double-pole, Double-throw Switch Lead Wires Stopwatch
Figure: Photo: Charging and Discharging Capacitor. Insert: Circuit Schematic OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this lab, you will be able to understand the process for charging and discharging a capacitor through a resistor and use Cartesian graph to determine RC time constant. You will have measured and calculated the resistance of a voltmeter.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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CONCEPTS Consider the circuit as shown in the figure. There is no charge initially on the capacitor when the switch is open. When the switch S is in position a at time t = 0, the capacitor begins to charge. Kirchhoffs loop rule for the charging process is E IR q/C = 0 (1)
where E is the voltage of the power supply and q is the charge on the capacitor. The charging current I through the ammeter as a function of time can be shown to be given by I = I0 exp(-t/R) (2)
where I0 = E /R is the initial current (time t=0), exp = e =2.718 is the base of natural logarithms, and R = RC is the time constant of the charging circuit. The current deceases with time. When the charge on the capacitor is such that its voltage is equal and opposite that of the voltage source, no more current will flow. After a long time the switch S is opened and the clock is reset. At time t = 0 switch S is in position b. The fully charged capacitor is now discharged through the internal resistance of a voltmeter. Kirchhoffs loop rule for discharging capacitor through the voltmeter is q/C + IRV = 0 (3)
It can be shown that the voltage of the voltmeter changes as a function of time according to V = V0 exp(-t/v) (4)
where V0 is the initial voltage, V = RVC is the time constant for the discharging circuit, and RV is the resistance of the voltmeter. In order to measure R and V, it is convenient to replace the exponential decay equations (2) and (4) with straight line equations. Taking the natural logarithm on both sides of equation (2) and (4), the straight line equations can be shown to be ln(I0 /I) = (1/ R) t ln(V0 /V) = (1/ V) t (5) (6)
Both equations have positive slopes, that are m = 1/. In this experiment you will measure I(t) and V(t) and calculate the slope from your Cartesian graph. Then you can determine the time constant with = 1/m and the value of RV with RV = V /C.
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PROCEDURE Part A: Charging the Capacitor C through the Resistor R 1. Set up the circuit as shown in the Figure. The high voltage terminal (red, + ) of the DC power source connects with the left side of the switch, called a. The capacitor connects with the middle position of the switch. The voltmeter connects with the right side of the switch, called b. Note that the polarity is marked on the capacitor. Be sure that the capacitor is connected with the correct polarity. You only use one side of the switch. 2. Make sure the double pole and double switch is off (at middle position). 3. Turn on the DC power source. Adjust the current notch at the middle position and adjust the output voltage is about 20V. 4. Select an appropriate ammeter scale. If E is about 20 V and R ~ 40 k, then choose the 1.0 mA scale. If R = 10 k, then select the 10 mA scale. 5. Select 25 V scale for the voltmeter. 6. Record the values of C and R on Data Table 1. Have instructor check your circuit before closing the switch. 7. Close the double-throw switch to the left (position a ) to start charging the capacitor through R. 8. Start your Stopwatch. Record the first I as I0 at t = 0. Then record one I value for every 15 s and complete the data table 1 for all your findings. 9. Open the double-throw switch to neutral position S. Reset your Stopwatch to zero. 10. Calculate ln(I0/I) for the data table 1.
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Part B: Discharging the Capacitor C through the Resistor Rv of Voltmeter 1. Close the double-throw switch to the right (position b) to start discharging the capacitor through Rv. 2. Start your Stopwatch. Record the first V as V0 at t = 0. Then record one V value for every 10 s and complete the data table 2 for all your findings. 3. Calculate ln(V0/V) for the data table 2. 4. Disconnect the elements and measure the resistance of voltmeter Rv using the ohms meter. Record your finding. 5. Upon completion, properly put away the equipment.
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PRE-LAB FORM

An unknown capacitor in a circuit in series with a resistance of 100 k is charged with a 50 V dc power source. When the switch is closed, the current-time data were recorded. t (s) I (mA) ln(I0/I) (a) Calculate ln(I0/I) and complete the above table. 0 I0=41 10 34 20 27 30 22 40 18 50 15 60 12 70 9.9 80 8.2 90 6.7
(b) Plot the ln(I0/I) (on y-axis) against time t on a graph paper. Draw a straight line to fit the data. Choose two points on this line to calculate the slope m.
(c) Then calculate the time constant using R = 1/m and capacitance C using R = RC.
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Plot the ln(I0/I) (on y-axis) against time t on the graph paper.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1: Charging the Capacitor C through the Resistor R Capacitance: C = t (s) I (mA) ln(I0/I) 0 I0= 15 30 mF, Resistance: R = 45 60 75 90 k. 105 120 135
t (s) I (mA) ln(I0/I)
150
165
180
195
210
225
240
255
270
285
Data Table 2: Discharging the Capacitor C through the Resistor Rv of Voltmeter t (s) V (V) ln(V0/V) 0 V0= 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
t (s) V (V) ln(V0/V)
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
Resistance of voltmeter measured by the ohms meter: Rv =
k.
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CALCULATIONS 1. Cartesian Graph for Charging the Capacitor C through the Resistor R a. Plot the ln(I0/I) (on y-axis) against time t on the graph paper. Draw a straight line to fit the data. Choose two points on this line to calculate the slope m and show your work here.
b.
Calculate the time constant using R = 1/m. Compare this experimental value with R = RC by calculating the percent error.
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2. Cartesian Graph for Discharging the Capacitor C through the Resistor Rv of Voltmeter a. Plot the ln(V0/V) (on y-axis) against time t on the graph paper. Draw a straight line to fit the data. Choose two points on this line to calculate the slope m and show your work here.
b. Calculate the time constant using V = 1/m. Determine the internal resistance of voltmeter RV using V = RVC and compare this value with the ohmmeters result by computing the percent difference. Show your work here.
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QUESTIONS 1. For the charging process, show that if I = I0 exp(-t/R), then ln(I0 /I) = (1/ R) t.
2. For the discharging process, show that if V = V0/2, then time t1/2 = ln2 V . This time t1/2 is called the half life for the discharging process.
3. If the half life was found to be 40s in a discharging experiment, what is the time required for the voltage to fall from 24.0 V to 3.0 V?
4. Using the equation (3), prove q(t) = q0 exp(-t/v).
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Experiment 8
MAGNETIC FIELDS
EQUIPMENT Two Bar Magnets, Horseshoe Magnet, and Ring Magnet Compass Iron-Filings Plate PASCO Magnetic Field Sensor PASCO Power Amplifier PASCO Primary Coil Patch Cords
Figure 1: Mapping Magnetic Field OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to: a. Use a magnetic compass to map the fields of a bar magnet and a horseshoe magnet b. Map the magnetic field of a bar magnet and the field of a horseshoe magnet using iron filings. c. Measure the magnetic field strength of both of a bar and a horseshoe magnet. d. Measure the magnetic field strength inside a solenoid and compare it with a theoretical value based on the current through the solenoid.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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CONCEPTS When studying magnetism, like gravitation and electricity, it is helpful to think in terms of fields. We say there is a magnetic field surrounding a magnet. We can visualize a magnetic field in terms of magnetic field lines. A line whose tangential direction at any point is the same as the direction of the magnetic field at that point is called magnetic field line (or lines-of-force). The direction of magnetic lines-of-force can be visualized as those lines in which a compass needle aligns itself at each point in the field. The spacing between the field lines indicates the strength of the field at a specific point, where lines close together indicate a strong field and lines farther apart indicate a weaker field. By beginning at some convenient point near one pole of a magnet, a field line can be mapped as a series of short line segments. The plotting of a magnetic field line using a group of compasses is illustrated in the Figure 1. Now imagine that you draw two dots on both ends of each compass and connect the dots one by one to form a smooth line, one magnetic field line is mapped. In this lab you will use one compass to follow the same way as the group of compasses to map the magnetic field lines, as shown in the insert of Figure 1. Another picture of the magnetic field lines can be obtained by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and then scattering iron filings on the paper. In this lab you will use a transparent case that is filled with iron filings in a fluid instead of paper. The iron filings become little magnetic needles in the field and orient themselves like little compasses. Therefore, one can observe a visual representation of the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. The following picture shows the pattern of iron filings around a bar magnet.
Figure 2: Magnetic Field of a Bar magnet
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The magnetic field lines for two unlike and two like magnetic poles near each other are illustrated using iron filings as shown in the following pictures.
Figure 3: Magnetic Field (a) Between Unlike Poles and (b) Between Like Poles In this experiment you will start mapping the magnetic field using a compass (Part A). Everyone has to map at least one magnet. You will map the magnetic field using a plate with iron-fillings (Part B) in a working group. You will use a magnetic field sensor to measure the magnetic field strength at a pole position of your magnet (Part C). You will measure the magnetic field strength at the middle of a solenoid and compare it with a theoretical value based on the current through the solenoid (Part D). PROCEDURES Part A: Mapping Magnetic Field Using a Compass 1. Using the two bar magnets, demonstrate the force of attraction and repulsion of unlike and like magnetic poles in your working group. 2. Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper, draw the outline of the magnet, and indicate the north and south poles. Then, using the compass method as shown in the insert of Figure 1, neatly map the field of the bar magnet. Map at least three magnetic field lines on each side of the bar. Show each point along the field lines that is determined by the compass. Note: Every one has to map at least one magnet (bar or horseshoe). 3. On a second sheet of paper, repeat step 2 for the horseshoe magnet. Plot at least three magnetic field lines for this magnet. Part B: Sketching the Pattern of Iron Filings around Magnet 1. Hold the Iron-Fillings Plate firmly with both hands. Slowly rotate and shake the Plate until the iron fillings are uniformly distributed in the plate.
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2. Place the bar magnet on the top of the Iron-Fillings Plate. The iron fillings will move under the magnetic force and show the magnetic field pattern. Draw a neat sketch illustrating the field pattern observed on the space in your Lab Report Part B. 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for two bar magnets end-to-end with the north pole of one about 2 to 3 cm from the south pole of the other. The obtained magnetic field should be similar as Figure 3(a). Sketch the results in the data section. 4. Repeat step 1 and 2 for the two bar magnets north poles near each other. The spacing between the like poles is about 2 to 3 cm. The obtained magnetic field should be similar as Figure 3(b). Sketch the results. 5. Repeat step 1 and 2 for the horseshoe magnet. Sketch the results in the data section. 6. Experimentally determine the distance from the end of your bar magnet such that its field and the earths magnetic field are approximately equal. Record your measured results in the data section (Question (e)) and describe the procedure used to get these results. Part C: Measuring Magnetic Field Strength of a Magnet 1. Connect the Science Workshop interface to the computer, turn on the interface, and turn on the computer. 2. Connect the Magnetic Field Sensor to Analog channel A on the interface. 3. Run DataStudio program. Click on 'Create Experiment'. 4. Double click on 'Magnetic Field Sensor' from the sensor menu. 5. Double click on 'Digits' from the display menu. 6. On the top of the PASCO magnetic field sensor, set the 'Range Select' switch to 1X and the 'Radial/Axial' switch to 'Axial'. 7. Place a bar magnet on table. Move the sensor away from the magnet, push 'TARE' button on the sensor. Click the 'Start' button in DataStudio. The reading on Digits Display should show Zero Gauss. 8. Move the sensor probe toward north pole of the magnet and observe the changing value on the Digit Display. 9. When the tip of the probe rests on the surface of magnetic north pole, record the reading value on Data Table of Part C. 10. Repeat 7 to 9 for magnetic south pole. 11. Repeat 7 to 10 for horseshoe magnet. Part D: Measuring the Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 1. Keep the Magnetic Field Sensor into Analog Channel A. Connect the Power Amplifier to Analog Channel B of the interface. 2. Connect two wires between the signal output of the Power Amplifier and the input jacks on the solenoid (using the primary coil only). 3. Run DataStudio program. Click on 'Create Experiment'.
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4. From the sensor display double click on 'Magnetic Field Sensor' for A channel. Then perform the same procedure to choose the Power Amplifier for B channel. 5. On the Signal Generator window, change Sine Wave to Square Wave, type 10V under the Amplitude, and Type 0.01 Hz under the Frequency. 6. Double click 3.14 Digits from the Display menu. Choose Magnetic Field Strength (1X) and click OK. The Digits 1 display is used to show the magnetic field measurement. 7. Double click 3.14 Digits again. Choose Output Voltage as the Digits 2 Display of voltage on the coil. Move the Digits 2 Display to different location (click, hold, and drop the Display with the mouse.). 8. Repeat Step 7 to choose Digits 3 Display for the Current ChB through the coil. 9. Insert the magnetic field sensor completely into the solenoid. Click Start button to measure B at the middle inside solenoid. If the voltage shows +10V, record values of B and I in the first row of Data Table otherwise in the second row. Note: You should hold the sensor parallel to the axial of solenoid. Do not click on the Stop button before you finish the entire measurement. 10. Move the magnetic field sensor out of the solenoid until its tip rests at the end of the solenoid, for example left end. If the voltage shows +10V, record value of B (at Left End of Solenoid) in the first row of Data Table otherwise in the second row. 11. Repeat step 10 for measuring B at the other end of solenoid. 12. Repeat steps 9 to 11 for the row of -10 V. (Note: Wait for the Square Wave to switch V from +10 V to -10 V.) 13. Properly return all lab equipments. Note: After you finish this lab, you should properly return all the magnets with iron keeper on and correct polarity, as shown in the following figure.
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PRE-LAB FORM
MAGNETIC FIELDS
1. Describe how to map the magnetic field lines.
2. List at least four properties of magnetic field lines.
3. Do lines of magnetic field cross each other? Explain.
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LAB REPORT FORM
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Part A: Mapping Magnetic Field Using a Compass 1. Based on your observations of the two bar magnets in Part A, Like magnetic poles _____________________________ . Unlike magnetic poles ____________________________. 2. Include the map of the magnetic field for the bar magnet and the map of the magnetic field for the horseshoe magnet in your report.
Part B: Sketching the Pattern of Iron Filings around Magnet In the space below, neatly sketch your observations of the magnetic field patterns using the iron-filings plate. (a.) Bar magnet
(b) Two Bar magnets: North pole faces to south pole.
(c) Two Bar magnets: North pole faces to north pole.
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(d) Horseshoe Magnet:
(e) Distance measured in step : _________________ cm Describe the procedure used to get this result and draw a sketch to illustrate this procedure.
Part C: Measuring Magnetic Field Strength
Magnet
Magnetic Field Strength (Unit in Gauss) North Pole South Pole
Bar Magnet Horseshoe Magnet
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Part D: Measuring the Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
V 10 V -10 V
I (A)
B at middle of solenoid (G)
+ B at Left End of Solenoid (G)
B at Right End of Solenoid (G)
CALCULATIONS Bin = 0nI (T) where 0 = 4 x10-7 Tm/A, n = N/L = 2920 turns/0.11m. N is the number of turns of the solenoid. L is the length of the solenoid. 1Tesla = 104 Gauss 1. Calculated Value of Bin.
2.
Using the average of B at the middle of solenoid as BExperiment, calculate the percent error.
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QUESTIONS 1. What is the meaning of a negative value of the magnetic field reading?
2. Draw the possible magnetic field lines for the following combination of magnets:
3.
Review your data. List at least three of your findings about magnetic field lines.
4. A long solenoid, of length 15 cm, has 3000 turns. The coil carries a current of 0.80A. What is the value of the magnetic field inside the solenoid?
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Experiment 9
MAGNETIC FORCE AND MEASURING THE PERMEABILITY

EQUIPMENT Magnetic Force Apparatus Electrical Lead Wires Power Supply (Big Green) and Ammeter Micro Weights (10 to 100 mg) Vernier Caliper, Meter Stick
Figure 1: Magnetic Force Apparatus Setup OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this experiment you will be able to a. Set up and operate the magnetic force apparatus. b. Examine the relation between magnetic force and current. c. Determine the permeability of free space.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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CONCEPTS In this experiment you will use a Magnetic Force Apparatus to determine the permeability of free space. The device is shown in the figure 1. The bottom conducting rod is fixed. The top conducting rod is free to move and is initially balanced by a counter balance, so Fneti = 0. When an extra weight, W, is added on the top rod, an upward magnetic force, Fm, is needed to reestablish the balance. That is Fm W = 0 (1)
Figure 2: Magnetic force and weight
Referring to the figure 2, the magnetic field B at a distance r from a long straight current I1 is given by B = 0I1/(2r) (2)
where 0 is the permeability in free space. The given value of 0 is 410-7 Tm/A. A second parallel conducting rod with current, I2, having a length L and at the distance r above the first current experiences an upward magnetic force given by Fm = I2LB (3)
According to equation (1) this upward magnetic force is needed for balancing the downward weight. Combining equations (1), (2), and (3) and using the fact I1 = I2 = I, the balance relation is given by Fm = 0I2L/(2r) = W (4) where r is the distance between the center to center of the two conducting rods. From the figure 2, r can be determined by r=D+d (5)
where D is the diameter of the rod and d is the gap between the two rods.
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PROCEDURE 1. Measure the interacting length L of the top rod, referring to the Figure 1. Measure the diameter D of the bottom rod with Vernier Caliper and record your findings. 2. Set up the magnetic force apparatus and connect the circuit as the illustration of the Figure 1. Dont turn on the power. The power control knob of the green lab power supply should be turned to zero position. Choose the 10 A scale for the ammeter. 3. Have your instructor check the circuit. 4. Adjust the two interacting conductors to be parallel. Note: There are four adjusting screws for this purpose, two at the ends of bottom rod for leveling and two at the back ends of the top rod for twisting. You may not get the perfect parallel condition. Do the best that you can. 5. Adjust the counter balance so that the equilibrium gap, d, is about 1mm. Note: No need to measure it. When you barely see the opening gap (no position of the two rods in touch), it will be fine. The balanced rod must be able to rotate freely. If you add a small weight, the gap should be closed. When the weight is removed, the rod should return to its equilibrium position. 6. Without touching the top rod, carefully place a small mass, m = 40 mg (4010-6kg), on the pan, somewhat depressing the top conductor to close the gap. 7. Turn on the power supply and flip the toggle switch to range A. Slowly turn the voltage control knob up till the exactly same equilibrium gap to be restored. Record the current value I in the Data Table 2. 8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 five more times for 50 mg, 60mg, 70 mg, 80mg, and 90mg. A lab partner is to keep a close eye on the ammeter so that a maximum current of 10 A is not exceeded. Record your findings in the Data Table 2. 9. Complete the required calculations in the Data Table 2.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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PRE-LAB FORM

The two anti-parallel currents shown in the illustration have a common diameter D = 0.33 cm, spacing between them d = 0 .1cm, a common interacting length L = 25.0 cm, and each carrying the same current I = 8.0 A.
1. The lower current is into the paper. What is the direction of the magnetic field due to this current at the position of the upper current?
2. What is the direction of the force on the top current-carrying rod?
3. Calculate the magnitude of the force on the upper current-carrying rod.
4. Determine the mass (in milligrams, mg) whose weight on the top conductor would just equal the force calculated in the question above.
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1: Dimensions L (cm) D (cm) d (cm) 0.1 r=D+d
Data Table 2: Force and Current Data m (10-6kg) 40 50 60 70 80 90 CALCULATIONS 1. Show one sample calculation for the weight W=mg. W (N) I (A) I2L/(2r)
2. Show one sample calculation for I2L/(2r) using the data from Data Table 1&2.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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3. Cartesian Graph for the determination of the permeability of free space: a. Plot the W (on y-axis) against I2L/(2r) on the graph paper. Draw a straight line to fit the data. Choose two points on this line to calculate the slope m= 0 and show your work here. (Recall equation (4) W=0I2L/(2r). It is a straight line equation.)
b.
Compare this experimental value 0 with the given value, 4x10-7 N/A2 , by calculating the percent error.
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QUESTIONS 1. What are the major sources of error?
2.
Referring to the illustration, derive the balance equation W=0I2L/(2r).
3. The SI units for 0 is sometimes given as Tm/A. Our experimental units are N/A2. You are to show that these are equivalent in two steps: a. Use the magnetic force equation, Fm = ILxB, to show that the unit for the magnetic field, the tesla (T), is related to the Newton and the amp by T = N/(Am).
b. From the relation for a magnetic field due to a long straight current, B = 0I/(2r), show that the units of 0 are N/A2.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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4. The two anti-parallel currents shown in the illustration have a common diameter D = 0.33 cm, spacing between them d = 0 .1cm, a common interacting length L = 25.0 cm. If the top rod has a mass 17.0 g and carries current I2 = 8.0 A out of the paper as shown in the diagram,
a.
What is the direction and magnitude of magnetic field needed to lift this rod vertically upward?
b.
What is I1 needed to produce this magnetic field? (Note: The result might surprise you. This is why this lab can not do this way.)
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Experiment 10
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
EQUIPMENT Oscilloscope Two BNC-Alligator Cables Connecting Wires Digital Multimeter DC Power Supply Function Generator RLC Circuit Board
Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus OBJECTIVES Upon completing this set of lab exercises you will be able to a. Set up and operate an oscilloscope. b. Measure DC and AC voltages. c. Measure the periods and frequencies of sinusoidal signals. d. Determine RC Time Constant Using Oscilloscope. CONCEPTS An AC voltage signal at t moment can be expressed as V(t)=VPsin(2ft), (1)
where VP is the peak voltage, f is frequency of the voltage signal. The RMS voltage, VRMS, can be determined by By Xiang-Ning Song 91
VRMS = VP/ 2 .
(2)
The AC voltmeter can only measure the RMS voltage, VRMS. The oscilloscope can not only measure the VP and VRMS but also display the graph of voltage versus time on its screen. It is a useful tool to measure the peak voltage, period, and frequency of an AC signal. The illustration of Figure 2 shows the basic features of the cathode ray tube (CRT) that is the heart of the oscilloscope. The three basic parts of a CRT are the Electron Gun, the Beam Deflection Circuitry, and the Fluorescent Screen. The functions of each are described below.
Figure 2: Cathode Ray Tube of an Oscilloscope 1. The Electron Gun generates a narrow beam of electrons which is directed along the length of the tube. 2. The Beam Deflection Circuitry develops an electrostatic field such that when a voltage is applied across the horizontal deflection plates the electron beam will be deflected toward one plate or the other. This causes the beam to move back and forth horizontally across the tube. Likewise, the vertical deflection plates deflect the beam up and down depending on the polarity and magnitude of the applied voltage. 3. The electronic beam strikes the Fluorescent Screen which results in the generation of a spot of light on the surface of the tube indicating the location of the beam. The overall effect is that the light spot moves on the screen in a manner dependent upon the voltages applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The user generally controls the horizontal deflection with the oscilloscopes internal electronics designed so that the beam sweeps across the screen in direct proportional to the time. An external signal being investigated usually determines the vertical deflection. Thus, V(t) can be measured on y-axis on the screen of the scope. Time, t, can be determined from the x-axis.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 9
16 22 23 10 24 11 17 25 26 12 18 13 27 19 14 21 20 28 15 8
Figure 3: Oscilloscope
PROCEDURE Part A: Initial Set-Up Oscilloscope (Refer to Figure 3) 1. Press the Power On switch (5) to turn on the oscilloscope. 2. Set the CH 1 switch (14) to GND. (This will be changed when measurements are made.) 3. Set the mode switches (9) and (11) to CH 1 and ALT. 4. Set the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV switch (12) to 1 ( at the 1X window). The inner knob (13) is to be turned fully clockwise. 5. Set the source switches (27) on CH 1. 6. Set the SEC/DIV switch (18) to 1 ms. Turn the inner knob (19) fully clockwise. 7. You should now see a line trace on the oscilloscope. Adjust the VERTICAL POSITION (7) and HORIZONTAL POSITION (16) to center the trace on the scope screen. 8. Adjust the INTENSITY (1) and FOCUS (3) knobs to get the best trace. 9. Set the CH 1 AC-GND-DC switch (14) to DC. 10. Using the VERTICAL POSITION (7) knob, position the straight line trace to the bottom line of the screen. The oscilloscope is ready to measure DC signals.
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DC Power Supply
Figure 4: DC Voltage Measurements Setup Part B: DC Voltage Measurements (Refer to Figure 3 and 4) 1. Make sure that the DC power supply is off. Connect an oscilloscope cable from the CH1 input connector (15) to the DC power supply and the digital voltmeter. Note: Make sure that the wiring connectors are linked from red to red and black to black. 2. The digital multimeter should be set to the DC voltmeter mode, and on an appropriate scale. Turn on this digital voltmeter and the DC power supply. 3. Using the oscilloscope as a voltmeter, determine the voltage output of the DC power supply when the output values of the DC power supply are 1.5, 3, 4.5, 6, 9, and 12 V. To do this set the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV mode switch (12) to an appropriate value to get a large deflection on the oscilloscope for each power knob setting. Record the oscilloscope readings and the digital voltmeter readings in Data Table 1. Note: The VOLTS/DIV decides the vertical scale in volt per division. This is major division about one cm on the screen. One major division is divided into five subdivisions. Alternate the CH 1 AC-GND-DC switch (14) between GND and DC to read the #DIV for each measurement. 4. Calculate the voltage measured by the oscilloscope using: DC Voltage = # DIV VOLTS/DIV. 5. Turn off the DC power supply and remove it from the circuit.
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FG: C
1 (at rear end) 5 4 5 1 5 4 5
2
4 3 FG: B
2
3 2
FG: A
5 5
Figure 5: AC Voltage Measurements Setup: There are three kinds of Function Generators (FG) in the lab. Please use only one of them. Part C: AC Voltage Measurements (Refer to Figure3 and 5) 1. 2. 3. 4. Set the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV mode switch (12) to 1 (in the 1X window). Set the time base SEC/DIV switch (18) to 0.5 ms (in ms window). Set the CH 1 AC-GND-DC switch (14) to AC. Adjust the VERTICAL POSITION (7) so that the trace is in the center of the screen. 5. Make sure that the function generator is turned off. 6. Connect a BNC-Alligator Cable to the output connector (2) on the function generator. 7. Connect the oscilloscope cable from the CH1 input connector (15) to the function generator output and the digital voltmeter follow the circuits' diagram inserted in Figure 5. Set the digital voltmeter to measure AC voltage and adjust the sensitivity scale as necessary. Note: Make sure that the wiring connectors are linked from red to red and black to black. Ensure that there is no short (contact) between the red and black wires during your experiment. 8. Set the function generator's frequency at 1000Hz using control keys (5) and choose sine wave (4). Turn on the function generator (1). 9. Adjust the function generators amplitude (3) till the RMS voltage output of about 1 V on the digital voltmeter. Note: Don't play the rest settings of function generator without consulting your instructor. 10. You should see about five cycles. Note the trace on the screen. Also, note what happens when you a. Change the HORIZONTAL and VERTICAL POSITION knobs. b. Change the VOLTS/DIV setting. 95
c. Change the SEC/DIV setting. d. Change the frequency of the function generator. e. Change the voltage of the function generator. 11. Measure (read the divisions between the max and min values of V on the vertical scale) the peak to peak voltage, VPP, output of the generator on the scope and measure the RMS voltage using the digital voltmeter. Record your findings in Data Table 2. 12. Calculate the VPP voltage using VPP = # DIV VOLTS/DIV. 13. Convert the peak to peak value to a RMS voltage using the relation VRMS = VPP / (2 2 ) = 0.3536VPP. 14. Repeat steps 9 to 13 for 2V, 3V, and 4V. You may need to readjust the VOLTS/DIV scale to get a more accurate reading from the oscilloscope. 15. Keep the same set-up for Part D Frequency Measurements.
Part D: Frequency Measurements 1. Set the function generators frequency on 100 Hz and sine wave. 2. Adjust the function generators amplitude (3) till the RMS voltage output of about 1 V on the digital voltmeter. 3. Set the scopes CH 1 VOLTS/DIV on 0.5. 4. Adjust the scopes SEC/DIV selector switch (18) such that one to two complete cycles of the wave appear on the screen. 5. Measure the number of time divisions for one complete cycle (from one peak to the next peak on the horizontal scale). The time for one complete cycle, called the Period, is the number of divisions measured multiplied by the SEC/DIV setting (Period T = # DIV SEC/DIV). Record this data in Data Table 3. 6. Calculate the frequency as f = 1/T. 7. Repeat steps 1 through 6 for the function generators frequencies of 500, 1 k, and 5 kHz. 8. Turn off the function generator.
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Figure 6: Left: Capacitance Measurement Setup. Right: The Voltage Changes across the Resistor for the Charging and Discharging Capacitor. Part E: Capacitance Measurement (Refer to Figure 6) 1. Measure the resistance of R using the ohmmeter and record the value in the Data Table 4. 2. With the function generator turned off, connect the RLC board to the generator with the ground (black) lead of the signal generator connected to the resistance terminal and red lead to the right side of capacitor terminal (between the capacitor and the diode) as shown in the illustration of Figure 6. Short out the inductor element with a lead wire. 3. Connect the oscilloscope cable from the CH1 input connector (15) across the resistor, with the ground lead (black) matching that of the signal generator. Set the CH 1 VOLTS/DIV mode switch (12) to 1 (in the 1X window). 4. Set the function generator frequency to 400 Hz and select the square wave. Adjust the function generators amplitude (3) to maximum. Turn on the function generator. 5. Adjust the scopes time base SEC/DIV and channel 1 amplitude VOLTS/DIV until you get about two waves or so, similar to the Figure 6. The left side of decay curve is charging the capacitor and other side is discharging. The half life T1/2 of the decay is found as the time for the signal to decay from a peak to half way to the final asymptotic value. Note: Read two points on the scopes screen, one at the peak (t1 =0, VP), second at the VP/2 (t2 = T1/2, VP/2). Calculate T1/2 = # DIV SEC/DIV. 6. Record your findings in Data Table 4. 7. Calculate the capacitance from: C = [T1/2 ]/[Rln(2)]. Complete all of the required calculations. 8. Turn off the equipments and return them to their proper locations.
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PRE-LAB FORM
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
The illustration below is a representation of an oscilloscope screen with two signal traces. The top one is a sine wave from channel 1. The time base SEC/DIV scale has been set at 5 ms and the vertical sensitivity CH 1 VOLTS/DIV is set at 1 in the 1X window.
Consider the top channel 1 signal. 1. What is the sine wave peak to peak voltage?
2. What is the RMS voltage of the sine wave?
3. What is the sine wave period T in ms and the frequency f in Hz?
4. How many full sine waves would be present on the screen if the time base were changed from 5 ms/div to 10ms/div?
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LAB REPORT FORM
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Data Table 1: DC Voltage Measurements V (V) Oscilloscope Data Voltmeter VOLTS/DIV #DIV % Diff
V (V)
Data Table 2: AC Voltage Measurements VRMS (V) Oscilloscope Data Voltmeter VOLTS/DIV #DIV VPP 1 2 3 4 Data Table 3: Frequency Measurements Generator Oscilloscope Data Frequency SEC/DIV #DIV T (s) 100 Hz 500 Hz 1000 Hz 5000 Hz
VRMS (V)
% Diff
f (Hz)
% Diff
Data Table 4: Capacitance Measurement R () C (F) Oscilloscope Data Ohmmeter Given on SEC/DIV #DIV T1/2 (ms) Board
C (F)
% Error
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QUESTIONS 1. Show that C = [T1/2 ]/[Rln(2)], where T1/2 is the half-life (time interval required for the voltage/or charge to fall to one-half of its initial value) and RC time constant is = RC.
2.
Explain the difference between the peak voltage and RMS voltage.
3.
Referring to Data Table 2, explain how you measured RMS voltage using the oscilloscope.
4.
Referring to Data Table 3, explain how you measured frequency using the oscilloscope.
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Experiment 11
THE AC CIRCUIT
EQUIPMENT RLC Circuit Board Function Generator One BNC-Alligator Cable Digital Multimeter 1.0 F (or 0.5 F) Capacitor Decade Resistor Box
Function Generator
Figure 1: AC Series RLC Circuit Setup (Photo) and Circuit Diagram (Insert) OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this experiment you will be able to a. Set up series RLC and RC circuit connected to an AC source, a function generator. b. Use an AC voltmeter to measure the voltage across each circuits element. c. Calculate the inductance and the capacitance from their reactances, and determine the phase angles between the current and the voltage. CONCEPTS Figure 1 shows an AC series circuit that contains a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor connected in a single loop across an alternating voltage source. The current is the same 101
By Xiang-Ning Song
everywhere in this series circuit, just like DC series circuit. It is convenient to assume that the instantaneous current at time t is given by I(t) = Imsin(t) (1)
where Im is the maximum or peak current and (=2f) is the angular frequency. The rms (root-mean-square) value of current Irms is given by Im / 2 . We will expect that the current and the applied voltage are not in phase. The instantaneous applied voltage at time t is given by V(t) = Vmsin(t + ) (2)
where Vm is the maximum or peak applied voltage and is the phase angle between the current and the voltage. The rms value of voltage Vrms is given by Vm / 2 . When this voltage V(t) is applied to a RLC circuit, there is a resistance to current flow. For the inductor the resistance is called the inductive reactance, XL. For the capacitor the resistance is called the capacitive reactance, XC. The combined opposition to the current flow of the circuit is called the impedance, Z. The XL and XC are the function of the frequency, f, of the alternating current source and are determined using the following formula XL = L = 2f L XC = 1/(C) = 1/(2f C) (3) (4)
where the inductive reactance XL and capacitive reactance XC have units of ohms, L is inductance in henries (H), C is capacitance in farads (F), and f is frequency in hertz (Hz).
Figure 2: Phasor Diagram The resistance and reactances can be added like vectors, as shown in Figure 2. This kind of vector diagram for analyzing an AC circuit is called a phasor diagram. Refer to the phasor diagrams of Figure 2 and Ohms law, it can be shown that the rms value of the applied (source) voltage Vrms and the impedance Z of the AC series RLC circuit are given by Vrms = V Rrms (V Lrms VCrms ) 2
2
(5)
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Z=
R2 (X L X C )2
(6)
where the rms values of voltage across each element are decided by Ohms law: VRrms = IrmsR VLrms = Irms XL VCrms = Irms XC (7) (8) (9)
The phase angle between the current and the applied voltage can be determined by tan = (VLrms VCrms)/ VRrms or tan = (XL XC)/ R (11) (10)
PROCEDURE Part I: AC Series RLC Circuit 1. Before connecting the signal generator to the circuit board, set the digital multimeter (Ohmmeter mode) to measure the resistance of the resistor R and the resistance r of the inductor. Record your findings in Data Table 1. 2. With the function generator turned off, connect the RLC board to the generator with the ground (black) lead of the signal generator connected to the resistance terminal and red lead to the right side of capacitor terminal (between the capacitor and the diode) as shown in the illustration of Figure 1. 3. Set the function generators frequency on 50 Hz and select sine wave. Turn on the function generator. 4. Set the digital multimeter with proper range to read AC voltage across the function generator. 5. Adjust the function generators amplitude control knob (without any attenuation) till the rms voltage output Vrms is about 4 V on the digital voltmeter. Record the value Vrms on Data Table 1. 6. Use the AC digital voltmeter to measure the voltage across the resistor, VRrms, the voltage across the inductor, VLrms, and the voltage across the capacitor, VCrms. Record your findings in Data Table 1. 7. Compute the following values and record these values in Data Table 1 and 2.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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a. Vrms = V Rrms (V Lrms VCrms ) 2

2
% Difference between the Vrms values measured with the digital voltmeter and calculated by the above equation b. Irms = VRrms /R c. XL = VLrms / Irms d. XC = VCrms / Irms e. Z =
R2 (X L X C )2
f. L = XL /(2f) g. C = 1/(XC 2f) h. = tan -1 [(XL XC)/ R] 8. Repeat steps 3 7 for the frequencies shown in the data table.
Function Generator
5000
Figure 3: AC Series RC Circuit Setup (Photo) and Circuit Diagram (Insert)
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Part II: AC Series RC Circuit
1. Connect the AC RC circuit as shown in Figure 3. Record the value of capacitance in Data Table 3. Set R = 5000 on Decade Resistor Box before turn on AC. 2. Set the multimeter to read AC Voltage. Using the sine wave output of the function generator, adjust the voltage to its maximum value at a frequency of 30 Hz. Record this voltage, Vrms, in Data Table 3. 3. Use the voltmeter to measure the voltage across the resistor, VRrms, and the voltage across the capacitor, VCrms, and record these measurements in Data Table 3. 4. Compute the following values and record this data in Data Table 3. a) Irms = VRrms / R where the resistance R=5000 . b) XC MEAS = VCrms/ Irms. c) ZMEAS = V/I or (R2 + XC2)1/2 d) XC CAL = 1 / (2fC) e) ZCAL = (R2 + XC CAL2)1/2 f) VCAL = (VR2 + VC2)1/2 g) CAL = tan-1 (XC CAL / R ) (with the value of R (5000 ) and XC CAL) 5. Repeat steps 2 - 4 for the frequencies shown in the data table. 6. Disconnect and properly return the equipment.
By Xiang-Ning Song
105
PRE-LAB FORM
THE AC CIRCUIT
1. Consider the AC series RLC circuit as shown in Figure 1. The frequency is set at f = 1000 Hz. The resistance R = 1100 . The rms voltages across R, L, and C are measured to be 0.979 V, 0.279 V, and 1.416 V, respectively. Compute the following: a. Irms
b. XL
c. XC
d. Z
e. Vrms, the total rms voltage output of the generator.
f.
2. If the frequency is doubled to 2000 Hz, then what would be the new values of XL, XC and Z?
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LAB REPORT FORM
THE AC CIRCUIT
Part I: AC Series RLC Circuit Data Table 1: Measuring the rms Voltages R= f (Hz) 50 100 500 1000 5000 * Vrms = V Rrms (V Lrms VCrms ) 2
2
k;
Resistance of the inductor: r = AC Digital Voltmeter VRrms (V) VLrms (V) Calculated Vrms*
. % Diff
Vrms (V)
VCrms (V)
Data Table 2: Determining Inductance, Capacitance, and Phase Angle f (Hz) 50 100 500 1000 5000 Irms (A) XL () XC () Z () L (H) C (F) (0)
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Part II: AC Series RC Circuit Data Table 3 Measurement: R= 5000
Vrms = _________ volts C = ________ F
f Hz VR volts VC volts
30
50
100
300
500
Calculation: f Hz Irms = VRrms /R A XC MEAS= VCrms/ Irms k ZMEAS= Vrms / Irms XC CAL=1/(2fC) 2 ZCAL=(R + XC CAL2)1/2 VCAL=(VRrms2 + VCrms2)1/2 volts CAL= tan-1 (XC CAL / R ) deg 30 50 100 300 500
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QUESTIONS 1. What would be the resonant frequency?
2. Should the values of L and C that you calculate vary with the frequency, f in the Data Table 2? What do your calculations show? Please explain why the calculations are not ideal.
3. Draw the phasor diagram using your values of the Data Table 2 for the case f = 1000 Hz. This is a vector diagram like that on the figure 2.
4. Draw the phasor diagram using the voltage values for the case f = 100 Hz in Data Table 3.
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5. The inductive element in the RLC circuit of Part I has a resistance, r, that you have neglected in your measurement of VLrms. The measured voltage across this element, VLrms, is the vector sum of the voltages across the pure L part and the r part. See the illustration.
The true rms voltage across the pure L part, VLTRUErms is give by (VLTRUErms)2 = (VLrms)2 (Irmsr)2 (a) Compute the corrected value VLTRUErms for the f = 500 Hz case in the Data Table 1.
(b) Compute the corrected value of L from L = (VLTRUErms )/(Irms2f).
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Experiment 12
Laws of Reflection and Refraction

EQUIPMENT Pasco Optical Bench Pasco Light Source Three-Surface Mirror (Concave, Convex, and Plane) Acrylic Rhombus Ray Table and Base Drawing Compass Protractor and Metric Ruler
Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to: a. Measure the incident and reflected angles by a plane mirror to verify the Law of Reflection. b. Use Optical Ray Tracing to determine the focal lengths of concave and convex mirrors. c. Use Optical Ray Tracing and law of refraction to determine the index of refraction of a Acrylic Rhombus.
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CONCEPTS When a light ray approaches a plane reflecting surface, the angle of the ray with respect to a line normal to the surface is called the incident angle, 1. The angle of the reflected light ray with respect to the normal is called the reflected angle, 1. The Law of Reflection states that the incident angle, 1, and the reflected angle, 1 are equal as shown in Figure 2. Thus, 1 = 1 (1)
Figure 2: Reflection and Refraction of Light between Two Media When light passes from one medium to another (for example, from air to glass) the light ray is bent. It is deflected at the surface between the two media. This phenomenon is called refraction. Refraction occurs because light travels at different speed in different medium. The relationship between the incident angle and the refracted angle as light rays pass from one medium to another is defined by Snell's Law of Refraction. The ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the ratio of the speeds of light in the two media. This law can also be expressed in terms of the indices of refraction of the two media. The following formula is used. n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 (2)
where n1 is the index of refraction of the first media, n2 is the index of refraction of the second media, 1 is the incident angle, and 2 is the refracted angle as shown in Figure 2. The index of refraction n is defined as n = c/v (3)
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where c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium. The index of refraction for air is : n = 1.0. A spherical mirror is mirror that has a section of spherical as shown in Figure 3. In a spherical mirror, the rays of light that are parallel to the principal axis of the mirror, pass through the focal point after reflection. Conversely, rays of light that pass through the focal point will be parallel to the principal axis after reflection. If R is the radius of curvature of the mirror and f is the focal length of the mirror, the relation between R and f is f = R/2 (3)
PROCEDURES Part A: Reflection on Plane Mirror 1. Mount the Ray Table Base on the Optical Bench. Place the Ray Table on the top of the Base with the degree scale side up as shown in Figure 1. 2. Without the power cord, mount the Light Source with label side up at the right side of the Ray Table. Position the Light Source about few centimeters from the edge of the Ray Table. Note: There is T-slot at the middle of the optical bench. Secure the Light Source on the T-slot. 3. Insert the power cord into the Light Source and plug the transformer in the power outlet. Adjust the slit mask on the Light Source so that only one light ray shines across the middle of the Ray Table and rotate the Ray Table so the light ray is along the zero-degree line (the line of normal). 4. Place the plane mirror at the middle of the ray table and let its front surface line up with the 90 degree line (facing the light source). 5. Rotate the ray table 200 in terms of the normal. Measure the reflected angle in terms of the normal. Record your result in Data Table 1. 6. Repeat above step for 300, 400, 500, and 600. 7. Complete the calculations for the % difference between the incident and reflected angles. 8. Keep the same setup for Part B.
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Figure 3: Spherical Mirror
Part B: Measuring the Radius of Curvature and Focal Length of Spherical Mirror 1. Place a piece of paper on the lab table (not the ray table). Place the Three-Surface Mirror on its top and draw the outline of the mirror. 2. Use the drawing compass to draw a circle to match the curvature of the concave mirror as shown in Figure 3. Measure the radius R and record it in Data Table 2. 3. Repeat above step for the convex mirror. 4. Adjust the slit mask on the Light Source so that five light rays shine across the top of the Ray Table. 5. Place a piece of paper on the top of the Ray Table. Place the Three-Surface Mirror on its top and turn the mirror so the center of the concave surface faces the center the light rays. 6. Draw the outline of the mirror and trace the incident and reflected rays on the paper (Discuss a way to do it in your lab group.). The position where the five reflected rays cross each other is the focal point. Measure the focal length between the focal point and the vertex (center) of the mirror. Record your finding on Data Table 2. Note: After tracing the rays, you can do the rest of drawing and measuring on the lab table. 7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for the convex mirror. Note: The reflected rays are diverging for the convex mirror. After you drew the outline of the mirror and traced the incident and reflected rays, you extend the reflected rays to the back of the mirror. The focal point is located behind the convex mirror. 8. Keep the same setup for Part C.
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Figure 4: Refraction in Acrylic Rhombus Part C: Measuring the Index of Refraction of a Acrylic Rhombus 1. Adjust the slit mask so that only one light ray shines across the middle of the Ray Table. 2. Place a piece of paper on the top of the Ray Table and place the Acrylic Rhombus on its top as shown in the illustration of Figure 4. 1 should be larger than 300. 3. Draw the outline of the rhombus and trace the incident and transmitted rays. Note: Discuss a good way to do this experiment in your group. 4. Remove the rhombus and draw the refracted ray inside the rhombus by connecting the points where the ray entered and left the rhombus. 5. Draw the normal line to the surface of the incident ray and measure the incident and refracted angles. Record your findings in Data Table 3. 6. Calculate the index of refraction using the law of refraction, equation (2), and the percent error. The given value n is 1.5. 7. Properly return the equipment.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. Explain the laws of reflection and refraction.
2. Define the index of refraction.
3. If you want to measure the index of refraction for an unknown optical material, what is your experimental plan?
4. Discuss the differences between concave and convex mirrors.
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LAB REPORT FORM
Data Table 1 for Part A: Reflection on Plane Mirror 1 (0) Incident Angle R (0) Reflected Angle % Diff
Data Table 2 for Part B: Measuring the Radius of Curvature and Focal Length of Spherical Mirror Mirror R (cm) By Compass f = R/2 (cm) By Compass f (cm) By Reflected Rays % Diff
Concave Convex
Data Table 3 for Part C: Measuring the Index of Refraction of a Acrylic Rhombus 1 (0) Incident Angle 2 (0) Refracted Angle n Measured Value % Error
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QUESTIONS 1. If the incident angle 1 is 450, what is the refracted angle 2 ? n = 1.5
2. If n is 1.5 for the rhombus, (a) what is the speed of light inside the material?
(b) what is the wavelength of light inside the material assuming that the incident wave has a wavelength 580nm in the air?
3. Explain total internal reflection and calculate the critical angle for a material with n=1.5. (Reference to your textbook.)
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Experiment 13
THIN LENSES & LENS COMBINATIONS

EQUIPMENT Pasco Optical Bench Pasco Object Light Source Two Pasco Converging Lenses (f = 10 cm and f = 20 cm) Viewing Screen Metric Ruler
Figure 1: Experimental Setup OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to a. Locate the image position and measure its size for a converging lens. b. Determine the image characteristics using thin-lens equation. c. Measure the image properties for the combination of two lenses. CONCEPTS A lens is a transparent object with two curved surfaces whose centers of curvature are along the principal axis. A thin lens is a lens whose thickness is smaller than the radii of curvature. We only use thin lenses in this lab. There are two types of thin lenses. One is called the converging lens and the other is the diverging lens. A converging lens causes an incoming parallel beam of light to converge
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to a single focal point, F. A converging lens has a positive focal length. A diverging lens causes an incoming parallel beam of light to diverge. The diverging rays appear to originate from a single point which is also called the focal point. A diverging lens has a negative focal point. A lens can produce the image of an object by refraction, bending the light rays. The formation of the image can be determined by the thin lens equation. 1/p + 1/q = 1/f (1)
where p is the object distance, q is the image distance, and f is the focal length. The magnification of the image, m, is the ratio between the image size and the object size. It is also equal to the ratio of the negative of the image distance and the object distance. m = h/h = - q/p (2)
where h is the image size and h is the object size. For the combination of two lenses the total magnification is product of the magnification m1 , of the first lens, and m2 , of the second lens. m = m1 m2 (3)
Signs of p, q, f, and m indicate the characteristics of the object, the image, and the lens. Sign convention for equation (1) and (2) is given by the following table:
Quantity p Object Distance q Image Distance f Focal Length m Magnification
Conditions Real object: Object is in front of lens. Virtual object: Object is in back of lens. Real image: Image is in back of lens. Virtual image: Image is in front of lens. Converging lens Diverging lens Image is upright. Image is inverted.
Sign + + + + -
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Procedure: Part A: Image Formed by a Converging Lens 1. Without the power cord, mount the Object Light Source with label side up at the left side of the Optical Bench as shown in Figure 1. Position the Object Light Source at zero cm mark position. Note: There is T-slot at the middle of the optical bench. Secure the Light Source on the T-slot. 2. Insert the power cord into the Object Light Source and plug the transformer in the power outlet. Measure the object size h (the height of the vertical arrow on the front surface of the Object Light Source) and record it in Data Table 1. 3. Place the Viewing Screen at the other end of the optical bench, facing to the Object Light Source. 4. Place Lens #1 ( focal length, 10 cm) at 60 cm (p = 60 cm). Note: Lens is placed in between the Object Light Source and the Viewing Screen. 5. Move the Viewing Screen to a position where the image of the object is clearly formed. Measure the image distance and the image size (the height of the vertical arrow). Record your findings in Data Table 1. 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for p = 35 cm, 30 cm, 20 cm, 15 cm, 14 cm and 12 cm. 7. Replace the Lens #1 with the Lens #2 which has a focal length of 20 cm. Repeat the necessary steps above for the Lens #2. Record your findings in Data Table 2. 8. Keep the setup for Part B.
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Figure 2: Two Combined Lenses Setup Part B: Image Formed by Two Combined Lenses 1. With the Object Light Source at 0 cm position, refer to Figure 2, mount Lens #1, f1 = 10 cm, at 30 cm (p1 = 30 cm). Place Lens #2, f2 = 20 cm, at 90 cm. Note: The distance d between two lenses is 60 cm. 2. Insert the power cord into the Object Light Source and plug the transformer in the power outlet. Measure the object size h (the height of the vertical arrow on the front surface of the Object Light Source) and record it in Data Table 3. 3. Move the Viewing Screen to a position where an image of the object is clearly formed. Measure the image distance between image position and Lens #2 and the image size (the height of the vertical arrow). Record your findings in Data Table 3. Note: The position of the image might be beyond the optical bench. Use a ruler to measure the image distance if necessary. 4. Calculate the overall magnification, m = h/h. Comment on the final image including real or virtual, upright or inverted, and enlarged or reduced. 5. Repeat steps above for settings of p1 = 15 cm and d = 20 cm. Record your findings in Data Table 3. 6. Properly return all lab devices.
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PRE-LAB FORM

1. An object is placed 30.0 cm before a certain lens and the image is found to be 10.0 cm behind the lens. Show the calculation of the lens focal length.
2. Show a graphical ray diagram (scale drawing) to locate the image for the object size h = 6cm, the object distance p = 30 cm, and the focal length f = 10 cm. 1 unit = 2 cm.
Lens
3. Two converging thin lenses with focal lengths f1 = 10 cm and f2 = 20 cm are separated by 60 cm. If one object is placed 30 cm to the left of lens 1, (a) determine the position of final image.
(b) calculate the total magnification.
By Xiang-Ning Song
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LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1 for Part A: Image Formed by a Converging Lens Converging Lens #1: f = 10 cm, p (cm) Object position 60 35 30 20 15 14 12 q0 (cm) Using Lens Eq Object Size: h = q (cm) Measured % Error h (cm) Image Size cm h/h Magnification
Data Table 2 for Part A: Image Formed by a Converging Lens Converging Lens #1: f = 20 cm, p (cm) Object position 70 60 45 40 36 30 28 q0 (cm) Using Lens Eq q (cm) Measured Object Size: h = % Error h (cm) Image Size cm h/h Magnification
Data table 3 for Part B: Image Formed by Two Combined Lenses Object Size: h = p1 (cm) d (cm) q2 (cm) Measured Image Position cm , Lens #1: f1 = 10 cm, h (cm) Image Size h/h Magnification Real or Virtual Lens #2: f2 = 20 cm Inverted or Upright Enlarged or Reduced
30 15
60 20
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QUESTIONS 1. Show a graphical ray diagram (scale drawing) to locate the image for the object size h = 6cm, the object distance p = 15 cm, and the focal length f = 10 cm. 1 unit = 2 cm.
Lens
2. Carefully look over your Data Table 1 and 2. For a given screen-object distance (p + q distance between the object and the viewing screen), there are two images in focus. (a) What is the condition for it?
(b) What is the condition that you can not locate two images for a given screen-object distance?
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3. Referring to the data from the Data Table 3, the two converging thin lenses with focal lengths f1 = 10 cm and f2 = 20 cm are separated by 20 cm. If the object is placed 15 cm to the left of lens 1, a. determine the position of final image.
b. calculate the total magnification m.
c. compute the % error between your calculated and measured m values.
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127
Experiment 14
DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE

EQUIPMENT Pasco Optical Bench Diode Laser Single Slit and Multiple Slits Viewing Screen and White Paper to Cover the Screen Metric Ruler Flash Light and Scotch Tape
Figure 1: Experimental Setup OBJECTIVES Upon completion of this laboratory experiment you will be able to 1. Observe diffraction pattern using single slit disk and laser. 2. Observe interference fringes using double slits disk and laser. 3. Determine the wavelength of laser using diffraction and interference fringes. CONCEPTS When light passes through a single slit, the light waves spread out the slit and bend into the region that would otherwise be shadowed. This divergence of light from its initial line of travel is called diffraction. The alternative bright and dark fringes formed on viewing screen is called diffraction pattern, as shown in Figure 2. The angle to dark fringe in the diffraction pattern is given by
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128 a sin = m Where: a = width of slit m = 1 refer to 1st dark (minimum), 2 for 2nd dark, = wavelength of light ( m= 1,2,3,4,..) (1)
Figure 2: Single Slit Diffraction: Screen on the left illustrates intensity level of light changing with position. Screen on the right shows the appearance of diffraction pattern. The position y of mth dark on the viewing screen, measured from the center of central maximum, is given by y= Where: = wavelength of light D = the distance from the slit to the viewing screen a = the width of slit m D a (m = 1,2,3,..) (2)
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Figure 3: Double-slits Interference When two or more light waves overlap at a given point in space, the resultant wave due to the superposition of waves is called interference. Figure 3 shows the interference of two slits. The two slits separated by a distance, d, are illuminated by a single-wavelength laser light. An interference pattern consisting of bright and dark fringes is formed on the viewing screen. The condition for bright fringes is given by d sin = m Where: d = separating distance between the two slits m = 0 refer to center of bright (maximum), 1 refer to 1st bright, 2 for 2nd bright, = the wavelength of light The position y of mth bright on the viewing screen, measured from the center of maximum, is given by y= Where: = the wavelength of light D = the distance from the slit to the viewing screen d = separating distance between the two slits m D d (m = 0,1,2,3,..) (4) ( m= 0,1,2,3,4,..) (3)
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130 Procedure: Part A: Single Slit Diffraction 1. Reference to Figure 1, position the Laser at zero cm mark position on the optical bench. Plug the power cord into the Laser and turn it on. 2. Place the Single Slit Disk at seven cm mark position. 3. Position the Viewing Screen at 110 cm mark position. The distance D between the slit and screen should be 105 cm. Confirm it and record the distance D in the Data Table 1. 4. Select the 0.04 mm slit by rotating the slit disk until the 0.04 mm slit is centered in the slit holder. If the laser beam doesnt illuminate the slit, adjust the laser until the laser beam is centered on the slit. 5. Cover the viewing screen with a sheet of paper. 6. Turn off the room light and mark exactly the diffraction pattern on the paper attached to the viewing screen. 7. Take off the paper from the viewing screen. Turn on room lights or flash light. Measure y11 the distance between the first dark (m=1) above the central bright and the first dark (m=1) below the central bright. See Figure 2. Record the data in Data Table 1. 8. Measure y22 the distance between the second dark (m=2) above the central bright and the second dark (m=2) below the central bright. See Figure 2. Record the data in Data Table 1. 9. Select the 0.08 mm slit by rotating the slit disk until the 0.08 mm slit is centered in the slit holder. Repeat the steps from 5 to 8. 10. Complete the calculation for Data Table 1.
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131 Part B: Double-Slits Interference 1. Replace the Single Slit Disk by the Multiple Slit Disk and position it at seven cm mark position. The distance D between the slit and screen should still be 105 cm. Confirm it and record the distance D in the Data Table 2. 2. Select the double slits with width a=0.04 mm and separating distance d=0.25mm by rotating the slit disk until the desired double slits are centered in the slit holder. If the laser beam didnt illuminate the slit, adjust the laser until the laser beam is centered on the slit. 3. Cover the viewing screen with a sheet of paper. 4. Turn off the room light and mark exactly the interference pattern on the paper attached to the viewing screen. 5. Take off the paper from the viewing screen. Turn on room lights or flash light. Pick up (the best) six bright fringes and label them as 1 through 6. Measure y16 the distance between the first bright and sixth bright. See Figure 3. Record the data in Data Table 2. 6. Select the double slits with width a=0.08 mm and separating distance d=0.25mm by rotating the slit disk until the desired double slits are centered in the slit holder. If the laser beam doesnt illuminate the slit, adjust the laser until the laser beam is centered on the slit. 7. Repeat the above steps 3-5. 8. Complete the calculation for Data Table 2. 9. Properly return equipment.
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132
PRE-LAB FORM

1. What is diffraction?
2. Diode laser light ( = 670 nm) falls on single slit with the width of slit 0.04 mm. If a screen is 1.05 m away from the slit, what is y11 the distance between the first dark (m=1) above the central bright and the first dark (m=1) below the central bright? See Figure 2.
3. What is interference?
4. Diode laser light ( = 670 nm) falls on double slits spaced 0.25 mm. If a screen is 1.05 m away from the slits, what is the distance between the first and second bright fringes? See Figure 3.
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133
LAB REPORT FORM

Data Table 1 for Part A: Single Slit Diffraction Distance between slit and viewing screen: D = ______________ cm a (mm) Slit Width ymm (cm) Distance between two same m orders y11 a=0.04 mm = y22 = y11 a=0.08 mm = y22 = = y =y224 = = y =y224 = y =y11 2 y (cm) = y m m 2 m Average dark-to-dark distance y =y11 2 (nm) = y a D Measured wavelength %Error (given=670nm)
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134 Data Table 2 for Part B: Double-Slits Interference Distance between slit and viewing screen: D = ______________ cm d (mm) Distance between slits y16 (cm) Distance between one to six bright y (cm) = y1 6 5 Average bright-tobright distance (nm) = y d D Measured wavelength %Error (given=670nm)
d=0.25 mm (a=0.04 mm) d=0.25 mm (a=0.08 mm)
Questions: 1. Referring to Data Table 1, does the distance y between adjacent darks increase or decrease when the slit width, a, is increased? (If the distance y between adjacent darks is increased, the diffraction is more pronounced.)
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135 2. Monochromatic light ( = 670 nm) is incident on a single slit and forms a diffraction pattern on a screen 95 cm away. (a) If the slit width is 0.04 mm, what is the separation between the first-order minima ( y 11 )?
(b) If the slit width is reduced by half, what now is y 11?
3. Referring to Data Table 2, does the distance y between adjacent brights increase or decrease when the slit width, a, is increased?
4. Blue-violet laser light ( = 405 nm, InN blue-violet laser used in Blu-ray Disc and HD DVD drives) falls on double slits spaced 0.25 mm. If a screen is 1.05 m away from the slits, what is the distance between the first and second bright fringes?
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By Xiang-Ning Song

Xiang-Ning Song Richland College

14. Diffraction and Interference

LAB REPORT GUIDE

Experimental Error and Data Analysis

Linear Graph For Pendulum

2.69 3.92 5.11

Basic Formulas in Data Analysis

STANDING WAVES ON A STRETCHED STRING

STANDING WAVES ON A STRETCHED STRING

2. Define nodes and antinodes?

LAB REPORT FORM

STANDING WAVES ON A STRETCHED STRING

f1 (Hz) 1st Harmonic

f2 (Hz) 2nd Harmonic

f3 (Hz) 3rd Harmonic

f4 (Hz) 4th Harmonic

THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

VT = Speed of sound in air m/s TK = Absolute temperature K

The absolute temperature is determined as follows:

TC = temperature in degrees Celsius.

For a longitudinal wave in a metal rod,

Y = Young's Modulus for the metal = Density of the metal

f = frequency Hz, specifies the number of vibrations per unit time.

THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

2. How does the speed of sound vary with temperature?

3. Calculate the speed of sound in air at a temperature Tc = 24 oC.

LAB REPORT FORM

THE SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR

TK / 273 = ________ m/s

Data Table 2: Measuring the Speed of Sound = 2( X2 - X1 ) (m) AV (m) V = f AV (m/s)

QUESTIONS 1. What is the fundamental frequency?

2. What is the process of charging by friction?

3. What is the process of charging by induction?

4. Explain how an electroscope can detect charge.

LAB REPORT FORM

EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

3. Why is the surface of a conductor an equipotential surface?

LAB REPORT FORM

EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Position from Electrode (cm) Voltage (V)

Position from Electrode (cm) Voltage (V)

Potential difference between arbitrary two points within the cylinder:

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

2. Define the capacitance?

3. Describe the properties of combining three capacitors (a) in series and

LAB REPORT FORM

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Data Table 2: Equivalent Capacitance

Combined 1 Ceq Combined 2 Ceq

Data Table 3: Combined Circuit Two

2. the charge stored in C2,

3. the voltage across C3.

4. the energy stored in C4.

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Figure 1: Experimental Apparatus

Figure 2: (a) Resistors in Series

R1 (b) Resistors in Parallel

Figure 2: Color Coding for Resistors

RESISTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

2. What is the resistance?

Vrms = _ volts C = F