Basics of Data Communication

WEP Module II
1. DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

1.1. INTRODUCTION
Electronic communications consist of telecommunication and data communication. Telecommunication consists of telephone, teletype-writing, telegraph and radio or television facilities to transmit information either directly or via-computer. Data communication is the transfer of data or information between computer devices. 1.2. DATA COMMUNICATION: It refers to the exchange of data (represented as a bit pattern or a sequence of bits) between two devices via some transmission medium such as a wire cable. The data communication system consists of five main components: 1 1.2.1. Message: It is the data or information to be communicated. 1.2.2. Sender: It refers to the device which transmits or sends the data message. 1.2.3. Receiver: It is the device that receives the message. 1.2.4. Transmission medium: It is the medium or path through which the message travels from sender to receiver. 1.2.5. Protocol: These are the set of rules that has to be followed while transmission of data and these rules governs data communication. 1.2.6. Network: It is a set of devices (or nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer or any other device capable of sending or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. The effectiveness of the data communication system depends on four factors: 1.2.7. Delivery: The system should deliver the data to the correct destination and data must be received by the receiving device. 1.2.8. Accuracy: The data delivered at the destination must be accurate. Data should not be altered in transmission and left uncorrected. 1.2.9. Timeliness: The system must be capable of delivering the data message in time. Data delivered late in case of real time application like video streaming, are useless. 1.2.10. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. 1.3. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES USED IN DATA COMMUNICATION: 1.3.1. BAUD RATE: The rate at which the data transfers over the communication is called communication rate or data rate. Baud is the number of signal level changes per second in the signal line. 1.3.2. Bits Per Second (BPS): It is the rate of transfer of information bits. The ratio of BPS to baud rate entirely depends on the information coding scheme used. 1.3.3. Hartley-Shannon Theorem: It states that the maximum rate at which the data can be transmitted error-free over a communication channel is the Channel Capacity, which is given by, C= B log2 (1+ (S/N)) Where B is bandwidth (in hertz), S/N is signal to noise ratio (in decibels) and C is the channel capacity measured in bits/second.
Telelabs Wireless Technologies Private Limited, Mumbai Hub, C-18, Gr. Floor, Kailash Esplanade, LBS Road, Opp. Shreyas Cinema, Ghatkopar West, Mumbai 400086, Ph022 6448 0114 website: www.teleleabs.in
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1.3.4. Parallel Interface: Interfaces are used to transfer data from one place to another. In parallel interface, 8 wires are used to transmit a byte (8 bits) of data. It is very expensive and very fast as compared to serial interfaces. It is basically a simultaneous transmission of data. It is used to transfer data on same sites i.e. between one printer and one computer. 1.3.5. Serial Interface: It is a sequential transmission of data of eight bits of a data. A transmitter breaks each byte into eight bits and sends it one by one sequentially; the receiver reassembles all the eight bits into a single byte. It is slower than the parallel since, each bit is transmitted one by one. It is used when data is transferred between two computers.
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1.5.
1.6.
Data Transmission techniques: For the communication between computers and line, the digital data need to be converted into analog signal. The data at transmitter is converted into analog, by modulation technique and similarly at receiver the data is again converted into digital using demodulation technique. This is done by using MODEM at both the ends. Data Transmission methods: Data transmissions methods are divided into three categories. 1.5.1. Synchronous Transmission: Synchronous is the method in which the data is transmitted in clock cycles. Each block of characters is marked with a synchronisation character. The receiver will receive the data until the synchronous character is detected. Timing errors are reduced and it can perform error detection so that cyclic redundancy checks are performed on the data on both the sides. (image) 1.5.2. Asynchronous Transmission: It is the method of transmission in which one character is transmitted at a time. Each character is encapsulated with start and stop bits which indicates the beginning and end of a data stream. A telephone conversation is asynchronous because each party can talk whenever they like. If, it would have been synchronous then one party has to wait for a period of time before speaking again. (image) 1.5.3. Isochronous Transmission: Isochronous means basically time dependent. In this, the data is transferred within certain time frame. For example: ATM networks are said to be isochronous because they guarantee a specified throughput. Even the oscillations are produced by pendulum. DATA TRANSMISSION MODES: 1.6.1. Simplex mode: In this mode of transmission, data is transferred in only one direction. In this mode, a device can either send or receive data. For example: TVs and radios. 1.6.2. Half Duplex mode: In this mode of transmission, data can be transmitted back to and fro between the two devices but at any instant of time, data can go only in one direction. Only one end transmits at a time and the other end receives. For example: Internet surfing. 1.6.3. Full Duplex mode: In this mode of transmission, the data can be transmitted in both the direction simultaneously. This mode is fast as it avoids the delay caused by the half duplex circuit each time. For example: Mobile communication.
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1.7.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY: The topology of a network is the geometric representation of

the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. There are mainly four types of network topologies:1.7.1. MESH TOPOLOGY: In this topology, every device (or nodes) has a dedicated pointto-point link to every other device. 1. ADVANTAGES:a) The use of dedicated links eliminates the traffic problems by guarantying that each connection can carry its own load. b) This topology is robust i.e. if one link becomes unusable, it 3 does not incapacitate the entire system. c) High security and privacy is maintained due to dedicated paths. 2. DISADVANTAGES:a) Its major disadvantage is that the number of connections grows quadratic ally with the number of nodes, per the formula And so it is extremely impractical for large networks. b) Installation and reconnection are difficult because every device is connected to every other device. c) Practical application e.g.:- connection of telephone regional offices. 1.7.2. STAR TOPOLOGY: - In this topology, every device (or nodes) has a dedicated pointto-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The controller acts as an exchange: if one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to controller which then relays the data to other connected device. 1. ADVANTAGE:a) Less expensive compared to mesh topology. b) Easy to install and reconfigure. c) This topology also had robustness feature. 2. DISADVANTAGE:a) Its major disadvantage is the dependency of the whole topology on a single point, the hub. b) If hub goes down then whole system is dead. c) Practical application:- used in Local Area Networks (LANs).
1.7.3. BUS TOPOLOGY: - This topology is a multi-point links. One long cable acts as the backbone to link all the other devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A tap is a connector that either splices or punctures the sheathing to create a contact with metallic core. 1. ADVANTAGE:a) Very easy to install and backbone cable is laid along the most efficient path. b) Uses less cabling and redundancies are eliminated. 2. DISADVANTAGE:a) Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
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b) Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. 1.7.4. RING TOPOLOGY: - In this topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. 1. ADVANTAGE:a) To add or delete a device requires changes in only two connections. b) Fault isolation is simplified, if one device does not receive a signal within a specified time, it can issue an alarm which alerts the operator. 2. DISADVANTAGES:a) Traffic is unidirectional. b) A break in the ring can disable the entire network. 1.7.5. HYBRID TOPOLOGY: - Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star and ring).A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star ring network and star bus network. A Star ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multistation access unit (MAU) as a centralized hub. A Star Bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk serves as the network's backbone).
1.8.
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK
The category of a network is determined by its size. Mainly the networks are divided into 3 types of categories:1.8.1. Local Area Network: - A LAN is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building using network media. Normally LAN covers an area up to 3km.LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can be hardware, software or data. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star. Speeds of data rate in LAN are 100 to 1000Mbps.It is normally privately owned. 1.8.2. Wide Area Network: - A WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio and video information over large geographical areas that may be a country, continent or whole world using private or public network transports. Business and government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. The Internet can be considered a WAN as well, and is used by businesses, governments, organizations, and individuals for almost any purpose imaginable. 1.8.3. Metropolitan Area Network: - A MAN is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside the town or a city. It is designed for the customers who need a high-speed connectivity to the internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of a city. One of the examples is cable TV network that
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originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used for high-speed data connection to the internet.
1.9.
ANALOG, DIGITAL AND COMPOSITE SIGNALS 1.9.1. ANALOG SIGNALS: An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous. Analog data are continuous and takes continuous values. For example, an analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands gives information in a continuous form; the movement of the hands are continuous. These signals can be classified as periodic and non-periodic signals: 1. Periodic Signals: A periodic signal completes a pattern within a 5 measurable time frame, called period and repeats the pattern over a subsequent identical period. A periodic analog signal can be classified as simple or complex. A simple periodic analog signal, sine wave cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves. 2. Non-periodic signals: A non-periodic signal changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time. 1.9.2. DIGITAL SIGNALS: Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values. A digital signal can have only a limited number of defined values. These times instant need not be equidistant, but generally they are taken at equally spaced intervals for convenience. 1.9.3. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION: 1. Digital communication systems are cheaper and simpler than analog communication. 2. Using data encryption, only permitted receivers are A TRANSMISSION MEDIUM is defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a destination or a path over which a signal propagates. It is usually a free space, metallic cable, or fibre-optic cable. In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: a. Guided media- includes twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and fibre-optic cable b. Unguided media- means free space
1.10. TRANSMISSION MEDIA
1.10.1. GUIDED MEDIA: Guided media are those which provides a conduit from one device to another, includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre -optic cable. It can also be define as, in this media waves are guided along a solid medium such as transmission line. A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium. 1. Twisted-pair cable:-It consists of two conductors, each with its own plastic insulation and twisted together. One wire is used to carry signals and other acts as a ground reference. The difference between two is used by the receiver. The number of twists per unit length has some effect on the quality of the cable. Twisted pair are used in
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telephones to provide voice and data channels. These are of two types: Unshielded twisted-pair cable: This is commonly used for computer networks within a building that is for Local area networks. Data rate of LANs using twisted pair is 10Mbps to 100Mbps. The data rate depends on the thickness of the cable and distance between the transmitter and receiver. Two types of UTP are common in LANs: category 3 and category 5. This is also used in telephones. The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack); it is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way. Shielded twisted-pair cable: STP cable has a metal foil or braidedmesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk; it is also bulkier and more expensive. Coaxial cable: - It carries signal of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted-pair cable. It has a central core conductor of solid wire enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government ratings. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function such as a. RG-59 -75 ohm impedance - cable TV b. RG-58 -50 ohm impedance -Thin Ethernet c. RG-11 -50 ohm impedance -Thin Ethernet The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twistedpair cable. It requires the frequent use of repeaters due to rapid signal weakening. These are widely used in analog telephone networks and also used in traditional Ethernet LANs. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables 5. Fibre-optic cable: - It is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Optical fibre uses reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it. It is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Advantages and disadvantages of optical fibre: a. Higher bandwidth and less signal attenuation. b. Immunity to electromagnetic interference and to tapping. c. Resistance to corrosive materials. d. Light weight e. Difficult to install and maintain. f. Unidirectional light propagation.
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1.11.
1.10.2. UNGUIDED MEDIA: - (or WIRELESS) this media transport electromagnetic wave without using a physical conductor. Signals are broadcast through free space. These signals can travel in several ways: 1. GROUND PROPAGATION: - In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, or near the earths surface. Distance of transmitting depends on the power of the signal. 2. SKY PROPAGATION: - In this, higher frequency radio waves radiate into the ionosphere and get reflected back to the earth at destination. 7 It allows greater distance with lower output power. 3. LINE-OF-SIGHT PROPAGATION: - In this type of propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. WIRELESS TRANSMISISSION WAVES:1.11.1. RADIO WAVES: electromagnetic waves ranging between 3 KHz to 1GHz are called radio waves. These are Omni-directional i.e. the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned but radio wave from one antenna may interfere another antenna sending signal at same frequency. The Omni directional characteristic of radio waves makes them useful for Multicast communications (or multicasting). AM and FM radio, TV, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting. 1.11.2. MICROWAVES: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 300 MHz to 300 GHz are called microwaves. These are unidirectional i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. 1.11.3. INFRARED WAVES: These waves with frequency 300GHz to 400THz can be used for short range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line of sight propagation.
1.12. SWITCHING
SWITCHED NETWORK: It is a network which consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called switches. A switch is a telecommunication device which receives message from any device connected to it and transmits it to the device for which it was meant. There are generally 2 types of switching networks: 1.12.1. Circuit switched networks: 1. A circuit-switched network is a data transmission service requiring the establishment of a circuit-switched connection before data can be transferred. 2. It is made of a set of switches connected by physical links, in which each link is divided into n-channels. 3. Circuit switching takes place at physical layer.
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The resource must remain dedicated during the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase. 5. Data transferred between the two stations are not packetized, its continuous flow. 6. No addressing is involved during the data transfer. The switches route the data based on their occupied band (FDM) and time slot (TDM). 1.12.2. Packet switched networks: 1. A packet-switched network is a digital communications network that groups all transmitted data, irrespective of content, type, or structure into suitably sized blocks, called packets. 2. The network over which packets are transmitted is a shared network which routes each packet independently from all others and allocates transmission resources as needed. 3. Data is divided into packets and then transmitted over the network. 4. No resource allocation for a packet i.e. no reserved bandwidth on the links. 5. Main goal is to optimize utilization of available link capacity, minimize response times and increase the robustness of communication. 1.12.3. Circuit Switching Technique in Telephone: The Circuit Switching Technique is used in telephones. A circuit switching telephone circuit is only 30-40% efficient as most of the time is spent in listening mode. A synchronous Transfer Mode (STM) uses circuit switching. In telephones also works like circuit switching: 1. First, before communicating, a dedicated path is established. Here, the connection set up means creating dedicated channels between the switches. The connection is established only when the acknowledgement sent by a system is received by the other system. 2. After the connection set up, the data is transferred between the two communicating parties. 3. When a party needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the resource and the call is disconnected. 4.
Connection is established before data transfer Wired link Wired link
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Figure: 1.1
1.12.4. DATAGRAM NETWORKS: In this technique, the data is divided into several datagram and then sent them independently into the network. This is also called connectionless network. Main features of this network are: 1. Each packet is treated independently of all other packets. 2. Datagram switching is done at the network layer. 3. The switch does not keep information about the connection state. 4. No teardown and setup phase is present. 5. High efficiency for short exchanges. 9 6. Its simple and robust property. 7. Packet size is large because the address of source and destination is present within the datagram.
1.12.5. VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS: These networks are a cross between circuitswitched network and datagram network. Its features are: 1. There are setup and teardown phase along with data transfer phase. 2. The data is divided into several packets and resource can be allocated during the setup phase. 3. All the packets follow the same path established during the connection. 4. It is implemented normally in data link layer. 5. Smaller packets and sequence number are allotted to each packet. 6. Efficient for long transfers.
1.13. TELEPHONE AND CABLE NETWORK FOR DATA TRANSFER

TELEPHONE NETWORKS: Telephone networks use circuit switching. The telephone network is made of three major components: Local loops: The local loop is a twisted pair cable that connects the subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or local central office. The local loop, when used for voice, has a bandwidth of 4000Hz. Trunks: Trunks are the transmission media that can handle the communication between offices. A trunk handles hundreds or thousands of connections through multiplexing. Switching offices: Two avoid having a permanent physical link between any two subscribers; the telephone company has switches located in switching offices. 1.13.1. INTRODUCTION OF LATAs: In 1970 the U.S government sued the AT&T Bell System believing that they are monopolizing the telephone service industry as it was providing almost all local and long-distance services, resulting in the AT&T divestiture of 1984, which divided the country into more than 200 LATAs; some companies allowed to provide services inside the LATA (LECs) and other to provide services between the LATAs (IXCs). LATAs: It stands for Local-access transport areas. A LATA can be small or large metropolitan area. These are divided into two categories:
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Intra-LATA services: The services offered by the common carriers inside a LATA are called intra-LATA services. The carrier that handles these services is called a local exchange carrier. Since 1996, there are two types of LECs: Incumbent local exchange carriers, provides the main services and Competitive local exchange carriers, which provides other services such as mobile telephone service, toll calls inside a LATA. Inter-LATA services: The services between LATAs are handled by Interexchange carriers (IXCs).These carriers provide communication services between two customers in different LATAs. Carriers providing inter-LATA services include AT&T, MCI, WorldCom, Sprint and Verizon.
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1.14. DIAL-UP MODEMS: The term modem refers to the two functional entities that make up
the device: a signal modulator and a signal demodulator. A modulator creates a band pass analog signal from binary data and a demodulator recovers the binary data from the modulated signal. These are used on both the ends of the communication system. The digital data sent from the sender is converted into analog signal by the modem at senders end and this analog signal is then sent on the telephone lines and the modem at receiver end converts the analog signal into digital data and delivers it to the receiver. Most popular modems available are: 1.14.1. V.32 modem: This uses a combined modulation and encoding technique called trellis- coded modulation. The V.32 calls for 32-QAM with a baud rate of 2400. Because only 4 bits of each pentabit represent data, the resulting data rate is 4*2400=9600. V.32bis has an automatic fall-back and fall-forward feature that enables the modem to adjust its speed upward or downward depending on the quality of the line or signal. 1.14.2. V.34bis: This modem provides a bit rate of 28,800 with a 960-point constellation and a bit rate of 33,600bps with a 1664-point constellation. 1.14.3. V.90: these modems with a bit rate of 56,000bps available; these are called 56K modems. These modems may be used only if one party is using digital signalling. These are asymmetric. 1.14.4. V.92: The standard above V.90 is called V.92. These modems can adjust their speed, and if the noise allows, they can upload data at the rate of 48Kbps. The downloading speed is still 56Kbps. This modem can interrupt the internet connection when there is an incoming call. DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE: This technology supports high-speed digital communication over the existing local loops. It is a set of technologies, each differing in the first letter, these are: 1.15.1. ADSL: This technology is introduced first in DSL technology. It stands for asymmetric DSL. These lines provide higher speed (or bit rate) in the downward direction than in the upward direction. Thats why they are called asymmetric. ADSL uses the existing local loops (these loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1MHz). This is an adaptive technology. The system uses a data rate based on the condition of the local loop. 1.15.2. ADSL Lite: This is a new version of ADSL technology. This technology allows an ADSL Lite modem to be plugged directly into a telephone jack and connected to
1.15.
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the computer. The splitting id done at the telephone company. It uses 256DMT carriers with 8-bit modulation. It provides a maximum downstream data rate of 1.5Mbps and an upstream data rate of 512Kbps. 1.15.3. HDSL: The high-bit-rate digital subscriber line was designed as an alternative to T1 line. The T-1 line uses alternate mark inversion (AMI) encoding, which is very susceptible to attenuate at high frequencies, whereas HDSL uses 2B1Q encoding which is less susceptible to attenuation. It uses two twisted pairs to achieve fullduplex transmission. 1.15.4. SDSL: The symmetric digital subscriber line is a one twisted-pair version of HDSL. It provides full-duplex symmetric communication supporting 768kbps data rate in 11 both the directions. It is not much suitable for businesses that send and receive data in large volumes in both the directions. 1.15.5. VDSL: The very high -bit-rate digital subscriber line, an alternative for ADSL, uses coaxial, fibre-optic, or twisted pair cable for short distances. It uses DMT modulating technique. It provides a range of bit rates 25 to 55Mbps for upstream and 3.2mbps for downstream. CABLE TV NETWORKS: The cable TV network started as a video service provider, but it has moved to the business of internet access. 1.16.1. TRADITIONAL VABLE NETWORKS: Cable TV started to broadcast video signals in late 1940s. It was called community antenna TV because an antenna at the top of a tall hill or building received the signals from the TV stations and distributed them, via coaxial cables, to the community. The cable TV office receives video signals from broadcasting stations and feeds to the coaxial cables. The signals became weaker and weaker with distance, so amplifiers are installed through the network to renew it. Communication in the traditional cable TV network is unidirectional. 1.16.2. HYBRID FIBER-COAXIAL NETWORK: This network uses a combination of fibre-optic and coaxial cable. The regional cable head serves up to 400,000 subscribers. The distribution hub is responsible for modulation and demodulation of signals. The signals are then fed to fibre nodes through fibre-optic cable. The use of fibre-optic cable reduces the need for amplifiers. Communication in an HFC cable TV network can be bidirectional. CABLE TV FOR DATA TRANSFER: 1.17.1. BANDWIDTH: The coaxial cable has a bandwidth that ranges from 5 to 750MHz. To provide internet access , this bandwidth is divided into two bands: 1. Downstream Video Band: It occupies frequencies from 54 to 550MHz. Since each channel is of 6MHz, it can accommodate more than 80 channels. 2. Downstream Data Band: It occupies the upper band, from 550 to 750MHz.Downstream data band uses the 64-QAM modulation technique. There are 6 Bits/baud in 64-QAM. One bit is used for forward error correction and other 5 bits for data. Downstream data can be received at 30MHz. 3. Upstream Data Band: It occupies the lower band, from 5 to 42MHz. This band is also divided into 6MHz channels. Since it uses lower
1.16.
1.17.
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frequencies that are more susceptible to noise and interference, QPSK modulation technique is preferred. There are 2 bits/baud in QPSK, therefore upstream data can be sent at 12MHz. 1.17.2. CM and CMTS: 1. CM: The cable modem is installed on the subscriber premises. It is similar to an ADSL modem. 2. CMTS: The cable modem transmission system is installed inside the distribution hub by the cable company. It receives data from the internet and passes them to the combiner, which sends them to the subscriber. The CMTS also receives data from the subscriber and passes them to the internet. Jhghhgh Jjh
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Basics of Data Communication

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WEP Module II

1. DATA COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY: The topology of a network is the geometric representation of

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1.10. TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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Connection is established before data transfer Wired link Wired link

1.13. TELEPHONE AND CABLE NETWORK FOR DATA TRANSFER

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