Chapter 4 Key Technology of Wcdma

Basic Principles of WCDMA System
Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA
Chapter 4
Key Technology of WCDMA
This chapter introduces the principles of every part in a WCDMA transceiver, including the principle and structure of RAKE receiver, radio frequency (RF) and intermediate frequency (IF) processing technology, channel codec technology and multi-user detection technology.
Source source coder
channel coder
Modulator
Channel
Destination
source encoder
channel encoder
Demodulator
Figure 1.1
Block Diagram of Digital Communication System
Figure 1.1 shows a digital communication system in a common sense, where a WCDMA transceiver is installed. Channel codec is Convolutional code or Turbo code. Modem adopts the technology of CDMA direct spread spectrum communication.
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Channel coding varies with application data, that is, AMR adaptive multi-rate code for voice, and ITU Rec. H.324 series protocols for image and multimedia services.
4.1
RAKE Receiver
In CDMA spread spectrum system, channel bandwidth is far larger than channel flattened fading bandwidth. This is different from traditional modulating technology which requires balancing algorithm interference. to eliminate the inter-symbol codes
CDMA spread
spectrum
should be highly auto-correlative. In that case, delay spread in radio channels can be taken as signal retransfer. If the delay between multi-path signals exceeds the length of one chip, the CDMA receiver will take them as non-correlative noise without balancing again. Due to the fact that available information was included in multi-path signals,, CDMA receiver can
combine multi-path signals to improve signal noise ratio (S/N) of receive signals. The function of RAKE receiver is to receive signals in multiple paths through several related detectors and combine them together.. As shown in Figure 1.1, it is a RAKE receiver, which is a typical diversity receiver specially designed for CDMA system. The theory behind is that multi-path signals can be taken as irrelevant ones when the transporting delay exceeds one chip period.
Baseband input signal Correlator with DLL I Q Phase rotation Delay balance I I
Local spread code
Channel estimation Path 1 Path 2 Path 3
Q Combination and addition
Time value (path location) Delay estimation
Figure 1.1
Block Diagram of RAKE Receiver
A correlator with DLL is a demodulating correlator

with phase-locked loop of early-late gate. The early-late gate and demodulating correlator differ from each other by 1/2 (or 1/4) chip respectively. Subtracting the related output of early-late gate can be used for adjusting code phase. The performance of delay loop depends on loop bandwidth. Owning to fast fading and noise in the channel, there are great differences between the actual received phases of various paths and the phases of original transmitted signals. Therefore, the phases should be rotated before combination based on the results of channel estimation. Channel estimation in the actual CDMA system is performed based on pilot symbols in the
transmission signals. Depending on sequential pilot signals in the transmission signals, there are two ways of phase prediction, one is based on sequential pilot and the other is based on decision feedback technology, as shown in Figure 1.2 and
Figure 1.3.
Baseband I/Q signal Correlator (Pilot channel) Predicted phase and amplitude results LPF I/Q signal
Figure 1.2
Channel Estimation Based on Sequential Pilot Signals

Baseband I/Q signal Correlator DMUX Data symbol
Symbol judging
LPF
LPF Pilot symbol interpolation
Predicted phase and amplitude results I/Q signal
Figure 1.3
Channel Estimation Based on Interrupted Pilot
Condition Using Decision Feedback Technology LPF is a low pass filter, filtering the noise in channel estimation output, whose bandwidth is generally higher than the channel fading rate. When using interrupted pilot, we should adopt interpolation technology to perform channel
estimation in the interval of pilot. When using decision feedback technology, we should first decide the data symbols in the channel, and then take the decided results as apriori information
(similar to pilot) to perform complete channel estimation, and accordingly obtain good channel estimation results through low pass filtering. The shortcoming of this way is low accuracy of channel estimation and big decoding delay in case of serious noise, due to non-linear and noncausal prediction technology. The function of delay estimation is to obtain signal energy distribution in different time delay locations through matched filter (as shown in Figure 1.4), recognize multi-path locations with high energy and distribute their time value to different receive paths of RAKE receiver. The measuring precision of the matched filter can be up to 1/4 ~ 1/2 chip, but the interval in different receive paths of RAKE receiver is one chip. In the actual implementation, if the speed of updating delay estimation is very fast (such as once scores of ms), the phaselocked loop of early-late gate is not necessary.
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Local spreading codes and scrambling codes
N -1
Serial input sampling data N N -1 0
Figure 1.4
Basic Structure of Matched Filter
The major part used for delay estimation is matched filter, whose function is to correlate the input data and local codes of different phases and accordingly obtain correlation energy of different codes and phases. If the sampling data input in serial are the same as the phases of local spread spectrum correlation maximum code and is scrambled the code, with the a
energy in the
greatest, end of
output
the
filter.
Depending on correlation energy, the delay estimator can obtain multi-path arrival time value. From the perspective of implementation, there are
chip level processing and symbol level processing for the RAKE receiver. For chip level processing, correlator, local code generator and matched filter are included, while for symbol level processing, channel estimation, phase rotating and
combination are included. Generally, chip level processing can be implemented with ASIC
component, while symbol level processing can be implemented with DSP. Although the
implementation and functions of RAKE receiver of a mobile station are different from those of a base station, the principles are just the same. For several receiver antennas with diversity reception, we can process multiple paths received by several receiver antennas in the above way. RAKE receiver can receive not only multiple paths of the same antenna but also multiple paths of different antennas. In terms of RAKE receiving, the two diversities do not vary essentially. However, the processing of base-band would get
more complex as the data of multiple antennas requires dividing control processing.
4.2
4.2.1
CDMA RF and IF Designing Principles

CDMA RF and IF Architecture
Rx filter Lower converter Duplexer RF AGC Local oscillator Tx filter I Digital upper Q converter IF demix filter ADC I Digital lower Q converter Baseband processor
Power amplifier
Data I/O
Local oscillator RF AGC
IF smooth filter Upper converter
DAC
Figure 1.1
Block Diagram of CDMA RF and IF Principles
Figure 1.1 is a block diagram of CDMA RF and IF principles. For the RF part, it is a traditional analog structure where valid signals are translated into IF signals. The downlink channel of RF part mainly consists of automatic gain control (RF AGC), receive filter (Rx filter) and down-converter. The uplink channel of the RF part mainly consists
of automatic gain control (RF AGC), secondary up-converter, wideband linear power amplifier and RF transmit filter. The IF part consists of the dealiasing filter, the down-converter and the ADC for downlink processing, and the IF, a smoothing filter, the up-converter and the DAC for uplink processing. Regarding WCDMA digital downconverter, its bandwidth of output base-band signal is larger than that of the IF signal by 10%, therefore, called wideband signal, it is different from the general GSM signal and the first generation signal.
4.2.2
CDMA RF Designing Performance and
Considerations
As mentioned above, CDMA signal is wideband signal. Therefore, the RF part must be designed to be suitable for wideband low-power spectrum density signal. CDMAs large dynamic range, high peak factor (due to linear modulating and multi2004-08-26 Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading without Permission Page10, Total31
code
transmission),
and
precise
high-speed
power control loop are great challenges to the linearity and efficiency of power amplifier. CDMA makes very high requirements for the linearity and efficiency of the RF front end. Linearity is demanded for strict output spectrum mask and, at the same time, the great fluctuation of output signal envelope. To ensure the power amplifier is efficient enough, we should keep its operating level around 1 dB point. To make the mobile station more compact and power-efficient, one-step direct conversion should be implemented from baseband to RF or from RF to baseband at both the transmit end and the receive end. Such technology is difficult in that the frequency mixer must be completely linear to avoid any possible intermodulation product
between two adjacent channels. In addition, input isolation of the frequency mixer must be good enough to avoid DC due to self-mixing.
The performances of AGC and LNA in RF part are crucial as well. In WCDMA designing, the noise index of AGC should be around 80dB, while that of LNA should be lower than 4dB, because it decides the overall noise index of the receiver. Analog RF components cause great RF index changes and individual diversity. We should emulate the total receiver performance loss caused by each RF component in the worst case, so that a group of stable RF designing parameters can be obtained. Moreover, according to the latest designing scheme, the number of analog
components should be made as small as possible, which makes it necessary to move ADC and DAC closer to RF part. However, when considering the present signal processing
capability of the component, the digital IF technology is a commonly used for designing.
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4.2.3
Digital IF Technology
The sampling law shows that, if we perform equalinterval sampling at interval of 1/2 fH second for the continuous time signal m(t), with a frequency band limited at (0,fH) Hz, m(t) can be definitely determined according to the sampling result. In this case, 2fH is called Nyquist frequency. Typically, a modern receiver is structured such that analog-digit conversion and sampling are performed by the IF component. The specific process is: IF signal M() with the bandwidth of B undergoes IF sampling with fs 2B(1 +/n), to get the resulting signal MS(), which further becomes the quantized and sampled low IF signal M'S() after passing the low pass filter H(). The final signal has the same frequency spectrum as that of the original one. It can be seen from the above process that IF sampling can be done with a frequency lower than
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the highest valve of signal frequency as long as the frequency meet the specified conditions. In the meantime, frequency conversion can be achieved through IF sampling, that is, converting the signal to a lower IF, and multiplying the common frequencies in the numeric field, and the baseband diversities I and Q can be deduced.
4.3
Diversity Reception Principle

Radio channel is a random time-specific channel, whose fading feature will reduce the performance of the communication system. There are several measures to avoid fading, such as channel coding/decoding technology, anti-fading receive technology or spread spectrum technology.
Diversity reception technology is considered as an effective and economical anti-fading technology. As we all know, the signal received in radio channel is an combination of multi-path
components arriving at the receiver. If the signals

of different paths obtained at the receive end at the same time can be combined into the whole receive signal properly, the effect of fading will be reduced. That is how diversity is designed. Literally, the meaning of diversity is to obtain compound signals separately and then combine them. The signals, if statistically independent, can be combined such that the performance of the system can be improved greatly. Those received signals, completely or almost independent of each other, can be obtained by the following receiving means: different paths,
different frequencies, different angles and different polarizations.

1)
Space Diversity: set several antennas upon the receive end or the transmit end, and leave enough space (generally exceeding 10 signal wavelength) between each two antennas to ensure the signals sent/received in each antenna are mutually independent. Figure 1.1
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is
an
example
of
dual-antenna
transmit
diversity to improve receive signals. Thanks to dual-antenna transmit diversity, the
independent receive paths obtained by the receiver are increased and accordingly
combination effect is gained:

Data flow 1 Antenna 1 Restored data flow Path 1
Data flow Transmitting diversity processing Path 2
Antenna 2 Data flow 2
Figure 1.1
Orthogonal Transmit Diversity Principle
The principle of orthogonal transmit diversity is shown in Figure 1.1. The two antennas transmit different data: antenna 1 transmits the data in even location while antenna 2 transmits the data in odd location. Owing to the irrelevant transmit data, the data arriving at receiver antenna via different antenna paths have corresponding
diversity, and accordingly the power of data

transmission can be reduced. In the meantime, the reliability of data transmission is greatly improved due to lower bit rate of single antenna transmit data. Therefore, transmit diversity can increase the data transmission speed of the system.
2)
Polarization
Diversity:
receive
horizontal
polarized wave and perpendicular polarized wave respectively. Time Diversity: Another way of diversity is to combine irrelevant signals transmitted
asynchronously. Frequency Diversity: The same information is transmitted with several different carrier frequencies. If frequency difference interval of each carrier frequency is so large that it exceeds channel relevant bandwidth, the signals transmitted with carrier frequencies are irrelevant of each other. Angle Diversity: Signals are not related because antennal beams point to different direction. For example, set several irradiators on
the microwave antenna to generate little-related beams. The diversities can be combined in practice because they are not mutually repulsive. We can adopt different ways to combine diversity signals:
1)
Selective Combination (SC): Select the signal with the best S/N from several discrete ones as the receive signal.
2)
Equal Gain Combination (EGC): Combine several discrete signals by the same branch gain and take the combined signal as the receive signal.
3)
Maximum Ratio Combination (MRC): Control each combined branch gain to make them in proportion to the S/N of the existing branch, and then combine them to get receive signal.
The above ways are different between the diversity gains in improving the combined S/N. Generally, diversity reception is effective to improve the effect of radio channel reception.
12
(dB) Improvement (r)
10
Max ratio combination

Equal-gain combination
Optimal choice
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Diversity number k
Figure 3.1
Comparison of different combinations
Figure 3.1 shows the improvement of receiving effects of different combinations. As the diversity number K increases, the improvement of SC is not ideal, while that of EGC and MRC is better, whose difference is only about 1 dB.
4.4
Channel Coding
Channel coding is adding some extra codes to a digital sequence M by definite rules so that irregular information sequence M becomes a regular digital sequence Y (code sequence). That is to say, in code sequence, every code of information sequence is related to extra code. At the receiving end, the channel encoder encodes
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with this prescient coding rules, or verifies that the received digital sequence R conforms to the set rule to find out errors in R and then corrects them. That is the basic idea of channel coding, namely, verifying and correcting the errors during
transmission based on correlativity. Generally, digital sequence M is transmitted with K codes as a group. We call the one with K-code block an information code block. Channel encoder adds some extra codes to each information code block by definite rules, and so the code block with n-code is constituted. Such n codes are mutually related, that is, the extra n-k codes are called the supervising codes of this code block. In terms of information transmission, supervising codes are redundant, as it carries no information. However, such redundancy gives the codes some error detection and correction capability, so the
reliability of transmission is increased and error rate is reduced. On the other hand, if we require
the speed of information transmission to remain constant, after supervising codes are added, the duration of each code in the code block should be reduced. For a binary code, pulse width should be also reduced. If the normalized width of each code pulse is 1 before coding, it should be k/n after coding, so channel bandwidth should be spread by n/k times. In this case, bandwidth redundancy substitutes for reliability of channel transmission. If the speed of information transmission is allowed to be slower, the duration of each code after coding can remain the same. In this case, bandwidth redundancy substitutes for reliability of channel transmission. As shown in Table 1.1, there are great gaps between coding gains from different coding methods and the ideal coding gain (up to Shannon limit).
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Table 1.1 BPSK or QPSK Coding Gain

Coding Adopted Coding Gain (dB@BER = 10-3) Ideal Coding 11.2 Coding Gain (dB@BER = 10-5) 13.6 8.5 ~ 9.5 moderate Data Speed
Cascaded Code (RS 6.5 ~ 7.5 and Convolution Code Viterbi Coding) Convolution Code 6.0 ~ 7.0
8.0 ~ 9.0
moderate
Sequence Coding (Soft Decision) Cascaded Code (RS 4.5 ~ 5.5 and Group Code) Convolution Viterbi Coding Convolution Sequence (Hard Decision) Group
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6.5 ~ 7.5
Very High
Code 4.0 ~ 5.5
5.0 ~ 6.5
High
Code 4.0 ~ 5.0 Coding
6.0 ~ 7.0
High
Code
(Hard 3.0 ~ 4.0
4.5 ~ 5.5
High
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Decision) Convolution Threshold Coding Code 1.5 ~ 3.0 2.5 ~ 4.0 Very High
It is observed that, for the same modulating, coding gains vary with different coding schemes. The coding schemes we usually adopt are convolution code, Reed-Solomon code, BCH code and Turbo code, etc. Convolution code is used for voice and low-speed signaling in WCDMA, while Turbo code is used for data encoding.
4.4.1
Convolution Code
The n codes generated by the convolution coder during any definite time is dependent on K information bits during this period and the number of information bits during the former N-1 period of time. At this moment, supervising code monitors the information during the N period of time when the number of codes nN is called constraint length.
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The decoding schemes of convolution code are as follows: threshold decoding, hard decision Viterbi decoding and soft decision Viterbi decoding. Among these decoding schemes, the best one is soft decision Viterbi decoding, which is usually adopted. Compared with hard decision Viterbi decoding, it is not much more complex, but its performance is better by 1.5 ~ 2 dB.
4.4.2
Turbo Code
We are striving to approach Shannon limit in coding field, where Turbo code is an innovation milestone. Grid code is close to Shannon limit in case of bandwidth-limited channels, while Turbo code is especially applicable to bandwidthunlimited channels, and such as deep space
communication
satellite
communication.
Theory emulation shows that, in the AWGN channel with 0.7dB Eb/N0, Turbo code with 1/2 code rate has bit error rate of 10-5.
Two or more basic coders are cascaded in parallel via one or more interweavers, and so Turbo code is constituted as shown in Figure 1.1. Turbo code is based on the correction of the algorithm and structure of the traditional cascade code. The positive feedback of iterative decoding is
cancelled thanks to the introduction of internalinterweaver. The algorithm of Turbo iterative decoding involves SOVA (soft output Viterbi algorithm) and MAP (maximum posterior
probability algorithm) and so on. Thanks to each iterative performance of MAP algorithm excels Viterbi algorithm, iterative decoding of MAP algorithm can get more coding gains.
Holing multiplexing Input m t Convolution encoder 1 Interleafer Convolution encoder 2 Output y t
Figure 1.1
Turbo Coder
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4.5
Multi-User Detection Technology

Multi-user detection (MUD) technology can improve the system performance and increase the system capacity by canceling the inter-cell
interference. In addition, MUD technology can effectively release the near/far effect in direct sequence spread spectrum CDMA system. As the channels are non-orthogonal and different users spread spectrum codes are non-orthogonal, there is mutual interference between users. MUD is to cancel the mutual interference between multi users. Generally speaking, for uplink MUD, only the inter-cell interference can be canceled, while the intra-cell interference is difficult to cancel due to lack of necessary information (such as the detailed information of users in adjacent cells). For downlink MUD, only the interference in common channel (such as pilot frequency and broadcast channel) can be canceled. The system model of MUD can be shown in
Figure 1.1: each user transmits data bit
b1 , b2,, bN
, frequency is spread by spread spectrum code word via non-orthogonal fading channel in the space, and noise n(t) is added, then the user signals received at the receive end is correlated to synchronous spread spectrum code word and the correlation is composed of multiplier and integral cleaner. The interference between users is removed with MUD algorithm from the de-spread result, thus obtaining the estimated value of users signal b1 , b2,,
bN .
It is observed from the following figure that the performance of MUD depends on synchronized spread spectrum code word tracing of the correlator, detection performance of each user signal, relative energy and the accuracy of channel estimation.
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b1
b2
Spreading code word 1
Noise n ( t )
Integral cleaner
b 1
Multi- user detection algorithm
b1
b1
b1
2 b
b1
b1
b1 b1 b1
Integral cleaner
b1
b k
b1
bk
Spreading code word k
Integral cleaner
Spreading code word k
b1
b1 b1 b1
b1
Figure 1.1
System Model of MUD Technology
According to the uplink MUD, only the intra-cell interference can be canceled. Provided that the inter-cell interference energy was f times of the intra-cell interference energy, the capacity in the cell would increase by (1+f)/f without intra-cell interference. According to the rule that the transmit power attenuates linearly by 4 powers of distance, the inter-cell interference is 55% of intracell interference. Therefore, MUD would ideally reduce 2.8 times of interference. However in practice, the validity of MUD is below 100%. The validity of MUD depends on the detection methods, traditional receiver estimation accuracy
and intra-cell user service model. For example, if there are some high-speed data users in the cell, MUD is adopted to cancel the interference power caused by these high-speed data users, which obviously can be more effective to increase system capacity. But the shortcoming of it is that noise would be increased and demodulation signal would be greatly delayed. Decorrelator is shown in Figure 1.2. Interference cancellation is to estimate
interference from different users and multiple paths and then cancel the interference from the receive signals. Serial interference cancellation (SIC) is to gradually cancel the interference caused by the biggest user, while parallel interference cancellation (PIC) is to
simultaneously cancel the interference cause by other users.
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Soft judging S1 S2
H 1(t) H 2(t)
Match filter Match filter
Channel decoder Channel decoder Channel decoder
R -1
Soft judging
Soft judging SK
H K (t)
Match filter Multipath delay estimation Correlation calculation
R=
[ ]
1 r r 1
Figure 1.2
Decorrelator
PIC is, for each user, to cancel signal energy caused by other users at every level of
interference cancellation and demodulate it. The interference caused by other users can be basically canceled after 3 ~ 5 times of such interference cancellation. Note that at every level of interference cancellation, not all signal energy caused by other users can be canceled. We just multiply it by a relatively small coefficient to avoid the growing error in the traditional receive detection. The advantage of PIC is that it can easily implement multi-user interference
cancellation and the delay of it is better than that of SIC.

As far as WCDMA uplink MUD is concerned, the present ideal technology is PIC, because it demands just 3 to 5 times of resources traditional receiver demands, and the data path delay is also small. As far as WCDMA downlink MUD is concerned, it focuses on canceling the interference of downlink common pilot channel, shared channel and broadcast channel and the interference of
common channels in a co-frequency adjacent base station.
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Chapter 4 Key Technology of Wcdma

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Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Key Technology of WCDMA

Block Diagram of Digital Communication System

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Local spread code

Channel estimation Path 1 Path 2 Path 3

Q Combination and addition

Time value (path location) Delay estimation

Block Diagram of RAKE Receiver

A correlator with DLL is a demodulating correlator

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Channel Estimation Based on Sequential Pilot Signals

LPF Pilot symbol interpolation

Predicted phase and amplitude results I/Q signal

Channel Estimation Based on Interrupted Pilot

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading without Permission

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Local spreading codes and scrambling codes

Serial input sampling data N N -1 0

Basic Structure of Matched Filter

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

CDMA RF and IF Designing Principles

Local oscillator RF AGC

IF smooth filter Upper converter

Block Diagram of CDMA RF and IF Principles

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

CDMA RF Designing Performance and

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

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Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading without Permission

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

Diversity Reception Principle

components arriving at the receiver. If the signals

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

different frequencies, different angles and different polarizations.

Confidential Information of Huawei. No Spreading without Permission

Basic Principles of WCDMA System

Error! Style not defined.Key Technology of WCDMA

diversity to improve receive signals. Thanks to dual-antenna transmit diversity, the

combination effect is gained:

Data flow Transmitting diversity processing Path 2

Antenna 2 Data flow 2