ENERGY FLOWS AND BALANCES

Energy Flow- the movement of energy through the ecosystem, from the external environment through a series of organisms back
to external environment
Units of Measure
1. BTU (British thermal unit) - is the amount of energy necessary to heat one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.
2. Calorie- is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Centigrade.
3. Joule- is a force of one Newton applied over a distance of one meter.
4. Newton is a force necessary to produce an acceleration of one meter per sec per sec to a mass of one kilogram
5. Kilowatt-hr is the rate of power per unit time.
ENERGY BALANCES AND CONVERSION
There are many forms of energy, such as chemical, heat, potential energy due to elevation, kinetic, mechanical and
so on. Often the form of energy available is not the form that is most useful, and one form of energy must be converted to another
form. Example, the water in the mountain lake has a potential energy and can be run through a turbine to convert this potential to
electrical energy that can be converted to heat or light, both forms of useful energy.
Chemical energy in organic matter, stored in the carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds formed by plants can be
severed by a process such as combustion, which liberates heat energy that can be used directly, or indirectly to produce steam to
drive electrical generators.
Wind has kinetic energy and this can be converted to mechanical energy with a windmill, and this energy can be converted
to electrical energy to produce heat energy.
Another example of how one form of energy can be converted to another form uses the calorimeter, the standard mean of
measuring heat energy value of material when they combust.
First law of thermodynamics stated that energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it only transform from one form to another.
Unfortunately, second law of thermodynamics stated that energy conversions are always less than 100% efficient. Entropy is a
measure in the system of the amount of energy that is unavailable for useful work. Efficiency is the ratio of energy stored in useful
form compared with energy takes in.
ENERGY SOURCES AND AVAILABILITY
Power utilities use the most efficient fuels possible since this will produce least ash for disposal and will most likely be the
cheapest to use in terms fuel cost. But the best fuels, natural gas and oil are in finite supply. Estimates vary as to how much natural
gaseous and liquid fuels remain in the earths crust within our reach, but most experts agree that if they continue to be used at the
present expanding rate, the existing supplies will be depleted within 50 years.
I. RENEWABLE SOURCES- a resource that is naturally recycled or recycled by artificial processes within a time framework useful
for people, such as:
1. Water Power is a form of stored solar energy, because climate, which dictates the flow of water on Earth, is driven in part by
differential solar heating of the temperature. Today, hydroelectric power used the water stored behind dams. Hydropower can be
used to generate either electrical power or mechanical power to run machinery; its use may help the high cost of importing energy.
Water power is clean power, it requires no burning of fuel, does not pollute the atmosphere, produces no radioactive or other waste,
and is efficient.
Environmental Impacts
a. Large dams and reservoirs flood large tracts of land that could have had other uses.
b. Dams block the migration of some fish, such as salmon.
c. Water falling over high dams may pick up nitrogen gas, if the gas enters the blood of fish, it expands and kills them.
d. Dams trap sediment that would otherwise reach the sea and eventually replenish the sand on beaches.
e. For a variety of reasons, many people do not want to turn Wild River into a series of lakes.
2 Tidal Power a type of water power derived from ocean tides, however, only a few places with favorable
topography such as the north coast of France, the bay of Fundy in Canada, and the northeastern US are the tides
sufficiently strong to produce commercial electricity. To harness a tide power, a dam is built across the entrance to bay
or estuary, creating a reservoir. As the tide rises (flood tide), water is initially prevented from entering the bay landward
of the dam. Then, where there is sufficient water (form the ocean side high tide) to run the turbines, the dam is opened,
and water flows through it into the reservoir (the bay), turning the blades of the turbines and generating electricity. When
the reservoir is filled, the dam is closed, stopping the flow and holding the water in the reservoir. When the tide falls (ebb
tide), the water level in the in the reservoir is higher in the ocean. The dam is then opened to run the turbines (which are
reversible), and electric power is produce as the water is let out of the reservoir.
Environmental impacts:
1 1 The change in the hydrology of a bay or estuary caused by the dam can adversely affect the vegetation and
wildlife.
1 1 The dam restricts upstream and downstream passage of fish.
1 1 The periodic rapid filling and emptying of the bay as the dam opens and closes with the tides rapidly changes
habitats for birds and other organisms.
3 Wind Power is produced when differential heating of Earths surface creates air masses with differing heat contents and
densities. The potential for energy from the wind is large, and yet there are potential problems with its use because wind tends
to be highly variable in time, place and intensity. Wind energy does have a few disadvantages such as:
a. Windmill kill birds (birds of prey such as hawks and falcons, are vulnerable)
b. Large windmills farms use large areas of land for roads, pads for the windmills, and other equipment.
c. Windmill may degrade an areas scenic resources.
1. Solar energy
The total amount of solar energy reaching the Earths surface is tremendous, on global scale, 10 weeks of solar
energy is roughly equivalent to the energy stored in all known reserves of coal, oil, and natural gas on Earth. Solar energy is
absorbed at Earths surface at an average rate of 120,000,000 GW, which is 10,000 times the total global demand for energy.
However, solar energy is site specific, and detailed observation of a potential site is necessary to evaluate the daily and
seasonal variability of its solar energy potential.
Types of Active Solar Energy Systems
i. Solar Ponds are designed to collect incoming solar radiation which produces a bottom-water
temperature at about 70 degree Centigrade. The hot water is kept on the bottom by the addition of salt, which makes it
heavier. Circulation is restricted so that dense bottom water does not mix with the water above. However, solar radiation
penetrated to warm the lower water. The heat can then be extracted from the bottom and used.
ii. Solar collectors to provide space heating or more commonly, hot water are usually flat panels
consisting of a glass-covered plate over a black background where an absorbing fluid is circulated through tubes. Solar
radiation enters the glass and is absorbed by the black background. Heat is emitted from the black material, heating the
fluid circulating in the tubes. If water is the absorbing fluid, it is heated to 38-93 degree Centigrade. In cold climates, water
is a poor absorbing fluid; a liquid with a low freezing temperature is used.
iii. Photovoltaic is a technology that converts sunlight directly into electricity. The systems use solar cells,
also called photovoltaic cells, made of thin layers of semi conductors and solid state electronics component with a few or
no moving parts. Electricity is produced when sunlight strikes the cell. The different electronic properties of the layers
cause electrons to flow out of the cell through electric wires.
iv. Power Towers - an interesting type of solar energy system, the system works by collecting heat from
solar energy and delivering this energy in the form of steam to turbines that produce electric power. An experimental 10
MW power tower near Barstow, California is approximately 100 m high and is surrounded by approximately 2,000 mirror
modules, each with a reflective area of about 40 square meters. The mirrors adjust continually to reflect as much sunlight
into the tower as possible. The tower power was able to produce electricity 24 hours per day by storing the heat produced
during the day in a molten salt heat-storage system. The stored heat was used at night or on cloudy days to produce
energy.
v. Ocean Thermal Conversion a final example of the direct utilization of solar energy involves using part
of the oceanic environment as gigantic solar collector. The surface temperature of ocean water in the tropic is often about
28 degree centigrade. However, at the bottom of the ocean, at a depth of about 600 m, the temperature may be 1-3
degree centigrade. Equipment has been designed to take advantage of this temperature difference, either by using
seawater directly or by using a heat exchange system in which a fluid such as ammonia or propane is vaporized to warm
water. The expanding vapor then propels a turbine and generates electricity
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
a. It has a relatively dispersed, arriving at Earths surface like a fine mist, so that a large land area is required to generate a
large amount of energy
b. Highly centralized and high technology solar energy units have a great impact on the land because they need
considerable space.
c. It involves a large variety of metals, glass, plastics, and fluids used in the manufacture and use of solar equipment.
Some of these substances may cause environmental problems through production and by accidental release of toxic
materials.
2. Biomass energy is energy recovered from organic matter, such as plant material and animal waste. The energy from
biomass comes from chemical bonds formed through photosynthesis in living or once-living matter. Biomass fuel is organic
matter that can that can be burned directly or converted to a more convenient form and then burned. For example, we can
burn wood in a stove or convert it into charcoal to use as fuel
Sources of biomass energy- forest product such as wood chips, agricultural residues such as coconut husk, sugar
cane waste, corncobs, peanut shells, energy crops such as sugar cane, corn, sorghum, animal residues such as manure,
and urban waste such a waste paper, organic household waste.
Environmental impact
a. The use of biomass can pollute the air and degrade the land.
b. A worldwide shortage of firewood is adversely affecting natural areas and endangered species
3. Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the Earth that is converted to heat buildings and generate
electricity. Although most geothermal energy production involves the tapping of high heat sources, people are also using
the low temperature geothermal energy or groundwater in some application. At present, geothermal energy only a small
fraction of the electric energy produced in United States, however, if developed, could produce at about 20 GW, which is
about 10% of the electricity needed for the western states.
Environmental Impact of Geothermal Energy
1. Geothermal development often produce considerable thermal pollution from hot wastewater,
which maybe saline or highly corrosive, producing disposal and treatment problems.
2. Exploration and development of geothermal energy degrade the tropical forest as developers
construct roads, build facilities, and drill wells.
II. NON RENEWABLE SOURCES- is a resource that is cycled slowly by natural earth processes within a time framework useful for
people.
1. Nuclear energy is the energy of the atomic nucleus. Two nuclear processes can be used to
release that energy to do work: fission and fusion. Nuclear fission is the splitting of atomic nuclei, and nuclear fusion is the
fusing, or combining of atomic nuclei. A by product of both fission and fusion reactions is the release of enormous amounts
of energy.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
a) Uranium mines and mills produce radioactive waste materials that can pollute the environment
b) Uranium 235 enrichment and fabrication of fuel assemblies also produces waste material that must be carefully handled
and disposed of.
c) Site selection and construction of nuclear power plants is extensive and expensive, often centering on hazards related to
the probability of such events as earthquakes.
d) The reactor is the site of past accidents, including partial meltdowns that have released harmful radiation into the
environment.
e) Waste cannot be adequately isolated from the environment for the long period of time that it remains hazardous.
2. Natural gas is a naturally occurring hydrocarbon generally produces with crude oil or from gas wells, an important efficient
and clean burning fuel commonly used in homes and industry. The worldwide estimate of recoverable natural gas is about
140 trillion cubic meter which will last approximately 70 years. Natural gas is considered a clean fuel; burning it produces
fewer pollution than oil or coal. As a result it is being considered as possible transition fuel to alternative energy
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
a. Use of land to construct pads for wells, pipelines, and storage tanks and to build a network of roads and other
production facilities.
b. Pollution of groundwater and surface water from leaks from broken pipes
c. Accidental release of air pollution such as hydrocarbon and hydrogen sulfide
Land subsidence as oil and gas are withdrawn
d. Loss or disruption and damage of fragile ecosystem such as wetlands or other unique landscapes.
e. Oil seepage into the sea
3. Coal is a solid brittle carbonaceous rock and the most abundant fossil in earth. The burning of
coal produces nearly 60% of the electricity used and about 25% energy consumed in US. However, plant that burns coal
are responsible for 70% total emission of sulfur dioxide, 30% of nitrogen oxides and 35% of carbon dioxide
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
1. More and more land will be strip mined and thus will require careful and expensive restoration.
2. Burning coal produces large amounts of air pollutants.
3. The handling of large quantities of coal through all stages will be resulted to aesthetic degradation, noise, dust, and most
significant from a health standpoint- release of harmful or toxic trace elements into the water soil and air.
4. Crude oil naturally occurring petroleum, normally pumped from oil wells in oil fields.
Refinement of crude oil produces most of the petroleum products we use today. It is estimated that 2 to 3 trillion barrels
may be recovered from remaining oil resources. World consumption today is about 27 billion barrels per year. Today for
every 4 barrels of oil we consume, we are finding only one barrel
5. Synthetic oil
ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems have several fundamentals characteristic:
1. STRUCTURE. An ecosystem is made up of two major parts, nonliving and living. The non living part is the
physical-chemical environment including the local atmosphere, water, and mineral soil (on land) or other
substrate in water. The living part called ecological community is the set of species interacting within the
ecosystem.
2. PROCESSES. Two basic kinds of processes must occur in an ecosystem: a cycling of chemical elements and
a flow of energy.
3. CHANGE. An ecosystem changes over time and can undergo development through a process called
succession.
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEM
Photosynthesis is only the beginning of a chain of energy conversions. There are many types of animals that will eat
the products of the photosynthesis process. Examples are deer eating shrub leaves, rabbits eating carrots or worms
eating grass. When these animals eat these plant products, food energy and organic compounds are transferred from
the plants to the animals. These animals are in turn eaten by other animals, again transferring energy and organic
compounds from one animal to another. Examples would be lions eating deer, foxes eating rabbits or birds eating
worms.
This energy transfer from one species to another can continue several more times, but it eventually ends. It ends with
the dead animals that are broken down and used as food or nutrition by bacteria and fungi. As these organisms,
referred to as decomposers, feed from the dead animals, they break down the complex organic compounds into simple
nutrients. Decomposers play a very important role in this world because they take care of breaking down (cleaning)
dead material. There are more than 100,000 different types of decomposer organisms! These simpler nutrients are
returned to the soil and can be used again by the plants. The energy transformation chain starts all over again.
ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT
Ecosystem can be natural or artificial or a combination of both. The ecosystem concept lies at the heart of the
management of natural resources. When we try to conserve species or manage natural resources so that they are
sustainable, we must focus on their ecosystem and make sure that is continues to function. If it doesnt we must replace
or supplement ecosystem functions with our own actions. Ecosystem management however means more that
compensating for changes in ecosystems. It means managing and conserving life on earth by considering chemical
cycling, energy flow, community-level interactions, and the natural changes that take place within ecosystem.
Ecosystem management specifically includes human activities as part of its domain. This is a departure from
the traditional view that pristine ecosystems are those devoid of human influence. However, the view that humans are
separate from natural ecological systems is still strong: "Returning to the specific issue of benchmarks for managing
ecosystems, the clearest, least ambiguous one is that of no human influence. This fits well with the goal that most
ecological reserves should be managed to minimize human influence as much as possible" (M. Hunter Jr., 1996,
Benchmarks for Managing Ecosystems: Are Human Activities Natural? Conservation Biology 10(3): 695697). Others
argue that all ecosystems bear the mark, recognizable or not, of human influence and that by ignoring that influence in
their management we may create artificially fragile ecosystems vulnerable to the inevitable impact of human activities.
While humans are generally recognized as a part of the ecosystem and have been so for thousands of years, there is
little understanding of that fact's relevance and value.
HUMAN INFLUENCE IN ECOSYSTEM
Human societies derive many essential goods from natural ecosystems, including seafood, game animals, fodder,
fuelwood, timber, and pharmaceutical products. These goods represent important and familiar parts of the economy.
What has been less appreciated until recently is that natural ecosystems also perform fundamental life-support services
without which human civilizations would cease to thrive. These include the purification of air and water, detoxification
and decomposition of wastes, regulation of climate, regeneration of soil fertility, and production and maintenance of
biodiversity, from which key ingredients of our agricultural, pharmaceutical, and industrial enterprises are derived.
This array of services is generated by a complex interplay of natural cycles powered by solar energy and operating
across a wide range of space and time scales. The process of waste disposal, for example, involves the life cycles of
bacteria as well as the planet-wide cycles of major chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen. Such processes are
worth many trillions of dollars annually. Yet because most of these benefits are not traded in economic markets, they
carry no price tags that could alert society to changes in their supply or deterioration of underlying ecological systems
that generate them. Because threats to these systems are increasing, there is a critical need for identification and
monitoring of ecosystem services both locally and globally, and for the incorporation of their value into decision-
making processes.
Historically, the nature and value of Earth's life support systems have largely been ignored until their disruption or
loss highlighted their importance. For example, deforestation has belatedly revealed the critical role forests serve in
regulating the water cycle -- in particular, in mitigating floods, droughts, the erosive forces of wind and rain, and
silting of dams and irrigation canals. Today, escalating impacts of human activities on forests, wetlands, and other
natural ecosystems imperil the delivery of such services. The primary threats are land use changes that cause losses in
biodiversity as well as disruption of carbon, nitrogen, and other biogeochemical cycles; human-caused invasions of
exotic species; releases of toxic substances; possible rapid climate change; and depletion of stratospheric ozone.
Based on available scientific evidence, we are certain that:
Ecosystem services are essential to civilization.
Ecosystem services operate on such a grand scale and in such intricate and little-explored ways that most could
not be replaced by technology.
Human activities are already impairing the flow of ecosystem services on a large scale.
If current trends continue, humanity will dramatically alter virtually all of Earth's remaining natural
ecosystems within a few decades.
In addition, based on current scientific evidence, we are confident that:
Many of the human activities that modify or destroy natural ecosystems may cause deterioration of ecological
services whose value, in the long term, dwarfs the short-term economic benefits society gains from those
activities.
Considered globally, very large numbers of species and populations are required to sustain ecosystem services.
The functioning of many ecosystems could be restored if appropriate actions were taken in time.
We believe that land use and development policies should strive to achieve a balance between sustaining vital
ecosystem services and pursuing the worthy short-term goals of economic development.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
ECOSYSTEM- a community of interdependent organisms together with the environment through which they inhabit
and interact.
AEROBE- a microorganisms which cannot live without oxygen
ANAEROBE- a microorganisms which flourishes without oxygen
BIOME- a major regional ecological community characterized by distinct life forms and principal plant or animal
species
BIOSPHERE- the highest organizational level, part of the earth in which life exists.
CARNIVORES- meat eaters, that feed directly on herbivores.
DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) a highly toxic derivative of chloral, widely used as an insecticide.
ECOLOGY- the system of relationship of organisms and their environment
EUTROPHICATION- the increase in the concentration of chemical elements required for living things.
FOOD CHAIN- the relationship of organisms considered as food sources, consumer or both.
FOOD WEB- the interaction among various organisms which occupy a tropic level.
HERVIBORES- organisms that feed on plants, algae, or photosynthetic bacteria
HOMEOSTASIS- the process by which an ecosystem remain in steady state condition
NICHE- the ecological role of species in a community
OMNIVORES- organisms that eat of both plants and animals.
OXYGEN- a highly reactive element essential to life, occurring as an odorless gas in the atmosphere and in chemical
combination in water and rocks, and comprising about 50% of the material in the earths crust.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- the formation of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water through the agency of sunlight
acting upon chlorophyll.
PHYTOPLANKTON- organisms which are capable of using solar energy to make food by the process of
photosynthesis.
POPULATION- a group of individual genetically distinct to some degree from other separate group of the same
species.
RESPIRATION- the process by which an organisms takes in oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide and other waste
product.
SELF-PURIFICATION- the changes in stream quality as the decomposer reduce the oxygen demand material finally
achieving a clean stream.
SPECIES- a group of individual capable of interbreeding.
SUSTAINABILITY- A concept that is emerging in the environmental sciences. With respect to resources, it involves
management that has the objective of ensuring that future generation will have the opportunity to use their fair share of
resources, and will inherit a quality environment. In an economics sense the concept means development that will not
cause irreparable damage to the environment while ensuring that future generations will inherit their fair share of all
Earths resources.
SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEM- an ecosystem that is subject to some human use, but at a level that leads to no loss of
species or of necessary ecosystem functions
SYMBIOSIS- an interaction between individuals of two different species that benefits both.
SYMBIOTIC- relationship that exist between different organisms that are mutually beneficial
TROPHIC LEVEL- consists of all those organisms in a food web that is the same number of feeding levels away from
original source of energy.
ZOOPLANKTON- organisms which feed directly on the primary producer detritus.
LEVELS OF ECOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION- Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biomes, Biosphere
MAIN GROUPS OF ORGANISMS- Producer, Consumer, Decomposer
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION- Biome, Taiga, Grassland, Dessert Shrub
TYPES OF DECOMPOSER- Aerobic, Anaerobic
WATER QUALITY
Pure water is tasteless, colorless and odorless liquid made up of hydrogen and nitrogen with a chemical formula of H2O.
Because water is almost universal solvent, most natural as well as man-made substances are soluble in it to some extent.
Consequently, water in nature contains dissolved substances. In addition as a result of hydrologic cycle, it contains various other
substances as well as gases. These substances are often identified as the impurities found in water. The impurities are classified as
ionic and dissolved, nonionic and undissolved and gases.
MEASURES OF WATER QUALITY
1. DISSOLOVED OXYGEN
It is a major parameter in water quality in stream lakes, and other watercourse. It is measured with an oxygen probe and
meter. A high DO in the water creates a driving force to get through the membrane, while a low DO would force only limited
oxygen through the reaction and thereby create electric current.
Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river, tends to contain a lot of dissolved oxygen, while
stagnant water contains little. The organic matter degradation carried out by water microorganism consumes oxygen. Thus,
excess organic material in lakes and rivers, a situation known as eutrophication, can cause an oxygen-deficient situation to
occur.
Aquatic life can suffer in stagnant water that has a high content of rotting, organic material in it, especially in summer,
when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low. Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen
is a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to
provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The
lower the concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish
kills.
Sufficient D.O. is also essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatment processes. Activated sludge tanks
often have their D.O. monitored continuously. Low D.O values may be set to trigger an alarm or activate a control loop which
will increase the supply of air to the tank.
2. BIOCHEMICHAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
It is a major parameter indicating the pollution potential of various discharges to watercourse. It is a measure of the
amount of oxygen required by aerobic bacteria and other microorganisms while stabilizing decomposable matters. A low rate of
oxygen use indicates either the absence of contamination or that the microorganisms are uninterested in consuming the
available organic. A third possibility is that the microorganisms are dead or dying.
The standard BOD test is run in the dark at 20 degree centigrade for five days. The bottle is filled completely with sample,
which must be near neutral pH and free of toxic materials. After an initial measurement of the D.O., the bottle is sealed and
stored in a dark incubator at 20 C for five days. The D.O. is measured again after this incubation period. The difference is the
BOD. (The bottles are kept in the dark because algae which may be present in the sample will produce oxygen when exposed
to light). .
The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made of special non
reactive glass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.
The BOD test is almost universally run using standard BOD bottle, about 300 mL volume. It is made of special non reactive
glass and has round stopper with a lip that is used to create a water seal so no oxygen can get in or out of the bottle.
In the case of wastewater analysis, since most of them have BOD's which are much higher than the limited solubility of
oxygen in water, it is necessary to make a series of dilutions containing varying amounts of sample in a nutrient-containing,
aerated "dilution water." The measured BOD's are then multiplied by the appropriate dilution factors. A variation of this test,
called the carbonaceous BOD, adds an inhibitor which prevents the oxidation of ammonia, so that the test is a truer measure of
the amount of biodegradable organic material present. Samples which do not contain enough bacteria to carry out the BOD
test can be "seeded" by adding some from another source.
SEEDING is a process in which the microorganisms responsible for oxygen uptake are added to BOD bottle with the
sample for the oxygen uptake to occur.
3. SOLID
It is the residue on evaporation at 103 degree centigrade. Solid can be divided into two fractions: dissolved solid and
suspended solid. A Gooch crucible is used to separate suspended solid from dissolved solid. It has a holes on the bottom on
which a glass fiber filter is placed. Suspended solid can be classified as volatile solid that can be volatilized at 600 degree
centigrade, and fixed solid.
Total solids (TS) are determined by drying a known amount of a sample at a temperature of 103 to 105 C. Results can be
expressed in mg/l or percent by weight.
If the sample is then burned in a furnace at about 500 C, cooled, and weighed, the fixed (FS) or volatile solids (VS) can be
determined.
If the original sample is filtered through a tared glass-fiber filter, which is then dried, the weight of the material captured on
the filter is used to figure the total suspended solids (TSS). Burning the filter in the furnace allows measurement of volatile
suspended solids (VSS) or fixed suspended solids (FSS).
The dissolved solids (DS) can be estimated from the difference between the total solids and the total suspended solids,
but the official method calls for drying the filtrate (the liquid which passes through the filter) in a dish at 180C. Of course, there
are TDS, FDS and VDS.
Suspended material can decrease the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of biodegradable organic material in the
sediment, it will become anaerobic and contribute to oxygen depletion. Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sediment
and affect the organisms which live there and can build up in fish that feed on them, and so be passed up the food chain,
causing problems all along the way . Also, some of the particulate matter may be grease-- or be coated with grease, which is
lighter than water, and float to the top, creating an aesthetic nuisance
4. NITROGEN
It is a useful measure of water quality in streams and lakes. It can be tied up in high energy compounds such as amino
acids and amines and this form of nitrogen is known as organic nitrogen. One of the intermediate compounds formed during
biological metabolisms is ammonia nitrogen. Ammonia can be measured using nessler reagent, which is a solution of
potassium mercuric acid, and reacts with ammonium ions to form a yellow brown colloid.
Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies. Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and
nitrite levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect on warm water fish
5. BACTERIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS are necessary to determine the potential presence of infectious agent such as
pathogenic bacteria and viruses. A number of diseases can be transmitted by water. Pathogens are disease causing
organisms such as shigella that caused shigellosis, salmonella caused salmonellosis, giardia lamblia caused
amoebiasis, and cryptosporidium caused cryptosporidiosis. Because of the numbers of pathogenic organisms
present in waste and polluted waters are relatively few and difficult to isolate and identify, the coliform organisms which is
more numerous and more easily tested for is commonly used as an indicator organisms. The presence of coliform
organisms is taken as an indication that pathogenic organisms may also present and the absence of coliform organisms is
taken as an indication that water is free from disease producing organisms
WATER QUALITY STANDARD
1. DRINKING WATER STANDARD- two types of standard are primary and secondary. Primary standards relate to human
health, includes physical, chemical, and bacteriological standard, while secondary standard are for constituents
(chloride, copper, hydrogen sulfide, iron and manganese) that make water disagreeable to use. The principal physical
characteristic of water are total suspended and dissolved solid, turbidity, color, taste and odor, and temperature
Chemical standard includes inorganic( arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury. Selenium), volatile organics (benzene, carbon
tetrachloride, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride), synthetic organics (pesticides, endrin, lindane, methoxychlor),
disinfection by product and radioactive.
Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a beam of light through the water and measuring
photometrically the light scattered at right angles to the beam. Results are expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
Water cloudiness is caused by material suspended in water. Therefore, turbidity is an indirect measure of total suspended
solids (TSS), even if the correlation will hold only for the particular sample from which it was derived.
Temperature. Human activities should not change water temperatures beyond natural seasonal fluctuations. To do so could
disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Good temperatures are dependent on the type of stream. Lowland streams, known as
warmwater streams, are different from mountain or spring fed streams that are normally cool. In a warm water stream
temperatures should not exceed 32 C. Cold water streams should not exceed 20 C. Often summer head can cause fish kills
in ponds because high temperatures reduce available oxygen in the water.
pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration [H + ] in the solution. For pure water the hydrogen
concentration is 10-7 moles per liter and the solution can be characterized as pH 7. The pH can range from 0 to 14, but most
potable water will range from 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is alkaline. pH
can be determined using indicator solutions which change color in different pH ranges. "pH paper", impregnated with such
indicators, are commonplace in testing laboratories. however for accurate measurements and dealing with dilute solutions,
electrochemical measurement (a pH-meter) is required.
2. EFFLUENT STANDARD
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) oversees and states operate programs designed to reduce the flow of
pollutants into natural watercourses. Typical effluent standards for a domestic wastewater treatment plant may range from 5 to
20 mg/L BOD, for example. The intent is to tighten these limits as required to enhance water quality.
3. SURFACE WATER STANDARD
Classification Best Use DO(mg/L) Coliforms(no/mL) Temp (C)
A Drinking water, virgin source, no upstream use permitted >6 <10/100 <15
B Drinking water, upstream use permitted >4 <100/100 <20
C Water contact sports, fishing >3 <1000/100 NA
D Non-contact sports, agriculture >3 NA NA
E Agricultural and industrial use, water transport >2 NA NA
CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION- Dead organic matter, pathogens, organic chemicals, nutrients, heavy metals, acids,
sediments, heat(thermal pollution), radioactivity
Food Webs
In looking at the previous picture, the concept of food chain looks very simple, but in reality it is more complex. Think
about it. How many different animals eat grass? And how many different foods does the hawk eat? One doesn't find
simple independent food chains in an ecosystem, but many interdependent and complex food chains that look more
like a web and are therefore called food webs. A food web that shows the energy transformations in an ecosystem
looks like this.
Names and Word Definitions
Producers. Organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs. The autotrophs, as
mentioned before, convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are called producers because all of the
species of the ecosystem depend on them for the production of food.
Consumers. All the organisms that can not make their own food (and need producers) are called heterotrophs. In an
ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others. They obtain food by eating other
organisms. There are different levels of consumers. Those that feed directly from producers (i.e., organisms that eat
plant or plant products) are called primary consumers. In the figure above, the grasshopper is a primary consumer.
Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those who feed on secondary consumers
are tertiary consumers. In the figure above, the snake acts as a secondary consumer and the hawk as a tertiary
consumer. Some organisms, like the squirrel, are at different levels. When the squirrel eats acorns or fruits (which are
plant products), it is a primary consumer; however, when it eats insects or nestling birds, it is a tertiary
consumer.Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.
Herbivores. Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products. Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits,
deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.
Carnivores. On the other hand, Carnivores are those that eat only other animals. Examples of carnivores are foxes,
frogs, snakes, hawks and spiders.
Omnivores. Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consumers) and meat (acting as
secondary or tertiary consumers). Examples of omnivores are:
Bears --They eat insects, fish, moose, elk, deer and sheep as well as honey, grass and sedges.
Turtles -- They eat snails, crayfish, crickets and earthworms, but also lettuce, small plants and algae.
Monkeys -- They eat frogs and lizards as well as fruits, flowers and leaves.
Squirrels -- They eat insects, moths, bird eggs and nestling birds and also seeds, fruits, acorns and nuts.
Trophic level. Trophic level corresponds to the different levels or steps in the food chain. In other words, the
producers, the consumers and the decomposers are the main trophic levels.
Water quality assessment
http://www.italocorotondo.it/tequila/module2/analysis/chemical_analyses.htm
Chemical, physical and microbiological analyses
The quality of water is determined by making measurements in the field or by taking samples
of water, suspended materials, bottom sediment, or biota and sending them to a laboratory
for physical, chemical, and microbiological testing. For example, temperature, acidity (pH),
conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, hardness, suspended sediments, turbidity, colour
and taste are measured in the field with portable equipment. Concentrations of metals,
nutrients, pesticides and microbiological contamination are measured in the laboratory with
specialised instruments and procedures.
The most common techniques for analysing water for easily detected factors are colourimetric
and titrametric testing methods.
Especially for the analysis of trace elements and organic contaminants more modern
analytical techniques are used such atomic absorption spectroscopy, chromatography, mass
spectroscopy (for pesticides, PCBs dioxins and other organic compounds), inductively coupled
plasma spectroscopy (for metals), immunochemistry and others. These techniques are
usually expensive and require sophisticated laboratory equipment.
Results are given in terms of concentration, which are usually expressed in units of either
parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per litre (mg/l). These two units are used
interchangeably by most persons, but are technically different. Concentrations greater than
10,000 mg/l are commonly expressed in percentage by weight.
Nowadays the analysis of water and sediment samples detects more substances than a
decade ago, partly because there are more substances present in water, but also because of
improved analytical instruments and consequently lower detection limits. State-of-the-art
analytical instruments can detect down to one part per trillion of some substances -
comparable to tracing one thousandth of a teaspoon of salt dissolved in an olympic-size
swimming pool.
Water sampling for water analyses
The first step for any test is getting a reliable, representative sample. The need for careful
sampling techniques varies according to the constituent being tested, i.e. bacteria and volatile
organics are very sensitive to sample collection procedure while hardness and salts are fairly
insensitive to sampling technique. Storage procedures before analysis and time between
sampling and analysis are also very important but again the importance varies substantially
for each substance.
The following procedures should be followed for general sampling:
1. The sampling bottle should be clean and sterile with nothing except the water to be sampled coming
in contact with the inside or cap of the bottle.
2. A faucet without leaks around the handle should be selected for sampling. It must be cleaned and
dried.
3. The water should run for an ample period of time to ensure fresh water from the well before
collecting a sample. The water should not make contact with any object before running into the
bottle. The sample should be capped immediately to preserve volatile compounds in the water and
prevent atmospheric contamination.
4. The sample should be analyzed within 24 hours to give accurate results. For best results, on-site
testing of water is suggested if possible.
Chemical and physical water analyses
Temperature pH Conductivity Turbidity
Dissolved oxygen (D.O) Oxigen demand Hardness Solids
Nitrogen Total Phosphorus Chlorides Chlorine
Oil and grease Metals Cyanide Toxic organic compounds

Temperature. Human activities should not change water temperatures beyond natural
seasonal fluctuations. To do so could disrupt aquatic ecosystems. Good temperatures are
dependent on the type of stream. Lowland streams, known as warmwater streams, are
different from mountain or spring fed streams that are normally cool.
In a warm water stream temperatures should not exceed 32 C. Cold water streams should not
exceed 20 C. Often summer head can cause fish kills in ponds because high temperatures
reduce available oxygen in the water.
pH. pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration [H
+
] in the
solution. For pure water the hydrogen concentration is 10
-7
moles per litre and the solution can
be characterised as pH 7. The pH can range from 0 to 14, but most potable water will range
from 6.5 to 8.5. Any solution with a pH below 7 is acidic; any solution with a pH above 7 is
alkaline.
It should be remembered that pH measures the concentration of hydrogen or hydroxide ions,
but it may not measure the total amount of acid or base in the solution. This is because most
acids and bases do not dissociate completely in water. That is, they only release a portion of
their hydrogen or hydroxide ions. To measure their total acidity or alkalinity, they have to be
titrated with base or with an acid respectively. That is, a solution of a base or of an acid
whose concentration is known must be added to the water sample slowly until the
neutralization is complete. By measuring the volume of the base added, you can figure out the
original concentration of acid.
pH can be determined using indicator solutions which change color in different pH ranges.
"pH paper", impregnated with such indicators, are commonplace in testing laboratories.
however for accurate measurements and dealing with dilute solutions, electrochemical
measurement (a pH-meter) is required.
Alkalinity and acidity are determined by titration with strong base or acid, respectively, using
either indicators or a pH meter to mark the endpoint.
Normal rain has a pH of 5.6 - slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in the
earth's atmosphere by the rain.
Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an important indicator of water that
is changing chemically. Pollution can change a water's pH, which in turn can harm animals and
plants living in the water.
Conductivity. Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an
electrical current. It is highly dependent on the amount of dissolved solids (such as salt) in the
water. Pure water, such as distilled water, will have a very low specific conductance, and sea
water will have a high specific conductance. Rainwater often dissolves airborne gasses and
airborne dust while it is in the air, and thus often has a higher specific conductance than
distilled water. Specific conductance is an important water-quality measurement because it
gives a good idea of the amount of dissolved material in the water.
It should be noted, however, that many organic materials dissolve in water without producing
ions. So, while a salt solution may have a high electrical conductivity, a concentrated solution
of sugar would go undetected by this method.
Turbidity. Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is measured by passing a
beam of light through the water and measuring photometrically the light scattered at right
angles to the beam. Results are expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Water
cloudiness is caused by material suspended in water. Therefore, turbidity is an indirect
measure of total suspended solids (TSS), even if the correlation will hold only for the particular
sample from which it was derived.
Dissolved oxygen (D.O.). Dissolved oxygen analysis measures the amount of gaseous
oxygen (O
2
) dissolved in an aqueous solution. A small amount of oxygen, up to about ten
molecules of oxygen per million of water, is normally dissolved in water. In fact, a saturated
solution at room temperature and normal pressure contains only about 9 parts per million of
D.O. by weight (9 mg/L). Oxygen gets into water by diffusion from the surrounding air, by
aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis. This dissolved oxygen
is breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to survive.
D.O. can be measured by a fairly tricky wet chemical procedure known as the Winkler
titration. The D.O. is first trapped, or "fixed", as an orange-colored oxide of manganese. This
is then dissolved with sulfuric acid in the presence of iodide ion, which is converted to iodine
by the oxidized manganese. The iodine is titrated using standard sodium thiosulfate. The
original dissolved oxygen concentration is calculated from the volume of thiosulfate solution
needed.
Measurements of D.O. can be made more conveniently with electrochemical
instrumentation. "D.O. meters" are subject to fewer interferences than the Winkler titration.
They are portable and can be calibrated directly by using the oxygen in the air.
Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river, tends to contain a lot of
dissolved oxygen, while stagnant water contains little. The organic matter degradation carried
out by water microorganism consumes oxygen. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and
rivers, a situation known as eutrophication, can cause an oxygen-deficient situation to occur.
Aquatic life can suffer in stagnant water that has a high content of rotting, organic material in
it, especially in summer, when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low.
Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary
element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen
levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below
5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the greater the stress.
Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills.
Sufficient D.O. is also essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatment
processes. Activated sludge tanks often have their D.O. monitored continuously. Low D.O
values may be set to trigger an alarm or activate a control loop which will increase the supply
of air to the tank.

Oxygen Demand. The biochemical oxygen demand, abbreviated as BOD, is a test for
measuring the amount of biodegradable organic material present in a sample of water. The
results are expressed in terms of mg/l of BOD which microorganisms, principally bacteria, will
consume while degrading these materials. As the measurement of BOD takes too long time
(20 days at 20C), the determination of BOD after 5 days incubation is preferred (BOD
5
), the
values of BOD5 being nearly 65% of the total BOD. Another test for measuring the oxygen
demand is the COD, or chemical oxygen demand test. It is a rapid (2 hour) test which
measures the oxygen required for the oxidation of all the substances of the water, included
those one not biologically decomposable. This test is fairly well correlated with BOD. An even
more rapid test, known as the TOC, or total organic carbon test takes only a few minutes,
but requires expensive instrumentation. It transforms the organic matter in CO
2
after
removing carbon dioxide from carbonate mineral dissolved or suspended in water. "Organic"
CO2 is then measured using chromatographic methods.
The COD test is done by heating a portion of sample in an acidic chromate solution, which
oxidizes organic matter chemically. The amount of chromate remaining (measured by a
titration), or the amount of reduced chromium produced (measured spectrophotometrically),
is translated into an oxygen demand value. Biodegradability, toxins, and bacteria are not
important, and the test is complete in about two hours. The figure will be higher than the BOD.
The TOC is done instrumentally. The organic carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide by
burning or by chemical oxidation in solution. The carbon dioxide gas is swept out and
measured by infrared spectrometry or by redissolving it in water and measuring the pH
change (the gas is acidic.) In the case of wastewater analysis, both COD and TOC can often be
correlated with BOD for a certain tipology of wastewater. As a rough guide, the COD of a raw
domestic wastewater is about 2.5 times the 5-day BOD.
The BOD test is performed in a specially designed bottle with a flared cap which forms a
water seal to keep out air. The bottle is filled completely with sample, which must be near
neutral pH and free of toxic materials. After an initial measurement of the D.O., the bottle is
sealed and stored in a dark incubator at 20 C for five days. The D.O. is measured again after
this incubation period. The difference is the BOD. (The bottles are kept in the dark because
algae which may be present in the sample will produce oxygen when exposed to light). In the
case of wastewater analysis, since most of them have BOD's which are much higher than the
limited solubility of oxygen in water, it is necessary to make a series of dilutions containing
varying amounts of sample in a nutrient-containing, aerated "dilution water." The measured
BOD's are then multiplied by the appropriate dilution factors. A variation of this test, called the
carbonaceous BOD, adds an inhibitor which prevents the oxidation of ammonia, so that the
test is a truer measure of the amount of biodegradable organic material present. Samples
which do not contain enough bacteria to carry out the BOD test can be "seeded" by adding
some from another source. Examples of samples which would need seeding are industrial
wastewaters which may have been at high temperatures or high or low pH, or samples which
have been disinfected. (If there is residual disinfectant present, it must be neutralized before
testing.)
For reasons discussed earlier, the depletion of oxygen in receiving waters has historically been
regarded as one of the most important negative effects of water pollution. Preventing these
substances from being discharged into our waterways is a key purpose of wastewater
treatment. Monitoring BOD removal through a treatment plant is necessary to verify proper
operation. However, because the test takes too long to be useful for short-term control of the
plant, the chemical or instrumental surrogate tests are often used as guides.

Hardness. The amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water determines its
"hardness."
Water hardness can be calculated as shown in the equation :
Hardness (mg/l) = 2,5 [conc. of Ca
2+
(mg/l)] + 4,1 [conc. of Mg
2+
(mg/l)]
The most frequently used standard classifies water supplies is shown in the following table.
Hardness Scale
ClassificationRange of hardness (ppm)Soft0 - 60Moderately Hard61 - 120Hard121 - 180Very Hard>180

Solids. Water normally contain solid material, both in dissolved and suspended forms.
Solids are also further classified as fixed or volatile. Fixed solids are basically the ash left
over after burning the dried solids; volatile solids are those that are lost in this procedure. The
sum of the two is referred to as total. Volatile solids are often used as an estimate of the
organic matter present.
Total solids (TS) are determined by drying a known amount of a sample at a temperature of 103 to
105 C. Results can be expressed in mg/l or percent by weight.
If the sample is then burned in a furnace at about 500 C, cooled, and weighed, the fixed (FS) or
volatile solids (VS) can be determined.
If the original sample is filtered through a tared glass-fiber filter, which is then dried, the weight of the
material captured on the filter is used to figure the total suspended solids (TSS). Burning the filter
in the furnace allows measurement of volatile suspended solids (VSS) or fixed suspended solids
(FSS).
The dissolved solids (DS) can be estimated from the difference between the total solids and the
total suspended solids, but the official method calls for drying the filtrate (the liquid which passes
through the filter) in a dish at 180C. Of course, there are TDS, FDS and VDS.
Suspended material can decrease the depth of the body of water. If there is a lot of
biodegradable organic material in the sediment, it will become anaerobic and contribute to
oxygen depletion. Toxic materials can also accumulate in the sediment and affect the
organisms which live there and can build up in fish that feed on them, and so be passed up
the food chain, causing problems all along the way . Also, some of the particulate matter may
be grease-- or be coated with grease, which is lighter than water, and float to the top, creating
an aesthetic nuisance.
Nitrogen. Nitrogen occurs primarily in the oxidized forms of nitrates (NO
3
-
) and nitrites
(NO
2
-
) or the reduced forms of ammonia (NH
3
) or organic nitrogen - where the nitrogen is
part of an organic compound such as an amino acid, a protein, a nucleic acid, or one of many
other compounds. All of these can be used as nutrients, although the organic nitrogen first
needs to decompose to a simpler form. High levels of nitrate can be found in water bodies
which receive runoff or percolation from heavy or improper fertilized soils. Nitrite level are
normally very low as bacteria in water quickly convert nitrites to nitrates.
Ammonia can be measured colorimetrically, after distillation from an alkaline solution to
separate it from interferences. It can also be determined by an electrode method,
sometimes without distillation, since there are fewer interferences. Organically-bound,
reduced nitrogen can be determined by the same methods after a digestion (the Kjeldahl
digestion) which converts the nitrogen in those compounds to ammonia. The combination of
ammonia and organic nitrogen is known as "Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen," or TKN. Nitrite is
determined colorimetrically. Nitrate can also be determined this way; the most popular way is
by first reducing nitrate to nitrite chemically using cadmium, then analyzing the nitrite. There
is an electrode method for nitrate, but it is not considered too accurate. Finally, ammonia (as
the positively charged ammonium ion, NH
4
+
), nitrate, and nitrite can be measured by ion
chromatography, as well.
Nitrogen is important in natural waters because, in excess, it can cause nuisance growth of
algae or aquatic weeds. In wastewater treatment, a deficiency of nitrogen can limit the
effectiveness of biological treatment processes. In some plants treating industrial
wastewaters, ammonia must be added as a supplement.
Water with nitrite levels exceeding 1.0 mg/l should not be used for feeding babies.
Nitrite/nitrogen levels below 90 mg/l and nitrite levels below 0.5 mg/l seem to have no effect
on warm water fish.
Total phosphorus. Phosphorus is found in water as phosphates which can exist in three
forms: orthophosphate, metaphosphate (or polyphosphate) and organically bound
phosphate. Each compound contains phosphorous in a different chemical formula. Ortho
forms are produced by natural processes and are found in sewage. Poly forms are used for
treating boiler waters and in detergents. In water, they change into the ortho form. Organic
phosphates are important in nature. Their occurrence may result from the breakdown of
organic pesticides which contain phosphates. They may exist in solution, as particles, loose
fragments, or in the bodies of aquatic organisms.
Phosphate can be measured by ion chromatography, also. Greater sensitivity, at lower cost,
is obtained by colorimetric methods which measure dissolved orthophosphate. Some
insoluble phosphates and condensed phosphates - so called "acid-hydrolyzable phosphate" -
can be included by heating the sample with acid to convert these forms to orthophosphate. If
the organic phosphate is to be included, to measure "total phosphate", then the sample must
be digested with acid and an oxidizing agent, to convert everything to the orthophosphate
form.
As nitrogen, phosphorus is important in natural waters because, in excess, it can cause
nuisance growth of algae or aquatic weeds. In wastewater treatment, a deficiency of
phosphorus can limit the effectiveness of biological treatment processes. In some plants
treating industrial wastewaters, phosphoric acid must be added as a supplement.
Chlorides. Chloride is a salt compound resulting from the combination of the gas chlorine and
a metal. Some common chlorides include sodium chloride (NaCl) and magnesium chloride
(MgCl
2
). Small amounts of chlorides are required for normal cell functions in plant and animal
life.
Public drinking water standards require chloride levels not to exceed 250 mg/l.

Chlorine. The pure element exists as the molecule, Cl
2
, which is a gas or a liquid at normal
temperatures, depending on the pressure. When dissolved in water, most of it reacts to form
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) which make the water more acidic.
Disinfection can be done using solutions of sodium hypochlorite, which produce the same
substances in solution. Hypochlorite ion is not considered as strong a disinfectant as HOCl, so
the pH can affect the disinfectant efficiency. Dissolved chlorine, hypochlorous acid, and
hypochlorite ion, taken together, are all known as free chlorine. Free chlorine can react with
ammonia in solution to form compounds called chloramines, which are weaker disinfectants
than free chlorine, but have the advantage of not being used up by side reactions to the
extent that free chlorine is. Free chlorine (and chloramines) also react with organic nitrogen
compounds to form organic chloramines, which are even weaker disinfectants. The
chloramines are termed combined chlorine and the sum of the free and combined forms are
called total chlorine.
There are several choices for chlorine measurement, some of which can distinguish between
free chlorine and the various chloramines. There are titrations involving visual, color-
indicator endpoints, as well as electrochemically measured endpoints. Some of them can be
used to differentiate among the various forms of chlorine depending on whether iodide ion is
added to the testing mixture. Amperometric titration is a sensitive electrochemical
method.
Chlorine is the most commonly used disinfecting agent for drinking water and wastewater. It is
coming into some disfavor because of toxic and carcinogenic byproducts, such as chloroform,
which are formed when it reacts with organic matter present in the water. Unless reduced to
chloride, chlorine itself is toxic to aquatic life in receiving waters. Pure chlorine liquid or gas is
also a storage and transportation hazard because of the possibility of accidental releases to
the atmosphere. Some treatment plants are switching to hypochlorite solution because it is
safer to handle.
Oil and Grease. They represent a class of materials which can be extracted from water
using certain organic solvents. They can be of biological origin (animal fat, vegetable oil) or
mineral (petroleum hydrocarbons) or they can be synthetic organic compounds. Fats and
greases from restaurants and food processing industries can clog sewers, causing blockages
and backups. Petroleum products can be toxic and flammable, and can coat surfaces and
interfere with biodegradation by microorganisms in wastewater treatment plants. They are
mostly biodegradable, especially biological oils and greases, but are a problem due to forming
a separate phase from the water.
The major method of analysis is liquid-liquid extraction. Currently, the chlorofluorocarbon
known as CFC-113 is used, but is due to be phased out in favor of the hydrocarbon, hexane,
because of the damage done by CFC's to the stratospheric ozone layer. In the procedure, the
sample is acidified, and then shaken several times with the solvent. The solvent portions are
combined and evaporated, and the residue is measured by weight. In a CFC solution, the
concentration of the oil/grease can also be measured by infrared spectrophotometry
without having to evaporate the solvent. To determine petroleum hydrocarbons alone, the
extract solution can be treated with the material, silica gel, which absorbs the more polar
biological compounds. A newer method, solid phase extraction, passes the water sample
through a small column or filter containing solid sorbent material which absorbs the oil and
grease. It is then desorbed from the sorbent using a solvent and analyzed as above.
Metals. Chemically, metals are classified as elements which tend to lose electrons in a
chemical reaction. As solids, they have easily movable electrons, which makes them good
conductors of electricity and reflectors of light. In compounds, they tend to be positively
charged, because they have lost electrons (which carry a negative charge), and they tend to
bind with non-metals. This tendency makes some of them, such as iron and magnesium,
biologically useful as part of biochemically active compounds like enzymes. Others, such as
lead, cadmium, and mercury are highly toxic because they interfere with the normal operation
of these biological compounds.
There are numerous colorimetric methods for metals. Most of them are more useful in a
purer medium, such as drinking water, than they are in wastewater, because of the presence
of interfering substances. The most popular methods in use today involve one form or another
of atomic spectroscopy. Another technique, X-ray spectroscopy, is useful primarily for
solid samples. There are also electrochemical methods, like polarography and anodic
stripping voltametry (ASV) which are quite sensitive; but due to their complexity, they are
usually thought of as being confined mostly to research purposes.
Cyanide. Cyanide is the name of an ion composed of carbon and nitrogen, CN
-
. It is used in
the mining and metal finishing and plating industries - usually as the sodium or potassium
salts, NaCN or KCN - because of its ability to bind very strongly to metals to form water-soluble
complex ions. This same property makes it highly toxic to living things because it prevents the
normal activity of biologically important, metal-containing molecules. It is, however,
biodegradable by some bacteria in low concentrations; and they can become acclimated to
higher concentrations if given enough time. For unacclimated microorganisms in a wastewater
treatment plant, however, a cyanide dump by an industry can lead to inhibition or even death,
which can cause a severe plant upset.
Cyanides are usually measured by a sensitive colorimetric / spectrophotometric procedure
which can detect levels down to about 5 parts per billion in water. Since much of the cyanide
in a sample is likely to be bound to metal ions, a digestion/distillation procedure is necessary
to measure total cyanide. Cyanide can also be measured by ion chromatography or an
electrode method, though the latter is not considered too accurate.
Toxic Organic Compounds. An organic compound is any compound which contains carbon,
with the exception of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, carbonates, or cyanides. There are
millions of possible compounds, with many useful properties. Many are biologically active,
since all living things are made up of organic molecules. Industries use and produce thousands
of organic compounds in manufacturing such items as plastics, synthetic fibers, rubber,
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and petroleum products. Some of the compounds are starting
materials; some are solvents; some are byproducts. Many organic compound can be
dangerous pollutants. One of the major groupings is volatile organic compounds (VOC's),
many of which are chlorine-containing solvents. The "semi-volatile" group include solvents,
PAH's (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, like naphthalene and anthracene which are coal
constituents), as well as pesticides (especially chlorinated pesticides) and PCB's
(polychlorinated biphenyls, which were formerly used in electrical transformers and other
products).
Most of these are analyzed routinely by gas chromatography (GC), often followed by mass
spectrometry (MS) for identification. HPLC is also used for some analytes. A technique
which is becoming available for field measurements for some of these compounds is the ELISA
immunoassay (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay).
Microbiological analysis
Pathogenic microorganisms. Sewage contains large numbers of microbes which can cause
illness in humans, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and worms (and their eggs or
ova). They originate from people who are either infected or are carriers. While many of these
can be measured directly by microscopic techniques (some after concentration), the analyses
most commonly performed are for so-called indicator organisms. These organisms, while
not too harmful themselves, are fairly easy to test for and are chosen because they indicate
that more serious pathogens are likely to be present. For instance, wastewater treatment
plants are often required to test their effluents for the group known as fecal coliforms, which
include the species E. coli, indicative of contamination by material from the intestines of
warm-blooded animals. Water supplies test for a more inclusive group called "total coliforms",
and in some cases, for general bacterial contamination (heterotrophic plate count, or HTP).
The two most commonly used methods of analysis for indicator organisms are the multiple
tube fermentation te chnique and the membrane filter procedure.
In the first method, a number of tubes containing specific growth media are inoculated with
different amounts of the sample and incubated for a particular time at a prescribed
temperature. The appearance of colors, fluorescence, or gas formation indicates the presence
of bacteria belonging to the target group. The number of organisms per 100 ml in the original
sample is estimated from most probable number (MPN) tables, which list the values of
MPN for different combinations of positive and negative results in tubes which contained
different initial volumes of the sample. Often, positive results must be confirmed by further
inoculation of small amounts of material from the positive tubes into tubes containing a
different media, which can extend the test to several days.
The second technique involves filtering a known volume of sample through a membrane filter
(made of a material such as cellulose acetate) which has a small enough pore size to retain
the bacteria. The filter is then placed in a dish of sterile nutrient media, either soaked into an
absorbent pad or in a gel such as agar, and sealed. The dish is incubated for the prescribed
time and temperature. The media contain a colored indicator which will identify the target
bacteria. Each bacterium in the original sample will result in a colony after incubation, which is
large enough to see without a great deal of magnification. The concentration in the sample
can be determined by direct count of the colonies, knowing the volume of sample used. In
some cases, these colonies require further confirmation.
Detection and enumeration of specific pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella, E. coli, or
Enterococcus can be done by similar methods, but utilizing specific growth media for each
type. Viruses are usually measured by concentration, followed by addition to cultures of
cells which they infect and counting the number of plaques formed due to cell destruction.
Pathogenic protozoa and ova of multicelled organisms are determined by concentration
and direct counting under the microscope, often with the aid of fluorescent staining
compounds.
Besides, direct observation, identification of pathogenic microorganisms can be done by
standard techniques used in clinical laboratories involving observing reactions in a battery of
different indicating media. Some newer methods use chromatography to identify patterns of
compounds which serve as "fingerprints" for certain bacteria; DNA analysis is another recent
innovation. Most wastewater treatment plants, however, confine their testing to simply
counting the numbers indicator bacteria.
WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT
Hydrologic cycle is a continuous circulation of water between the oceans, atmosphere, biosphere, and the soils and
rocks of the geosphere. Over 1.4 billion cu km of water exist on Earth. The vast majority of this water (96.5%) is saline (salty) water
in the oceans. Of the remaining 3.5% that is fresh water, most (59%) is held in long term storage in cold regions as polar ice sheets,
glaciers, and snow, while 30% lies beneath the earths surface as groundwater. Lakes account for a further 0.25%, rivers a tiny
0.006%, and the atmosphere contains just 0.04%.
The water cycle begins when water evaporates from oceans into the atmosphere. Atmospheric water returns to the
earths surface as precipitation in the form of drizzle, rain, glaze, hail, rime, snow, sleet. Precipitation is often typed according to
the factor mainly result from the lifting of air converging into a low pressure area, or cyclone (cyclonic precipitation), ascending
due to atmospheric instability (convective precipitation), or being forced to rise due to air movement over high ground
(orographic precipitation). Cloud droplets then grow to form raindrops, snowflakes, or hailstones by the accretion of further water
vapor or by colliding with one another.
When precipitation reaches the ground it usually seeps (infiltrates) into the soil, either percolating down to the water
table to become groundwater, or flowing slowly downhill as run-off. A large proportion of the precipitation received in an area
returns directly to the atmosphere by evaporation from moist surfaces, puddles, ponds, and lakes. This water return to the
atmosphere via the leaves and bark by process termed transpiration. The water cycle is completed when the run-off from a
drainage basin flows along a river to the ocean or a lake in order to replace that has evaporated.
Condensation
Precipitation
Zone of aeration
Infiltration
Run off transpiration
Water table
Percolation
Zone of saturation evaporation
Lake
River
Ocean
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Sources of water
1. Water on the surface of the earth that is exposed to the atmosphere is called surface water
2. Groundwater- water that lies beneath the surface of the earth
Processes of Hydrologic cycle
Evaporation: is when the sun heats up bodies of water,the water turns into vapor or steam. The vapor or steam leaves the body
of water and goes into the air, where it becomes a cloud.
Where does evaporated water come from? It comes from oceans, lakes, streams, ponds, and rivers.
The rate of evaporation depends on three things: 1) Temperature of the air and the water body. 2) Absoulte humidity of the air
above the free surface of the water body. 3) The wind speed- high winds keeps absoulte humidity low and stirs up the free surface.
How does water evaporate from humans and animals?
Lets take a look and see how water evaporates from humans and animals. Evaporation causes us to lose heat energy by removing
water from our skin and converting it to water vapor. When we sweat, evaporation has occured.
How does water escape from plants? Through transpiration and evapotranspiration.
Transpiration: is a process by which a plant loses water through its leaves.
Evapotranspiration: is the loss of water from the surface of a landscape by evaporation and transpiration.
Condensation
Clouds are categorized into five groups. Each cloud type is sectioned into a certain group depending on their appearance and the
cloud base height. English scientist, Luke Howard,in 1803 devised a system to organize all types of clouds. The classification of
clouds is based on Latin translation of each clouds appearance. Here is a chart with the Latin name and it's meaning.
Latin Root Translationcumulusheapstratuslayercirruscurl of hairnimbusrain
PrecipitationWhat is precipitation? Precipitation is water particles that form either rain, snow, sleet, or hail. Precipitation
forms when air rises, expands, and becomes colder, and since air can't hold as much moisture as warm air the water condenses
to form clouds and sometimes even forms rain or snow. This is caused by a combination of many different processes that cause air
to rise. To see more on the different properties of water check out this cool link.
Why do we need precipitation? At times, different forms of precipitation, may seem to do more damage
than good. For example, extreme rain causing flooding or snow storms that keep us locked up in our
houses. But did you ever think of the positive aspects of precipitation? Rain helps keep our crops growing
so we have food and ice acts as an shield for the fish living in the waters during the winter. Precipitation has
it's advantages and disadvantages..
What are the different forms of precipitation?
Hail: Hail is formed when updrafts carry
raindrops upwards into extremely cold
areas of the atmosphere where they freeze
and merge into lumps of ice. When the
lumps become to heavy they fall to the
earth. Hail can vary in size, from the size of
a small stone to that of a baseball. It can be
very dangerous too, so watch out if you
here that you may be having a hailstorm!
Here's a really good site on hail, take a
look!
The picture on the left shows a hail
storm taking place in a small downtown.
You can see the huge drops the hail is
making. The picture on the right shows a
few different sizes that hail can be.
Those things are huge!
This is a picture of sleet hitting a truck!
Sleet: Sleet is frozen raindrops. Sleet begins
as rain and falls through a deep layer of cold
air that contains temperatures below freezing
that exist near the surface. Rain that falls
through this extremely cold layer has enough
time to freeze into soft pellats of ice
This is a picture of freezing rain that has fall onto the ground! Look at
that fence!!
Freezing Rain: Freezing rain is normal rain, or liquid water
droplets, that fall from the atmosphere. Only these droplets have
been supercooled as they fall and when they hit the ground they
freeze. Freezing rain has many similar properties as sleet only
sleet falls from the atmosphere already frozen

You see, precipitation comes in all different types of forms, it isn't just rain and snow, it also includes hail and sleet. Sometimes
precipitation can be dangerous, like when there is hailstorm and the hail is the size of baseballs or when we have sleet and it
causes the roads to become very slippery. We do need precipitation for life here on earth though. It may cause a lot of problems,
but it is something we just can live without.
Evaporation is the process of loss of water from the surface of the earth.
Precipitation is the term applied to all forms of moisture originating in atmosphere and falling to the ground
Transpiration is the process of loss of water from the plants
Condensation takes place as soon as the air contains more water vapor than it can receive from a free water surface
Run-off is the portion of precipitation on the land that ultimately reaches streams
Percolation is the movement of water through the soil
Infiltration is the movement of water from the surface of the soil to the soil
Meteorological factors that affects evaporation: Solar radiation; air temperature; wind speed; humidity; available soil
moisture to the plants
Water table is the locus point in unconfined material where the hydrostatic pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure
GROUNDWATER SUPPLY
Zone of aeration is above the water table where the soil pores is filled with either water and air
Zone of saturation is below the water table where the soil pores is filled with water
Types of soil- sand, clay, silt
Nature of evaporating surface: vegetation, building, paved street
Types of plants: Mesophytes; xerophytes; phreatophytes; hydrophytes
Permeability is the property of soil which allow water to move through soil mass
Porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of the formation
Specific yield is the ratio of the volume of water that will drain freely from a soil to the total volume of water in the soil.
GEOLOGIC FORMATION
Aquifer is a geologic formation which contain water and transmits it from one point to another
Aquiclude is a formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish significant supply to a well or spring.
Aquifuge has no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water
Artesian is a groundwater that is overlain by two impervious layers that is usually under pressure because of the weight of the
overburden
raw chlorine
1
water sand
O
O O finished water
O O to the community
O
A TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT
Key 1. Chemical Mixing basin (coagulation), 2. Flocculation basin (flocculation), 3. Settling tank, 4. Rapid sand filter,
5. Disinfection with chlorine, 6 Clean water storage (clear well), 7. Pump
WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
1. Coagulation is the chemical alteration of colloidal particles to make them stick together forming a larger particles called flock.
When aluminum sulfate is added to the water containing colloidal material, the alum initially dissolves to form aluminum ion and
sulfate ion. But the aluminum ion is unstable and forms various types of charged species of aluminum oxides and hydroxides. The
specific forms of these compounds are dependent on the pH of the water, the temperature and method of mixing.
Two mechanisms important in the process of coagulation
Charge neutralization is the mechanism whereby the aluminum ions are used to counter the charge on the
colloidal particles
Bridging involves the sticking together of the colloidal particles by virtue of the macromolecules formed by the
aluminum hydroxides
2. Flocculation is a physical process that assists the growth of particles. The intent of the process of flocculation is to produce
differential velocities within the water so that particles can come into contact.
3. Settling simply allow the heavier-than water particles to settle to the bottom. Settling tank is designed to approximate a plug flow
reactor.
Variables that influence the movement of particles in settling tank- particle size, particle shape, particle
density, fluid density, fluid viscosity
Factors that cause non-uniform flow in settling- wind, density, temperature currents, inadequate baffling at the
tank entrance.
4. Filtration and backwashing- water from the settling basins enters the filter and seeps through the sand and gravel bed, through
a false floor and out into a clear well that stores the finished water. Backwashing is the process by which the solids that clogged at
the rapid sand filters must be cleaned.
5. Disinfection - following filtration and before storage in the clear well, the water is disinfected to destroy whatever pathogenic
organisms might remain. Commonly, disinfection is accomplished with chlorine, purchased as a liquid under pressure and released
into the water as chlorine gas using a chlorine feeder system. The presence of a residual of active chlorine in the water is an
indication that no further organics remain to be oxidized and that the water can be assumed to be free of disease-causing
organisms.
6. Storage in a clear well
7. Distribution of water- water pumped into the distribution systems usually contains a residual of chlorine to guard against any
contamination in the distribution system. This is why water from drinking fountains or faucets often has a slight taste of chlorine.
From the clear well in the water treatment plant, the finished water is pumped into the distribution systems. Such systems are under
pressure, so that any tap into a pipe, whether it is a fire hydrant or domestic service, will yield water.
SUSTAINABLE WATER USE
From a water supply use and management perspective, sustainable water use can be defined as the use of water
resources by people in a way that allows society to develop and flourish into an indefinite future without degrading the various
components of the hydrologic cycle or the ecological system that depend on it. Some general criteria for water use sustainability are
as follows:
+ Develop water resources in sufficient volume to maintain human health and well-being.
+ Provide sufficient water resources to guarantee the health and maintenance of ecosystems.
+ Ensure minimum standards of water quality for the various users of water resources.
+ Ensure that actions of humans do not damage or reduce long-term renewability of water resources
+ Promote the use of water-efficient technology and practice.
+ Gradually eliminate water pricing policies that subsidize the inefficient use of water.
With groundwater resources, the length of time for effective management for sustainability is even longer than for other
renewable resources. Effects of pumping groundwater at rates greater than natural replenishment rates may take years to be
recognized. Similarly, effects of withdrawal of groundwater, such as drying up of springs or reduction of stream flow, may not be
recognized until years after pumping begins. The long term approach to sustainability with respect to groundwater often involves
balancing withdrawals of groundwater resources with recharge of those resources, which is an important component of water
management.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Uses of Water: Drinking, Recreation; Commercial Navigation; Fish Propagation; Waste disposal
Types of Sewer
1. Sanitary sewers carry wastewater through large pipes flowing partially full using gravity feed
2. Collecting sewers collect wastewater from homes and industrial and converge at a central point.
3. Trunk sewers transport the wastewater from collecting sewers to wastewater treatment plant
4. Force main are inverted siphons and pipes from pumping stations, flow under pressure
5. Storm sewers carry storm water run-off away from developed area back to environment
Common contaminants in wastewater: organic material as measured by BOD, suspended solid, nitrogen, phosphorous; and
pathogenic organisms
Forms of wastewater
1 1 Domestic sewage results from people day to day activities such as bathing, body excretion, food preparation, and
recreation.
1 1 Industrial waste]
1 1 Inflow - storm water that seeps into sanitary sewer system through loose manhole covers
1 1 Infiltration occurs when sewer lines are placed below the water table or when rainfall percolates down to the depth of the
pipe.
AREAS OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
1. Preliminary treatment is the removal of larger particles to prevent damage to the remainder of the unit operation
2. Primary treatment is the removal of solid by settling, usually physical process as opposed to biological or chemical. It
removes 60% suspended solid, 30% BOD, and 20% phosphorous
3. Secondary treatment is the removal of the demand for oxygen, commonly biological in nature.
4. Tertiary treatment is the name applied to any number of polishing or clean-up processes, can be physical, biological, or
chemical.
5. Solid treatment and disposal is the collection, stabilization and subsequent disposal of solid by other processes.
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES
1 1

A TYPICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
Influent air Effluent
O
1
2 4 5 6
3
Sludge
8
7
1. Bar screen
2. Grit chamber
3. Primary clarifier
4. Aeration tank
5. Final clarifier
6. Chlorine contact tank
7. Digestor
8. Dewatering
AIR QUALITY
The atmosphere is a vital component of human environment. It transmits and alters the solar energy that controls our
climate. It acts as a shield, protecting us from damaging meteoritic impacts and from penetrating radiation. It supports
the flight of birds and insects and transports seeds and spores. Its gases provide the raw materials for life itself; without
them we could not exist. Atmosphere is a thin layer of gasses that envelopes the earth. Weather is the name we give
to the states of the sky, air, wind, and water. Weather elements are rain, snow, heat, wind, thunder and fog. Our
integrated experience of weather is the climate; the characteristic annual cycle of weather. Climate is the long-term
trend of temperature and precipitation (rain, snow). Weather is the day-to-day variation in temperature and
precipitation.
Climate is the subject of a great deal of debate, including and perhaps particularly, policy debate, these days. Are
humans changing the climate? If so, is that a bad thing? Should we try to stop it, and will the consequences to our
economy be dire?
Before we can address such questions, it would be helpful to know not only what climate is, but what factors affect it
and in what ways. Only then can we address what impact humans are having on climate.
Climate includes temperature and precipitation on the surface of the Earth. Climate is being driven by the Big Energy
Input-er, the Sun. The Sun is 93 million miles away from us, yet its nuclear reactions (2 H -> He + E) have a profound
effect on our small planet. The sun's output of energy(E) comes in many forms, from radio waves to ultraviolet energy.
The most noticeable to us on a sunny day are light and heat.
When the sun's rays strike the Earth, they make a direct hit at the equator and a strike a glancing blow at the poles.
This means that more energy strikes each square meter of Earth at the equator than at the poles. This uneven
distribution of heat input drives the atmosphere and ocean to distribute the heat towards the poles to make the heat
more evenly distributed.
Pure air is a mixture of gases, which contain 78% Nitrogen, 20.1% Oxygen, 0.9% Argon, 0.03% Carbon dioxide,
0.002% Neon, and 0.0005% Helium
If air moves relative to the ground, we feel or see it as wind, just air in motion. It is set in motion by a series of
forces:
11 Pressure gradient force tending to impel air motion from areas of high to areas of low pressure.
11 Gravitation, which tends to accelerate the air downward at a rate closed to 9.8 m/s/s
11 Friction acting opposite to the wind direction and proportional roughly to the square of the wind speed.
1 1 The Coriolis force , caused by the rotation of the earth often called the deflecting force of the earth rotation. It
acts at right angles to the wind direction and is proportional to the wind speed.
Kinds of Wind
4. Global wind caused by the differential warming and cooling of the earth as it rotates under the sun
5. Local Wind is caused by differential temperature between land and water masses
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. TROPOSPHERE - ranges from about 5 km at the poles and about 18 km at the equator where the
temperature decreases with altitude. Tropopause is the boundary between stratosphere and troposphere
2. STRATOSPHERE - is a layer of air where the temperature profile is inverted and has high ozone
concentration that adsorbs the suns shortwave ultraviolet radiation.
3. MESOSPHERE extend from the stratospause at 50 to 55 km to another temperature minimum to 80 km, the
mesopause. The mesosphere is windy and turbulent region, but there is usually too little water vapor for clouds
to form.
4. THERMOSPHERE is above the mesopause where temperature increases indefinitely upward, it is the hot
upper atmosphere.
Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere
Before it can reach the Earth, solar energy must pass through our atmosphere. Our atmosphere is a layer of mixed
gases that surrounds the Earth.
Our atmosphere consists of layers which have different densities (densest is closest to the Earth) and different
temperature regimes. These factors allow us to identify the following layers:
The key layer for us, living on the surface of the Earth, is the troposphere. This is where all of the weather occurs, and
where climate is determined.
The troposphere has its warmest temperatures at the Earth's surface, and cools as you rise through it.
The ozone layer extends from the top of the stratosphere into the thermosphere.The Earth's
atmosphere is composed of:
Oxygen, O
2
20.9%Argon, Ar0.9%Carbon dioxide, CO
2
0.033%Other, including: Ne, He, CH
4

(methane)0.003%water vapor, H
2
0variableTotal100%Although CO2, water vapor, and "other" gases are a
tiny component of the atmosphere, they have a huge impact on our weather, our climate, and our well-being. Nitrogen
is largely inert. Most solar radiation that passes through the atmosphere is unaffected by the presence of any of these
gases.It's when the radiation hits the Earth's surface that things start to heat up. Solar radiation can raise the
temperature of land and water, but it raises the temperature of land much faster. Solar radiation pretty much bounces
off white clouds and white glaciers and snowcover. This is called reflectance. Solar radiation that is reflected from
clouds, snow, and ice, is lost back to space without appreciably heating up anything on the Earth's surface.
LAPSE RATE is the change in temperature at the height of free atmosphere
TYPES OF LAPSE RATE
1. Adiabatic lapse rate is a term denoting no heat transfer such as between the air parcel and the surrounding air.
It is independent of prevailing atmospheric temperature.
2. Dry adiabatic lapse rate
3. Wet adiabatic lapse rate
4. Prevailing lapse rate is the actual temperature-elevation measurement
a. Super adiabatic lapse rate also called strong lapse rate occurs when the atmospheric temperature
drops more than 1 degree Celsius per 100 meter.
b. Sub adiabatic lapse rate also called weak lapse rate is characterized by drop of less than 1 degree
Celsius per 100 meter
Inversion is a special case of weak lapse rate, a condition that has warmer air above colder air.
2. Subsidence inversion are due to a movement of large warm air mass over a cooler air
3. Radiation inversion caused by the thermal radiation of heat to the atmosphere from the earth
Pollutants are those materials (gases, liquid, or solid) that when added to pure air will cause adverse effects.
Classification of Air Pollutants
1. Primary pollutants are pollutants emitted as such to the atmosphere
2. Secondary pollutants are pollutants actually produced in the atmosphere by chemical reactions
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS
A. PARTICULATES
1. Dust is defined as solid particles that are entrained by process gases directly from the material being
handled or processed such as ash, coal and cement
2. Fume is a solid particle frequently a metallic oxide formed by the condensation of vapors by
sublimation, distillation, calcinations, or chemical reaction processes.
3. Mist is an entrained liquid particle formed by the condensation of vapor and perhaps by chemical
reaction.
4. Smoke is made up of entrained solid particles formed as a result of incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous material.
5. Spray is a liquid particle formed by the atomization of parent liquid
The measurements of particulates is done using the high volume sampler that operates much like a
vacuum cleaner by simply forcing more than 2000 cubic meters of air through a filter in 24 hours. Some
indirect device that is used for estimating particulates is the nephelometer, which actually measures light,
scatter, the assumption being that an atmosphere that contains particulates also scatters light.
B. GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
1. Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas, intense chocking odor, highly soluble in water to form sulfurous
acid
2. Sulfur trioxide is highly corrosive soluble in water to form sulfuric acid
3. Hydrogen Sulfide is a highly poisonous gas with rotten egg odor at low concentrations, odorless at
high concentration.
4. Nitrous oxide is a colorless gas, used as carrier gas in aerosol bottles
5. Nitric oxide is a colorless gas produced during high temperature, high pressure, and combustion.
Oxidizes to Nitrogen dioxide
6. Nitrogen dioxide is a brown to orange gas which is a major component in the formation of
photochemical smog
7. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is a product of incomplete combustion
8. Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas formed during complete combustion.
9. Ozone is a highly reactive gas that is produced mainly during the formation of photochemical smog
10. Hydrocarbons emitted from automobiles and industries, others are formed in the atmosphere
11. Methane is a colorless, odorless flammable gaseous hydrocarbon which a product of decomposition
of organic matter.
12. Chlorofluorocarbons is a highly stable compound that is being used in spray cans as aerosol
propellants
SOURCES AND EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Natural processes
Particulates include pollen grains, fungus spores, salt spray, smoke particles from forest fires, and dust from volcanic
eruptions
Gaseous pollutants from natural sources include carbon monoxide as breakdown product in the degradation of
hemoglobin, hydrocarbons in the form of terpenes from pine trees, hydrogen sulfide resulting from the breakdown of
cysteine and other sulfur containing amino acids by bacterial action, nitrogen oxides and methane.
People made source of pollutants classified as:
1 1 stationary combustion,
Pollutants from combustions processes are sulfur oxides, organic acids, aldehydes, ammonia, and
carbon monoxide.
1 1 transportation,
Transportation sources particularly automobiles using internal combustion engine, constitute a major
source of air pollution. Particulates emissions from the automobile include smoke and lead particles. Gaseous
pollutants from transportation sources include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and hydrocarbons.
1 1 industrial processes
Pollutants emissions from industrial processes reflect the ingenuity of modern industrial technology.
Thus, nearly every imaginable form of pollutant is emitted in some quantity by some industrial operation.
1 1 solid waste disposal
Although solid waste disposal operations need not be a major source of air pollutants, many
communities still permit backyard burning of solid waste. Other communities use incinerators for solid waste
management. Burning is an attempt to reduce the volume of waste, but may produce undesirable odors, as well as
carbon monoxide, small amounts of nitrogen oxides, organic acids, hydrocarbons, and smoke.
Problems relating air pollution to health - existence of threshold, total body burden of the pollutants, time versus
dosage problem, and synergism (synergistic effects of various combination of pollutants)
Diseases caused by air pollutants lung cancer, asthma, emphysema
Health Effects of air Pollution
1. Particulate matter major health effects include effects on breathing and respiratory systems,
aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease, alteration of the bodys defense
systems against foreign materials, damage to lung tissue, carcinogenesis and premature mortality.
2. Sulfur dioxide- effects on breathing, respiratory illness, breakdown of lung defenses, aggravation of
existing respiratory and cardiovascular disease and death.
3. Carbon monoxide, the health threat of CO is greatest to those with cardiovascular disease because it
reduces oxygen delivery to organs and tissues. At elevated concentration CO impairs visual
perception, manual dexterity, and mental ability.
4. Nitrogen dioxides irritate the lungs, causes bronchitis and pneumonia, lowers resistance to respiratory
infections, and plays a major role in tropospheric ozone formation.
5. Ozone reduces lung function, usually with association with coughing, sneezing, chest pain, and
pulmonary congestion. High concentrations of ozone are frequently associated with eye irritation,
although this may not be the caused of ozone itself.
6. High lead exposures can cause seizures, mental retardation, and behavioral disorder.
Effects on Plants and Animals
Fluorine is emitted from aluminum, glass, phosphate, fertilizers and some clay baking operations in
significant quantities. The plant damage is observed on the fruit or on the flowers, either of which significantly lowers
the value of crop. Fluorine affects plants of concentrations several orders of magnitude below that at which human
health is affected. Fluorine has also effect even at lower concentration; the animals may develop fluorosis, resulting in
poor animal health and lower survival capability
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
1. ACID RAIN
One way in which sulfur dioxide is removed from the atmosphere is the formation of acid rain.
Normal, uncontaminated rain has pH of about 5.6 but acid rain can be as low as pH 2 even below. Acid rain
encompasses both wet and dry acidic deposition that occurs near and downwind of areas where major emissions of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides results from burning fossil fuels. The most important effect of acid rain is the
decline of fish population, which is specially damaging to sport fishing. Other aquatic effects of acid rain include
those on human who eat fish having an increased concentration of metal in their flesh . Acid rain poses an
insidious and potentially devastating threat to our forest; it has been shown that seedlings can be damaged by
moderately acidic rain (pH 4.6)
2. PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
The formation of photochemical smog is a dynamic process. Note that as the morning rush hour
begins the NO levels increase, followed quickly by NO2. As the latter reacts with sunlight, Ozone and other
oxidants are produced. The hydrocarbon level similarly increases at the beginning of the day and then drops off in
the evening. Particularly baffling was the formation of high ozone levels, which for every mole of NO2 reacting to
make atomic oxygen and hence ozone, one mole of NO2 is created from reaction with ozone.
3. OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone is an eye irritant at usual urban levels, but urban ozone should not be confused with
stratospheric ozone which occurs 7 to 10 miles above the earths surface. Stratospheric ozone acts as an ultraviolet
radiation shield. CFC emitted mostly from refrigeration units and spray cans can apparently alter this shield and
increase the risk of skin cancer as well as change global ecology in unpredictable ways, including contributing to
global warming. Two of the most important CFCs are trichlorofluoromethane, and dichlorofluoromethane, both of
which are inert and nonwater soluble and therefore do not washout the atmosphere. They drift into the upper
atmosphere and are eventually destroyed by the shortwave solar radiation releasing chlorine which can react with
ozone.
4. GLOBAL WARMING
The earth acts as a reflector to the suns rays receiving the radiation from the sun and reflecting some
of it into space (called albedo) and adsorbing the rest only to reradiate this into space as heat. Unfortunately, some
gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxide adsorb radiation at wavelengths approximately the
same as the heat radiation trying to find its way back to space. Because the radiation is adsorbed in the atmosphere
by these gases, the temperature of the atmosphere increases heating the earth. The system works exactly like a
greenhouse in that light energy through the greenhouse glass, but the long wave-length, low-frequency heat
radiation is prevented from escaping. The gases that adsorb the heat energy radiation are properly referred as
greenhouse gases since they in effect cause the earth to heat up just like a greenhouse.
INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS
ASBESTOS from fireproofing and vinyl floors
CARBON MONOXIDE from smoking, space heaters, and stoves
FORMALDEHYDE from carpets, ceiling tile and paneling]
PARTICULATES from smoking, fireplace and dusting
NITROGEN OXIDES from kerosene stoves, gas stoves
OZONE from photocopying machine
RADON from natural emitted gas diffused from soil
SULFUR DIOXIDE from kerosene heaters
VOLATILE ORGANICS from smoking, paints, solvents, cooking
Health problems from contaminated indoor air- eye irritation, headache, nausea, sneezing, dermatitis, heartburn,
drowsiness
Chemical Pollutants - asbestos, ethylene glycol, phenol, vinyl chloride, benzene, methanol
AIR QUALITY CONTROL
The easiest way and also the most economical solution to air pollution is to eliminate the source of the pollution. Air quality
control is often achieved by some form of air treatment similar in concept to water treatment.
TREATMENT OF EMISSIONS
Selection of the correct treatment device requires matching characteristics of the pollutant with features of the control
device. It is important to remember that the sizes of air pollutants range many orders of magnitude, and it is therefore not
reasonable to expect one device to be effective and efficient for all pollutants. In addition, the types of chemicals in emissions often
will dictate the use of some devices.
CONTROL OF PARTICULATES
1. Settling Chambers- the simplest device for controlling particulates consisting of nothing more than wide places in the exhaust
flue where larger particles can settle out, usually with a baffle to slow the emission stream.
2. Cyclone - the most popular, economical and effective means of controlling particulates
3. Bag (or fabric) Filters - used for controlling particulates, operate like the common vacuum cleaner. Bag filters are widely used in
many industrial applications, but are sensitive to high temperatures and humidity.
4. Spray Tower or Scrubber- is an effective method for removing large particulates, where high efficiency scrubbers promote the
contact between air and water by violent action in a narrow throat section into which water is introduced. This method has two major
drawbacks: (a) produce a visible plume (b) the waste is now in liquid form.
5. Electrostatic Precipitator- widely used in power plants, mainly because power is available. The particulate matter is removed
by first charging it by electrons jumping from one high voltage electrode to the other migrating to the positively charged collecting
electrode.
There are typically three types of ESP units: dry negative corona units, wet negative corona units and wet positive corona units. Dry
negative corona units have inherently better voltage/current characteristics, are utilized more frequently and will be the main focus
of this website; however, wet negative corona units will be discussed for their applicative differences. The following is a small list of
typical industrial applications for ESPs.
Refuse & sewerage sludge dryers and incinerators
Coal- and oil-fired boilers, coal driers and coal mills
Production plants for the cement, limestone, gypsum, pulp and paper industry (kilns, mills, driers and coolers)
Electro-metallurgical, chemical, gas and detergent manufacturing plants
SO2, SO3, acid mist and ammonia control (wet ESPs)
ESP Advantages:
ESPs are very efficient (up to 99% efficiency), even for small particals
They are generally more ecnomical than other particulat control devices:
Operating costs are reduced by low energy consumption, minimal maintanence requirements and reduced cost on spare
parts
Can be designed to handle wet and dry gas compositions for a wide range of gas temperatures
Can handle large volumes of gas flow with low pressure drop
ESP Disadvantages:
High intial capital costs
Dry ESPs can only control particulate emissions, not gas compositon emisions
Once installed, ESPs take up a lot of space and cannot be easily redesigned
May not work properly on high electrical resistive particals
ESP Operation and Basic Design
A dry negative corona ESP, is designed to generate and disperse negative electrons through suspended electrodes (wires). Excess
electrons migrate from the corona toward a positve (grounded) collection plate. Electrons are readily adsorbed onto passing
electronegative gas molecules and particals. As the electrons are accumulated on the dust particles they are transported and
deposited on to the collection plate. Below is a typical dry gas flow schematic of an ESP. For more detailed and thourough design
instruction, consult the ESP design videos on the Video Instruction page.
As dust particles collect on the grounded plate, they transfer their charge thus completing the electrical circuit. Particles are retained
on the plate by friction and the constant collection and transfer of particle electrons. As the dust layer increases, electron conduction
is dampened by the resistance. The measure of resistance is known as resistivity. Resistivity has a strong influence on particle
collection efficiency. View video #5 on the Video Instruction page for more information.
Rapping System
To improve collection efficiency and ensure proper functional use of the precipitator, a rapping system is applied to the collection
plates and electrodes to dislodge the collected dust layer. A falling weight or fixed rotating hammer raps the collection plates,
causing a vibration that knocks off the dust layer. The dust drops into steeply sloped hoppers, which are periodically emptied for
disposal. The collection plates should be smooth enough to prevent frictional resistance during rapping removal and have sufficient
oscillation behavior to ensure particle dislocation across the length of the plate. Each plate is rapped individually to minimize the
escape of dust particles from the system. Rapping intervals are dependent upon gas flow composition, corona voltage, and
precipitator size.
ESP Sizing
The volumetric flow rate and gas stream composition are the two important empirical factors for determining a precipitator design.
The velocity component, other wise known as the migration velocity, is the dominate factor which helps to determine the dust
removal efficiency. The following parameters can also effect the migration velocity component:
Particle chemical composition and electrical resistivity
Gas stream humidity
Gas stream temperature
Particle size distribution (Within the range of 0.01 m to 100 m)
Fly ash content at the precipitator inlet
Fly ash content at the precipitator outlet
The inlet gas stream typically has a high temperature and may require pretreatment. Flue gas conditioning should be considered to
facilitate particle collection. By spraying water into the flue gas, the fly ash is cooled to an efficient precipitator operating
temperature. In addition, this increases the gas humidity which lowers the dust resistivity. Particle resistivity is material, temperature
and humidity dependent and should be thoroughly understood for proper ESP design.
There are four fundamental ways to reduce emission of undesirable gases:
1. Reduce or eliminate the production of undesirable gases
2. Induce the gas to react after production in chemical processes to produce different, less objectionable emissions.
3. Selectively remove the undesirable product from gas stream by absorption which is the transfer of gas molecules into a liquid.
4. Selectively remove the undesirable gas by adsorption, which is the deposition of gas molecules on a solid surface.
CONTROL OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
The control of gases involves the removal of the pollutant from the gaseous emissions, a chemical change in the pollutant,
or a change producing the pollutant.
1. Wet Scrubbers- can remove gaseous pollutants by simply dissolving them in water; alternatively, a chemical may be injected
into the scrubber water, which then reacts in the pollutants.
2. Adsorption- is a useful method when it is possible to bring the pollutant into contact with an efficient adsorbed like activated
carbon.
3. Incineration or Flaring- is used when an organic pollutant can be oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. A catalytic
combustion is a variation of incineration whereby the temperature of the reaction is lowered by the use of a catalyst that mediates
the reaction.
CONTROL OF SULFUR OXIDES
The major source of sulfur oxides (SOx) is coal fired power plants. The increasingly strict standards for Sox control have
prompted the development of a number of options and techniques for reducing emissions of sulfur oxides. Among these options are
the following:
1. Change to low sulfur fuel- natural gas and oil are considerably lower in sulfur than coal, however, uncertain and expensive
supplies make this option risky.
2. Desulfurize the coal- sulfur in coal is either organic or inorganic. The inorganic form iron pyrate (FeS2), which since it occurs in
discrete particles can removed by washing. The removal of the organic sulfur (generally 60% of the total) requires chemical
reactions is most economically accomplished if the coal is gasified. (changed into a gas resembling natural gas).
3. Tall Stacks- a shortsighted method of SO2 control where incredibly tall stacks are built and disperse the SO2.
4. Flue-gas Desulfurization- the last option is to reduce the SO2 emitted by cleaning the gases coming from the combustion, the
so called flue-gas. The most widely used method of SO2 removal is to contact the sulfur with lime or limestone.
DISPERSION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Atmospheric conditions primarily determine the dispersion of air pollutants. If the conditions are super adiabatic, a great
deal of vertical air movement and turbulence are produced, and dispersion is enhanced. The super adiabatic prevailing lapse rate is
by contrast a very stable system.
Dispersion- is the process of spreading out the emission over a large area and thereby reducing the concentration of the specific
pollutants. The dispersion is dependent on both the atmospheric stability and the distance from the source...
The effect of atmospheric instability can be as follows:
1. A superadiabatic lapse rate produces atmospheric instability and a looping plume.
2. An adiabatic lapse rate evens out the plume, producing a coning plume.
3. If the plume is emitted into an inversion layer, a fanning plume will result; a highly descriptive name since from above it can be
seen that the plume fans out horizontally without any vertical dispersion.
4. A particularly nasty situation is the fumigation condition, when an inversion cap is placed on the plume, but a superadiabatic
lapse rate under the inversion causes mixing and high ground level concentrations.
CONTROL OF MOVING SOURCES
Although many of the previously mentioned control techniques can apply to moving sources as well as to
stationary ones, one very special moving source- the automobile- deserves special attention. Although the automobile
has many potential sources of pollution, there are only a few important points requiring control.
1. Evaporation of hydrocarbons (HCs) from the fuel tank
2. Evaporation of hydrocarbons from the carburetor.
3. Emissions of unburned gasoline and partially oxidized HCs from the crankcase.
4. The NOx, HCs and CO from the exhaust.
The evaporative losses from the gas tanks have been reduced by the use of gas tank caps that prevent the vapor from
escaping. Losses from carburetors have been reduced by use of activated-carbon canisters that store the vapors emitted when
the engine is turned off and the hot gasoline in the carburetor vaporizes. The third source of pollution, the crankcase vent, has
been eliminated by closing off the vent to the atmosphere and recycling the blow-by gases into the intake manifold. Positive
Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) Valve is a small check valve that prevents the build-up of pressure in the crankcase. Nitrogen oxides
from automobile exhausts are controlled by recirculating exhaust gas, diluting the air to fuel mixture being burned in engine.
Emission control techniques (internal combustion automobile engine)
1. Tuning the engine to burn efficiently- a tune-up can have a significant effect on emission components.
2. Installation of catalytic reactors- catalytic converters oxidizes the CO and HCs to CO2 and H2O
3. Engine Modifications- greatest advance in engine development so as to produce less emission.
One of the most destructive effects of automobile emission is the deterioration of building, statuary, and other materials.
RA 8749: THE PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999
Is a comprehensive air quality management policy and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all Filipinos.
Guiding Principles
Protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of
nature
Promote and protect the global environment while recognizing the primary responsibility of local government units to deal
with environmental problems
Recognize that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily area-based
Recognize that polluters must pay.
Recognize that clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should be the concern of all.
Working Agencies, Department, and Organizations
WHO World Health Organization
NSCB National Statistical Coordination Board
DENR Department of Environmental and Natural Resources
DOTC Department of Transportation and Communication
DOST Department of Science and Technology
NRDP National Research and Development Program
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
DOE Department of Energy
BPS Bureau of Product Standard
PNS Philippine National Standard
PAGASA Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Service Administration
PNRI Philippine Nuclear Research Institute
DEMB Department of Environmental Management Bureau
LGU Local Government Units
AIR POLLUTANTS means any matter found in the atmosphere other than oxygen, Nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and the
inert gases all in their natural or normal concentrations, that is detrimental to health or the environment, which includes but not
limited to smoke, dust, soot, cinder, fly ash, solid particles of any kind, gases, fumes, chemical mists, contaminated stream, and
radioactive substances.
MAJOR AIR POLLUTANTS IN METRO MANILA
Pollutants Sources Affected part of the body
Carbon monoxide Motor vehicle exhaust Lung, heart, brain, blood
Particulates Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial processes, refuse incineration, heat and
power generation
Lung
Sulfur dioxide Heat and power generation facilities that use oil or coal containing sulfur Lung, skin, eyes
Hydrocarbon Motor vehicle emissions, solvent evaporation, industrial processes, solid
waste disposal, fuel combustion
Lung
Nitrous oxide Motor vehicle exhaust, heat and power generation, nitric acid, explosives,
fertilized plants
Lung, Heart
OTHER POLLUTANTS
Ozone depleting substances (ODS) such as but not limited to CFCs, halons and the like
Greenhouse gases which include carbon dioxide, methane, oxides of nitrogen, and the like
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) which include but not limited to dioxin, furan, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
and organochlorine pesticides such as aldrin, dialdrin, DDT, hexachlotobenzene, lindane, toxaphere, and chlordane.
Radioactive emissions
Allowable chemicals
Within six months after the effectively of this act, unleaded gasoline fuel shall contain aromatics not exceed 45% by
volume and benzene not exceed 4% by volume, provided, that by year 2003, unleaded gasoline fuel should contain aromatics not
exceed to 35% by volume and benzene not to exceed 2% by volume.
Automotive diesel fuel which contains a concentration of sulfur in excess of 0.20% by weight with a cetane number of not
less than 48. Industrial diesel fuel which contains a concentration of sulfur in excess of 0.3% by weight.
Penalties
The driver and operator of the apprehended vehicle found to have exceeded the emission standard shall suffer the
following penalties
2 First offense- a fine in the amount of 1,000 pesos
3 Second offense- a fine in the amount of 3,000 pesos
4 Third offense- a fine in the amount of five thousand pesos and the offender must undergo a seminar on pollution
control and management conducted by DOTC/LTO
In case the third offense was committed within a year from the commission of the first offense, an additional penalty of
suspension of the Motor Vehicle Registration for a period of one year shall be imposed
Any person who burn municipal waste shall be punished with 2 years and one day to four years imprisonment
Any person who burns bio-medical waste shall be punished with 4 years and one to six years imprisonment
Any person who smokes inside a public building or enclosed public place, including public utility vehicles or other means of
public transport or in any enclosed area outside of his/her private residence, private place of work or any duly designated
smoking area shall be punished with 6 months and one day to one year imprisonment or a fine of ten thousand pesos
Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into commerce, conveys or otherwise disposes of
in any manner leaded gasoline shall be punished with 3 years and one day to 5 years imprisonment and liable for the
appropriate fine.
Any person who manufactures, imports, sells, offers for sale, introduces into commerce automotive diesel fuel which do
not meet the fuel specifications as revised by the DOE shall be punished with 3 years and one day to 5 years
imprisonment and liable for the appropriate fine.
For stationary sources of pollutants, a fine not exceed of 100,000 pesos for every owner or operator per day of violation
until such time that the standards have been complied.
WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP CLEAN THE AIR
Maintain your vehicle by changing oil regularly (every 5,000km)
Keep the engine well tuned following the owners manual
Keep tires properly inflated
Plan trips and observe proper driving habits
Remove unnecessary things from the trunk. Dont overload and travel only at a speed required by traffic regulations and
road conditions
Try talking to jep/bus/trycicle driver about the high health risk of poor vehicle maintenance and improper driving
Patronize mass railway transit
Reduce air conditioning and ensure that rooms are sealed
Dont burn garbage
Avoid using aerosols
Properly disposed refrigerant refrigeration equipment, and used coolant
Talk to people on what they can do about air pollution
Report smoke belchers to LTO,MMDQ and/or the appropriate LGU
Walk or ride your bike to places
Plant trees
Use natural lighting by opening window curtains at daytime
Spread the word about the ban on smoking in public places.
SOLID WASTE
Solid waste can be defined as waste not transported by water that has been rejected for further use. It includes all the
discarded solid materials from municipal, mining, industrial, and agricultural activities. Common ordinary household
and commercial waste, called refuse or sometimes called municipal solid waste (MSW). Technically, refuse is made
up of garbage, which is food waste, and rubbish that include a variety of materials, which may be combustible (paper,
plastic, textiles, etc) or noncombustible (glass, metal, masonry, etc.). Trash is larger items such old refrigerator, tree
limbs, mattresses, and other bulky items that are not commonly collected with the household refuse.
Solid waste from households and commercial establishment is collected by trucks. Sometimes these are open
bed trucks that carry trash or bagged refuse, but often these vehicles are packers, trucks that use hydraulic rams to
compact the refuse to reduce its volume and make it possible for the truck to carry larger loads.
Route optimization- is the selection of proper route for collection vehicle.
Rules that suggest in common sense routing
Try to always make a right hand turn
Try to travel in a long straight line
Try not to leave a one way street as an exit from a node
REUSE, RECYLING, AND RECOVERY OF MATERIAL FROM REFUSE
The ultimate objective of three Rs is to reduce the amount of urban and other waste that must be disposed of
in landfills, incinerators, and other waste management facilities.
Source separation- is the separation into different types of materials by the person who decide to produce the waste.
Resource recovery is the retrieval of energy or reusable materials from the waste stream and converts a liability into
asset by adding to the supply of available materials and energy.
Resource recovery facility
1. Shredder, which decrease the particle size of refuse by grinding up the larger pieces.
2. Air classifier, which separates the light paper and plastics
3. Magnetic drum, which separates iron and steel.
4. Screens, which separates glass.
Recycling- is the collection and subsequent reintroduction of this material into public sector
Aluminum Recycling. Due to the high cost of imported aluminum ore (bauxite) and the development of an extensive
collection and processing infrastructure, aluminum is the most successfully commodity.
Paper and Cardboard Recycling. Although paper and cardboard combined represent the largest category of MSW,
efforts to recycle the various types of paper have met with only limited success. These have been attributed to three
factors:
6. The abundance of relatively cheap virgin fiber in the US and Canada
7. The long distances between many urban centers and the processing mills
8. Limited mill capacity to deink and reuse post consumer paper.
Plastic recycling. The production of plastic has increased dramatically in the past 20 years, due primarily to its
increased use in packaging and as container material; however, only little production is recycled. Reasons for the low
rate for plastic recycling are:
Scrap plastic has little value because virgin material is relatively cheap.
A nationwide infrastructure for collection and processing does not exist
The low density of plastic leads to high shipping and handling costs.
Common types of plastic that maybe recycled
Code
No.
Chemical Name Nickname TYPICAL USES
1 Polyethylene
terephthalate
PETE Soft drink bottles
2 High density
polyethylene
HDPE Milk Cartoons
3 Polyvinyl Chloride PVC Food packaging, wire insulation and pipe
4 Low density
polyethylene
LDPE Plastic film, used for food wrapping, trash bags, grocery bags and
baby diapers
5 Polypropylene PP Automobile battery castings and bottle caps
6 Polystyrene PS Food packaging, foam cups and plates, and eating utensils
7 Mixed Plastic Fence posts, benches and pallets
Glass Recycling. Because recycled crushed glass (or cullet) melts at a lower temperature than the raw material used in
glass production, the use of increased cullet in glass making will result in energy savings for the manufacturer. As
result, glass manufacturer can afford to pay slightly more for cullet than for raw materials (sand, soda, ash, and
limestone)
Ferrous metal recycling. Tin cans, the major category of recycled ferrous metal must be separated from non-ferrous
materials, compacted, and detinned prior to reuse. The high costs of shipping cans to detinning facility combined with
an unstable market for scrap steel often make the recycling of tin cans uneconomical.
PRODUCTS MADE FROM RECYCLED WASTE
Waste material Product Waste material Product
Paper Hardboard, printing, writing,
sanitary, packaging, insulation,
construction paper
Fly and bottom ash Roadfill, roadbase stabilizer,
concrete additive, cement, aggregate
Sludge Compost, Roadbeds Sulfur Asphalt cement
Rubber(tires) Pavement, retreads, reefs. Aluminum Siding
Plastic Pipes Refuse derived fuel Energy
Glass Ceramic bricks, glasphalt, concrete Wood,metals,textil
es
Office furniture
Iron and steel Bars, cast iron pipes, structural
shapes
Kiln, lime, gypsum
dust
Chemical waste neutralizer,
fertilizer
Slag Cement Various chemicals Paint, soap, wax
REASONS FOR RECYCLING
1. Resource conservation
2. Energy conservation
3. Pollution reduction
4. Land conservation
5. Economic savings
DISPOSAL OF REFUSE
1. On site disposal- the common method is the mechanical grinding of kitchen food waste, device installed in the
wastewater pipe system at the kitchen sink
2. Composting- biochemical process in which organic materials are decomposed to a rich, soil like material.
3. Incineration- combustion of waste at high temperature, consuming material and leaving only ash and non
combustibles to dispose of in a landfill.
4. Open dumps-area where solid waste is disposed of by simply dumping it. Often causes severe environmental
problems, such as water pollution, and creates a health hazard.
5. Sanitary landfill- a method of disposal of solid waste without creating a nuisance or hazard to public health or
safety. Sanitary landfills are highly engineered structures with multiple barriers and collection system to minimize
environmental problems.
Life Cycle Analysis- a holistic approach to pollution prevention by analyzing the entire life cycle of a product,
process, or activity, encompassing raw materials, manufacturing, transportation, distribution, use, maintenance,
recycling, and final disposal.
FUEL FROM WASTE
1. Solid waste may be burned directly in incinerators ( a process called mass burning) or converted to ore
efficient refuse derived fuel, it can produce hot water or steam for heating and for driving turbines to generate
power.
2. Refuse derived fuel (RDF). When municipal was is shredded, combustible portion may be palletized into
solid fuel particles ( 1 to 1.5 cm) or burned directly with coal, using a mixture contains 5-25% refuse, to
generate steam. They generate about 2,000 Mw of electricity enough to power about 1.1. million homes.
3. Methane Recovery, as organic wastes decompose in landfills, they produces gases, predominantly methane
and carbon dioxide. A build up of methane can cause fire or explosion, but it was found that methane is a
commercially recoverable fuel and can provide electricity.
4. Bioconversion, although solid waste decompose to methane and carbon dioxide under landfill conditions, this
process can be accelerated artificially by means of anaerobic digester. Sewage sludge containing decomposers
is mixed under anaerobic conditions which shredded combustible components of municipal solid waste.
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
The objective of solid waste management are to control, collect, process, utilize, and dispose of solid wastes in
the most economical way consistent with the protection of public health and the natural environment and the wishes of
those served from the system.
1. Source Reduction- the first mean of attacking the problem, reducing the amount of waste coming from a source.
2. Recycling - the second option and should be undertaken when most of the waste-reduction options have been
implemented.
3. Combustion- the third level of solid waste management plan which really should mean all methods of treatment. The
idea is to take the solid waste stream and to transform into non polluting product.
4. Land filling -the final solution when there is still waste left over, if all of the above techniques have been
implemented.
Gas vent
Daily refuse
Refuse compacted and covered
Undisturbed ground
Leachate collection system
A SANITARY LANDFILL
The buried organic material decomposes anaerobically, producing various gases such as methane (about 50%)
and carbon dioxide, and liquids that have extremely high pollutional capacity when they enter the groundwater. Liner
made of either impervious clay or synthetic materials such as plastic to prevent the movement of leachate into the
groundwater. Modern landfills required the gases to be collected and either burned or vented to the atmosphere.
Mixed wastes with varying degrees of compaction are delivered to the site in packer trucks. Some hand sorting
of incoming wastes will be necessary and pulverizing or high pressure compaction and baling for volume reduction
may precede placement. Loose material is placed at the lower part of the prepared trench and then spread and
compacted by machine in layers of about 0.5 m thickness. When the depth reaches 2 to 3 m, and at the end of each day
operation, the refuse is covered with 150 to 300 mm of earth. This consolidated sold waste enclosed by earth is called
cell and normally contains 1 days waste.
A sanitary landfills eliminate most of the problems associated with an open dump because wastes are sealed
between successive layers of dirt each day, but poorly operated landfill may result to odors, insects and birds attracted
by the organic refuse.
Contamination of the groundwater by leachate high in organics, dissolved solids, and other constituents can be a
serious problem where nearby wells are used for water supply. Methane and carbon dioxide generated by the anaerobic
decomposition of organics in the landfill are also a concern. Methane is explosive and can act as asphyxiating agent.
RA 9003: THE ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000
An act providing for an ecological solid waste management program, creating the necessary institutional
mechanisms and incentives, declaring certain acts prohibited and providing penalties, appropriating funds therefore,
and for other purposes.
INTRODUCTION:
Metro Manila generated an estimate of 5948 tons of solid per day. Within five (5) years after the effectivity of
RA 9003, approximately 1,500 tons should be diverted from simply disposable to recycled, re-used or compost
products. A world bank-funded study discovered that as early as 1982, despite a lower volume of waste, 1,839 tons
could possibly recover.
TYPE OS WASTE IDENTIFIED BY RA 9003
1. Solid waste- all discarded household, commercial waste, non-hazardous institutional and industrial wastes,
street sweepings, construction debris, agricultural waste, and other non-hazardous/non-toxic solid waste.
2. Special waste- these are household hazardous wastes such as paints, thinners, household batteries, lead-acid
batteries, spray canister, and the like. These include waste from residential and commercial sources that
comprise of bulky wastes, consumer electronics, white goods, yard wastes that are collected separately, oil,
and tires. These wastes are usually handled separately from other residential and commercial wastes.
3. Hazardous waste- these are solid, liquid, contained gaseous or semi-solid wastes which may cause or
contribute to the increase in mortality, or in serious or incapacitating reversible illness, or acute/chronic effect
on the health of people and other organisms.
4. Infectious wastes- mostly generated by hospitals.
5. Wastes resulting from mining activities including contaminated soil and debris.
The paradigm of RA 9003 is waste resource that can be recovered, emphasizing recycling, re-use and
composting as method to minimize and eventually manage the waste problem. Solid waste management starts at the
point where people learn how to conserve the resources available, thus promoting sustainable development. Awareness
on how to conserve resources is expected to reduce the volume of waste generated whether at the industrial level or
household and commercial level. Awareness on how to conserve resources will require extensive education to change
the values of the people.
RA 9003 identifies the following as transfer station: buy back centers, the material recovery facilities, and
other waste management facilities that can be developed in the future. Food, yard, and other agricultural wastes shall
be processed through composting and eventually distribute or used as organic fertilizers. Non-recyclable waste shall be
disposed of in sanitary landfills, controlled dumps or other waste management facilities. Throughout this system, the
use of new and appropriate technology will be significant. This responsibility is vested upon the National Ecology
Center. For one, the technology for recycling should not incur more costs than benefits in terms of income or
usefulness of the recycled product, and must be comparable quality to existing product. Another would be the shift
from the use of inorganic to organic fertilizers. However, this usually affects crop yield negatively, thus it is often
unacceptable to poor and marginalized farmers who comprise a large majority of the population.
POLICIES
1. Ensure the protection of public health and environment.
2. Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resources and encourage
resources conservation and recovery.
3. Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction and waste minimization measures.
4. Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the
formulation and adoption of the best environmental practices in ecological waste management excluding
incineration.
5. Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and resource
conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of
waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery.
6. Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management.
7. Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while
establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government unit, non government
organization and private section.
8. Encourage cooperation and self regulation among waste generators through the application of market based
instruments.
9. Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated,
comprehensive and ecological solid waste management programs.
10. Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery
topics into the academic curricula of formal and non formal education in order to promote environmental
awareness and action among the citizenry.
COMPREHENSIVE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT includes:
1. National solid waste management status report shall include but not limited to the following:
a. Inventory of existing solid waste facilities.
b. General waste characterization, taking into the account the type, quantity of waste generated and
estimation of volume and type of waste for reduction and recycling.
c. Projection of waste generation
d. The varying regional geologic, hydrologic, climate, and other factors vital in the implementation of
solid waste practices.
e. Population density, distribution and projected growth
f. The political, economic, organizational, financial and management problems affecting comprehensive
solid waste management act.
g. Systems and techniques of waste reduction, re-use and recycling.
h. Available markets for recyclable materials.
i. Estimated collection
2. Mandatory Segregation of solid waste
- The local government provides for the resident a designated area and containers in which to accumulate
source separated recyclable materials that to be collected by the municipality or private center. There shall be
separate containers for each type of waste and shall be properly marked as compostable, recyclable, non-
recyclable, or special waste
3. Collection and transport of solid waste shall be done in manner which prevents damage to the container and
spillage or scattering of solid waste within the collection vicinity. Separate collection schedules and /or
separate trucks or haulers shall be required for specific types of waste. Vehicles used shall have the appropriate
compartments that have a cover to facilitate efficient storing of sorted waste while in transit, and shall be
designed to consider road size with body number, name and telephone number of the contractor/agency
collecting solid waste.
4. Recycling Program
5. Composting
HAZARDOUS WASTE
A hazardous substance is defined as any substance that because of its quantity, concentration, or physical, chemical or infectious
characteristics may cause, or significantly contribute to, an increase in mortality; or cause an increase in serious irreversible, or
incapacitating reversible illness; or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health and the environment when not
properly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.
The waste can be defined to be at least one of the following characteristics:
Flammable materials are defined as those liquids with flash points below 60C, or those materials that are easily ignited
and burn vigorously and persistently
Corrosive materials are those that, in an aqueous solution, have pH value outside the range of 2.0 to 12.5, or any liquid
that exhibits corrosively to steel at a rate greater than 6.35 mm/year.
Reactive waste are classified as unstable and able either to form toxic fumes or to explode.
Toxicity
The EPA defined toxicity in terms of four criteria
Bioconcentration is the ability of a material to be retained in animal tissue to the extent that organisms higher on the
trophic level will have increasingly higher of this chemical
LD50 (Lethal Dose 50%) is a measure of how much of a certain chemical is needed to kill half of group of specimens such
as mice.
LDC50 (Lethal Dose Concentration 50%) is the concentration at which some chemical is toxic, and this is used where the
amount ingested cannot be measured, such as in aquatic environment or in evaluating the quality of air.
Phytotoxicity- toxicity to plants
List of Hazardous waste
Spent halogenated solvents used for degreasing, such as trichloroethylene, methylene chloride, and others.
Spent no halogenated solvents such as xyclene, acetone, ethyl benzene, ethyl ether, and others.
Wastewater treatment sludges from electroplating operations
Dewatering air pollution control rubber sludges from coke ovens and blast furnishes
API separator sludges from petroleum refineries.
Three types of hazardous waste from their source to ultimate disposal
1. Radioactive materials- nuclear power is the root cause of radioactive waste problems, initially from mining and processing of
uranium fuel and the resulting mine tailings and eventually from the spent fuel of nuclear reactors.
2. Medical waste- The US Medical Waste Tracking Act , which was enacted by Congress in
response to public concerns after syringe, needles, and other medical waste washed ashore on the US east coast in 1988
defines regulated medical waste as:
Cultures and stocks of infectious agents
Human pathological wastes
Human blood and blood products
Sharp implements: used and unused
Contaminated animal wastes
Isolation waste from patients with highly communicable disease
3. Non-radioactive liquid industrial wastes
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Cleanup of Old Site
Containment is use where there is no need to remove the offending materials, and/or if the cost of removal is prohibitive.
Extraction and Treatment is the pumping of contaminated groundwater to the surface for either disposal or treatment, or
the excavation of the contaminated soil for treatment.
In situ treatment of the contaminated soil involves the injection of either bacteria or chemicals that will destroy the
offending material
2. Treatment of Hazardous Material
Biological treatment is the least expensive and most dependable treatment, if the hazardous material is organic and
is readily biodegradable.
Chemical treatment is an alternative strategy, specially for inorganic waste
Physical-chemical methods- are employed mostly in the industry, including reverse osmosis, electro dialysis,
solvent extraction, ion exchange.
Physical processes- available for solid-liquid separation, including centrifugation, flotation, sedimentation and
filtration. Activated carbon is effective in extracting toxic organics
Incineration - one of the most widely used treatment techniques for organic waste. It is the thermal oxidation of
organic matter into carbon dioxide, water, and inert ash.
Co-metabolism -a treatment that the hazardous material is mixed with a non hazardous material and at least partially
biodegradable material
3. Disposal of Hazardous Materials
Deep well Injection - the idea is to inject the waste so deep into the earth so that it could not in any conceivable time
reappear and cause damage.
Land disposal - spread the waste on land and allow soil microorganisms the opportunity to metabolize the organics.
Secure landfill - the method most widely used fir the disposal of hazardous material that require multiple liners, and all
waste must be stabilized or in containers.
As was the case for solid waste management, the EPA has proposed a hierarchy of preferred hazardous waste
management practices. They are in order of priority:
1. Waste reduction
2. Waste separation and concentration
3. Waste exchange
4. Energy/material recovery
5. Incineration/treatment
6. Secure land disposal
RADIOACTIVE WASTE MANAGEMENT
A special type of hazardous material emits ionizing radiation, and this radiation can be highly detrimental to human health.
Ionizing Radiation
Isotopes of various chemicals have different ratios of neutrons and protons in the nucleus, and some of these
combinations are unstable. To regain equilibrium, these isotopes decay by emitting protons, neutrons, or electromagnetic radiation
to carry off energy. The decay or nuclear disintegration of isotopes is called radioactivity. The isotopes that decay in this manner
are called radio-isotopes, and the energy emitted by this decay is called ionizing radiation.
THREE KINDS OF IONIZING RADIATION
1. Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons and are the equivalent of the nucleus of helium atom.
2. Beta radiation results because of the instability in the nucleus between the protons and neutrons. Having many neutrons some
of the neutrons decay into proton and electron.
3. Gamma radiation- a release of energy from a change of nucleus n an excited state to a more stable state.
UNITS OF ENERGY THAT EXPRESSES IONIZING RADIATION
1. Roentgen- the exposure of gamma or x-ray radiation equal to a unit quantity of electric charged produced in the air.
2. REM (roentgen equivalent man) - used to measure the extent of the biological injury that would result from the absorption of
nuclear radiation.
3. Gray - the quantity of ionizing radiation that result in absorption of one joule of energy per kilogram f absorbing material
4. Sievert - an absorbed radiation dose that does the same amount of biological damage to tissue as one Gy of gamma radiation or
X-ray. One Sv is numerically equal to 100 rem.
SOURCES OF EXPOSURE OF HUMANS TO RADIOACTIVITY
1. Background radiation is due mostly to cosmic radiation from space, the natural decay of radioactive material in rocks
(terrestrial), and radiation from living inside building.
2. Voluntary radiation can occur from such sources as diagnostic X-ray cab produce hundreds of times the background radiation,
and these should be avoided unless critically necessary. Another source is from high altitude flights in commercial airlines.
3. Involuntary incidental radiation would be from such sources as nuclear power plants, weapons facilities, and industrial
sources.
4. Involuntary radiation due to accident
Classification of Radioactive waste
1. High level waste- occurs mostly from the production of electric power, and these are identified by the activities in the range of
curies per liter.
2. Intermediate level waste- is produced by weapons manufacture, and although their activities are in the range of millicuries, the
particular isotopes are long-lived, and these wastes require long term storage.
3. Low-level waste- characterized as those with activities in the range of micro curies per liter, is produced in hospitals and
research laboratories.
POLLUTION PREVENTION- the use of materials, processes, or practices that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants or
waste at the source. It includes practices that reduce the use of hazardous materials, energy, water or other resources and
practices that protect natural resources through conservation or more efficient use.
Procedure for the implementation of pollution prevention
Recognize a need
Asses the problem
Evaluate the alternative
Implement the solution
Useful Options in Pollution Prevention
Operational changes might consist simply of better housekeeping, plugging up leaks, eliminating spills, and the like.
Material changes often involve the substitution of one chemical for another that is less toxic or requires less hazardous
material for clean up.
Process modifications usually involve the greatest investments, but can result in the most rewards.
Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution or Sound Pollution, exposure of people or animals to levels of sound that are annoying, stressful, or damaging to
the ears.
Pure sound is described by pressure waves traveling through air. These pressure waves are described by their amplitude and their
frequency.
Sound intensity is measured in units called decibels. The decibel scale is logarithmic and climbs steeply: An increase of
about three decibels is a doubling of sound volume. In the wilderness, a typical sound level would be 35 decibels. Speech runs 65
to 70 decibels; heavy traffic generates 90 decibels. By 140 decibels, sound becomes painful to the human ear, but ill effects,
including hearing loss, set in at much lower levels.
The frequency in cycles per second (Hz) and the amplitude in decibels describe a pure sound at a specific frequency. A
true picture of sounds is obtained by a frequency analysis, in which the sound level at a number of different frequencies. By
convention, frequencies are designated as octave bonds that represent a narrow range of frequencies
Most noise pollution comes from machines, especially automobiles, trucks, and aircraft. Construction equipment, farm
machines, and the din of machinery inside factories can be dangerously loud. Some home appliances, shop tools, lawnmowers,
and leaf blowers can also be noisy, as are guns, firecrackers, and some toys. Even music, when played at very high volume,
particularly through personal headphones, is as damaging to the ears as a roaring chain saw.
Even the oceans are increasingly noisy. The engines of ships, especially large vessels and supertankers, produce a lot of
sound, and traffic is increasing. Offshore oil exploration and drilling are also noisy. And more recently, very loud, low-frequency
sonar signals are being sent through the seas to detect submarines and to gain information about water temperatures and global
warming.
MEASUREMENT OF SOUND
Sound is measured with an instrument that converts the energy in air pressure waves to an electrical signal. A microphone
picks up the pressure waves and a meter reads the sound pressure level, directly calibrated in decibels. Data thus obtained with a
sound pressure level meter represent an accurate measurement of energy level in the air.
Sound level meter is an instrument that filters out some of the very low frequency sound and much of the very high frequency
sound.
Audiometer measures the hearing ability at various frequencies producing an audiogram, which are then used to identify the
frequencies where the hearing aids must be able to boost the signal.
EFFECT OF NOISE POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH
The air pressure waves first hit the ear drum (tympanic membrane), causing it to vibrate. The cavity leading to the
tympanic membrane and the membrane itself are often called the outer ear. The tympanic membrane is attached physically to
three small bones in the middle ear which start to move when the membrane vibrates. The purpose of these bones, called
colloquially, the hammer, anvil, and stirrup because of their shapes. The air-filled cavity is called the middle ear. The amplified
signal is then sent to the inner ear by first vibrating another membrane called the round window membrane, which is attached to a
snail-shaped cavity called the cochlea (a chamber in the inner ear field with fluid and lined with thousand of tiny hair cells).
NOISE LEVELS
Painful- rock music peak(150 dB), firearms, air raid sire, jet engine(140dB), jackhammer(130 dB), jet plane take off, car stereo,
band practice, amplified rock music at 4-6 ft ( 120 dB0
Extremely Loud- rock music, model airplane( 110dB), timpani and bass drum rolls (106dB), snowmobile, chain saw, pneumatic drill
(100 dB), lawn mover, shop tools, truck traffic, subway (90 dB).
Very Loud- alarm clock, busy street (80 dB), busy traffic, busy street (70 dB), conversation, dishwasher (60 dB)
Moderate- moderate rainfall (50 dB), quiet room (40dB)
Faint- whisper, quiet library (30 dB)
Damage to the human ear can occur in several ways; a very loud impulse noise can burst the eardrum, causing mostly
temporary loss of hearing. The bones in the middle ear are not usually damaged by loud sounds, although they can be hurt by
infections. Finally, the most important damage can occur to the hair cells in the inner ear. Very loud sound will stun these hair cells
and then cause them to cease functioning.
NOISE PREVENTION
Limit periods of exposure to noise
Pump down the volume when listening music
Educate yourself about the effects of noise
Educate others and take action
Be a responsible consumer
Inspect your childs toy for noise danger
Have your hearing tested
Be an advocate
Be aware of the noise in your environment and take control of it
NOISE CONTROL
The level of noise can be reduced by using three strategies: protect the recipient, reduce the noise at the source, or
control the path of sound
Protecting the recipient usually involves the use of earplugs or other ear protector. The ear can detect sound not only coming
through the ear canal, but also from the vibration of the bones surrounding the ear.
Reducing the source of the noise is often the most effective means of noise control. The redesign of commercial airplanes is an
example of the effectiveness of this control.
Changing the path of the noise is the third alternative; the most visible evidence of this tactic is the growth of noise walls around
our highways. Highway sound can also be abated by heavy natural growth. Trees by themselves are not very effective, but a dense
growth will reduce the sound pressure level by several decibels per 100 feet of dense forest.
EFFECTS OF NOISE
Deafness
Increase blood pressure
Has negative cardiovascular effects
Increases breathing rate
Disturb digestion
Can cause an upset stomach or ulcer
Can negatively impact a developing fetus
Make it difficult to sleep
Can cause fatigued and irritation
Makes speech communication harder
Intensifies the effect of factors like drugs, alcohol, aging and carbon monoxide