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1.

Sunum Introduction to Biophysics

Physics: a science which investigates the nature. Creatures that compose the nature are divided into two main groups: 1) the livings (alive) 2) the non-livings (not alive

PHYSICS investigates non-livings. BIOPHYSICS deals with the livings. Because alive creatures have a dynamic structure, topics of biophysics are more complicated than those of physics.

Basic positive sciences such as mathematics and physics always include definite information. e.g. 2+2=4 F = m.a (Newtons Second Law) Engineering, where mathematics and physics come acoss in application, is also positive in character MEDICINE ? Also one of positive Definitely positive Unfortunately, not. sciences... ??? Sometimes, a patient may be lost due to a simple mistake made by a doctor. e.g. Anestesiology faults during an operation. Descartes, a French Philoshopher, had said to his patients: I am trying to establish a medicine based on mathematics and physics. Take care of yourself, well till that time.

Medical information rather relays on observations and experiments, not definite as 100%. It is an art as well as science.

At this point, the importance of Biophysics appears: Biophysics aims to explain biological and medical events in accordance with the rules of To learn Biophysics is necessary mathematics and physics. for better understanding of clinical sciences such as neurology, neurosurgery, cardiology, cardiovascular surgery, orthopedics, anesthesiology, physical medicine and rehabilitation

From the second half of twentieth century, science and technology, especially electrical engineering and electronics, developed very fast. Electronics and computers are now widely used in medical applications. e.g. Ultrasonography, MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), CT (Computed On the other hand, Tomography). a With multidisciplinary co-ordination between the use of these medical imaging technics, objective scientific data instead biophysics and clinical sciences is are of doctors subjective comments essential applied in modern medicine. for effective usage of modern medical tools.

Introduction to Biological and Medical Physics Physical Measurements Unit Standards Biomechanics Biomaterials Bioelectronics Biooptics Bioacustics

Systematic of the Creatures Bioenergenitcs Laser Beams and their Use in Medicine Infrared Beams and their Use in Medicine Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields Biophysics of The Respiratory System Biophysics of The Vascular System

Biophysics of The Neurological System Scientific Basis of Pain Scientific Basis of Pain Management Neurostimulation Neuroimplantation Acupuncture Technics Biofeedback

2.Sunum Systematic of Creatures

3.Sunum Biomechanics

Scaler Measurement Meaningful with number and unit, only. e.g. 1 kg sugar, 500 g tomatoe (mass), 3 m2 carpet (surface), 50 m3 wood, 2 lt milk (volume), 4 h, 5 min, 10 s (time), 18 C, 300 K (temperature).

Physical Measurement A concept that is necessary for physical evaluation of measurements related to creatures in the nature.

Scaler Quantities Vectorel Quantities

Vectorel Measurement To describe some quantities, number and unit are not enough; other specifications have to be determined.

e.g. Wheat in a land. Its starting point where it locates on earth, its direction depending on win, its line and its lenght must be known for a complete description Physical quantities such as force, speed, acceleration, moment, impulse can only be explained with vectors

This example shows that a vectorel measurement necessitates the determination of four parameters: starting point (application point), line direction, amplitude

If the lines of certain vectors are in parallel, and their directions and amplitudes are the same, then these vectors will be called as equal vectors.

If the lines and amplitudes of certain vectors are the same, but their directions are opposite, then these vectors will be called as opposite vectors

Components of a Vector In two dimension co-ordinate system;

In three dimension co-ordinate system; i and j: unit vectors V = Vx i + Vy j V = Vx2 + Vy2 Vx = VCos Vy = VSin

Addition of Vectors Total vector is a vector that is equal to addition of more than one vector. Addition of vectors which are on the same line and in the same direction;

Addition of vectors which are on the same plane and in the different direction; Addition of vectors which are on the same line and in the opposite direction;

Total of the opposite vectors is equal to zero

Problem 1 Lenght of a vector is 7.3 unit and it makes 250 with the positive horizontal axis in the direction of counter clockwise. Find the components of this vector. Solution: Problem 4 A= 7,3 birim The bistoury of a surgeon goes to east by = 250 3 cm first, then to north by 4 cm starting Ax a = point, A Cos 7,3 Cos 70 -2,5 unit from S.= Calculate the = total Ay = A Sin = 7,3 Sin 70 = -6,9 unit; transposition (replacement) of the bistoury regarding to starting point, S.

Problem 2 Horizontal component of a vector is 25 unit, and its vertical component is 40 unit. Find amplitude and angel made with the horizontal axis of this vector.

Solution: A = Ax2 + Ay2 = (25)2 + (40)2 = 47,1 tg = 25/40 ===> = arc tg 25/40 = 32 = 32 + 90 = 122

UNIT STANDARDS After all, some countries still insist on to use their traditional units. e.g. England. So, sometimes, it may be necessary to convert the units each other: 1 = 2,54 cm 1 pound = 454 g 1 mile = 1609 m 1 feet = 0,3 m 1 galon = 231 inch3

Force: effect that changes shape or movement of the matter.

There are, therefore, two kinds of effect of force on the matter: Effect on the shape of matter, deformation; deformative effect is less on solid matters than that of elastic ones. e.g. iron, tennis ball, cotton. Effect on the movement style of matter, acceleration effect; speeding up. braking effect; slowing or stopping. Gravitation effect pulling all matters down to center of the earth. The reason for such a force is not clear. Any how, it has been suggested that gravitation results from an electromagnetic wave due to movement of internal layer of the earth. Gravitation is not the same everywhere; it is the lowest in equator, and the highest in the celestial.
Mass and Weight Gravitation depends on the location of the matter on the earth. Gravitation that effects a matter at the point where it is located on the earth is called as its weight. weight G=m.g G: weight m: mass g: gravitation accelaration (9.81 m/s2) e.g. Weight of a matter of which mass is 1 kg is; in equator: 9,78 N, in Ankara: 9,79 N, in the celecitals: 9,81 N, in moon: 1,6 N.

Newtons Laws three laws explain relation between force and movement.
Second Law Law Newtons Newtons First Newtons Second Law A force effecting on a matter is proportional with acceleration Newtons resulting Third Law from this force. F=m.a where; F: force m: mass (proportionality constant) a: acceleration In this equation; force and acceleration are vectorel measurement, but mass is scaler. Special circumstance; F = 0 ====> a = 0 which has the same meaning with the first Newtons law. Newtons second law explain the concept of mass.

Newtons First Law Unless a force does not effect on a matter, no acceleration will occur. if it is standing it will continue to stand, and Newtons Third Law if it is moving (linear movement with at a constant speed) If a matter apply a force to another matter, that matter also applies a force with the same intensity it will go on to move in the same way. in opposite direction.
The first Newtons law effect = reaction explain the concept of inertia or inactivity. The first Newtons law the concept of inertia or inactivity.

explain

First and second laws of Newton are related to force affecting a matter; whereas Newtons third

Units of Force F=m.a in CGS standards; [dyne] = [g] [cm/s2] in MKS standards; [N] = [kg][m/s2] Since

Center of Mass A solid matter can be considered as a composition of differential pieces. differential piece: the smallest piece we can imagine. Gravitation affecting each differential piece can be thought as forces in parallel. Combining force of these forces are called as weightiness of that matter, and its application point as center of gravitation or center of mass.

If there is more than one force effecting on the matter, combining of these forces behaves like a force in the center of mass. Combining of the forces effecting on the matter crossing over the center of mass makes the matter move to change its location.

Energy ability of the matter to do work. There are two sorts of energy

Energy Protection Principle Energy cannot be created from the absence, and present energy cannot be made absent. In a closed system; sum of the potential and kinetic energy is constant: Ep + Ek = constant Closed system is a system that is Acceleration independant of outside medium. Acceleration is also a vectoral quantity. Universe is also a closed system. It is first derivation of velocity to time, or is second derivation of lenght to time: dv d dl d 2l a = ----- = ----- [-----] = -----dt dt dl dt 2 units; m/s2 or cm/s2

Velocity Force, acceleration, lenght and velocity are all related concepts. When a force is applied to a matter; according to first and second Newtons laws, that matter will accelerate, and take lenght with a velocity. Velocity, that is a vectoral quantity, is first derivation of lenght to time. v = dl/dt units; [m/s] = [m]/[s] m/s; cm/s; km/h

Moment Moment is the rotating effect of force. M = F ^d

Moment of same directional parallel forces;

According to moment saving principle, total moment is equal to zero; M = 0 F1.a + F2.b = 0 F1.a = - F2.b

Effect and Reaction Forces in Human Body According to Newtons third law, an effecting force is balanced by a reverse reaction force with the same amplitude. Also the human body, depending on the gravity acceleration, is affected by the gravity force, and there is an opposite directional reaction force with the same amplitude to keep the position of body in balance. e.g. A 80 kg person who is standing up, where the gravity acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 , will be under the effect of gravity of: G = m.g = 80 kg . 9,8 m/s2 = 784 N and there is an opposite reaction force of 784 N. Effective Forces in Physical Therapy

the forces effecting on the patient during physical therapy;

Muscle force,
Force applied by the physiotherapist, Gravity, Friction force of the ground.

Problem 3 What is the distance a laser beam pulse can take in an hour in miles (velocity of light beam in space = 3x1011 m/s, 1 mile = 1609 m)? Solution: v = l/t l = v.t = 3x1011 m/s .1x60x60 s = 10800x1011 m Since, 1 mile = 1609 m then, 10800x1011 / 1609 = 6,712x1011 mile

Body Mass Index m BMI = ------h2 (mass) [kg] -----------------(height)2 [m]2

Problem: Calculate body mass index (BMI) of a man whose height is 1.70 m and mass 60 kg? Solution: m 60 kg BMI = ------- = ------------- = 20,7 kg/m2 h2 (1.70 m)2

BMI < 18.5 kg/m2 low weighted 18.5 kg/m2 < BMI < 25 kg/m2 normal weighted 25 kg/m2 < BMI < 30 kg/m2 over weighted 30 kg/m2 < BMI < 40 kg/m2 obes BMI > 40 kg/m2 morbid obes >> life threatining
In this section, to specify the biomaterials we are going to examine the deformative effect of the force: force Solide substances; substances These are the substances that are accepted free from the deformative effect of the external forces. Elastic substances; substances These are the substances that can be deformed by the effect of an external force, but they return their initial form when the force exerting on them is removed. Plastic substances; substances These are the substances that can be deformed by the effect of an external force, and they cannot get back to their initial form when the force exerting on them is removed

4.Sunum Biomaterials The force has two types of effect on the substances: changing the form of the substance (deformative effect), effecting the manner of the movement (accelerative or decelerative effect).

Actually, the atoms and molecules

In solids, normally, the distance between atoms is approximately equal to 0,2 nm,

which form a substance change their initial position in a small number when facing to an external force; but during these position disturbance in solids, atomic linkages do not break down as they are very powerful. ). Elastomers Elastomers are substances with weak interractions (links) between atoms. e.g. Caoutchuc and rubber. Some rubber can elongate and reach 10-15 folds of its original lenght.When elastomers are heated, their resistance towards elongation increases. In soft (loose) (e.g. alveolar) tissues, the elasticity is provided by 10 m in
Youngs Module According to the Hooke Law; the elongation in lenght is proportional with the force applied on the object, and this situation is given by F l Now, going through the pressure concept which is determined as the force exerting on an unit surface, F l ---- = Y.----Poisson Law A l can be written.

and it should alter to 0,0002 nm under the influence of an external force; it means that the deviation is only 1/1000. Thats why Hooke Law Hooke Law indicates the rule of elongation event. Experimental data shows that quantity of elasticity is proportional with the force exerting on the object. F l +F/-x = tg = k: constant ===> F = - k.x
Pulling and compressing compulsions of an object can be different. For exemple; this is the case for bone. Youngs modules of some substances: Substance Bone -16x109 N/m2 Steel Youngs module 9x109 N/m2 200x109 N/m2 0,003x109 N/m2

Volumetric Deformation (Compression) Wood 3x109 N/m2 The volume of an object under the pressure is applied in every direction changes. This change in volume, V P = B ------V In this statement; P: Pressure, B: Compression elasticity module, V/V: Volumetric deformation.
Rubber

As a substance elongates in lenght, it compresses from height and is width. Y: the Youngs module which a coefficient Relative ratios height, width and related altering to the gender ofin the substance. lenght: h w l ------ = ------ = - -----h w l here; : poisson ratio

Elasticity of biological substances The structure of heterogen quality biologic materials is rather complex. As most of the biological processes depend on water, biological substances are generally found in watery mediums (71% or 3/4 of human body is water).

Beside, solid and rigid biological substances like tooth, there are semi-rigid (solid) biological substances like bone and cartillage tissues. Bone is made of collagen fibers and hydroxiapatit (Ca+PO4) crystals.

Implantable Devices Passive implants No operation in the body, mechanical support, only e.g. Ortopedic implants, dental implants Active Implants Operational in the body e.g. Cardiac pacemakers, neuroimplants Body Compitable Metals (medical grade ) Silver ??? (maybe applied in animal studies, only) Gold ??? (not advised, because of rheumatic prob.) Platinum (platinum irridium) Tantalum Titanium Stainless-steel (316L) Medical Grade Titanium (Grade 4) Sheet Wire Rod Powder Implantable Forms Cases (implant housing) Wires (electrodes) Sheets (contacts)

Active Implantable Devices Semi-implantable Fully implantable Implantable Materials

Temporarily implantable
Permanently implantable

Dental Implants Silver ??? (just in history) Gold ??? (just in history) Porcelaine Titanium

Other Body Compitable Materials (medical grade) Silicones Polyurethane Teflon Bioceramics Bioglass Medical adhesives Medical markers

Quality Assurance of Implants FDA (essential in USA) CE (essential in Europe) ISO 13485 ISO 9001

5.Sunum Bioelectronics Electrical Activity as a Sign of Life All of the livings have an ongoing electrical activity along their life. They are electrically active as long as they are alive. Therefore, the presence of electrical activity in a living creature indicates the presence of life on it. Each creature, even a simple one, is a miracle. Human, within all kind of creatures, has been equiped with the best anatomical construction and physiological function. The human body may be resembeled to an extraordinarialy good electronic device which of any similar thing is not possible to be made.

All kinds of engineering systems such as electrical, electronics, mechanical, otomatic control, statics, thermodynamics, robotics, etc. exist and work perfectly in human body. In order to survive such a transaction happens in the body which connot be simulated in industry. Thanks to feed-back controlling systems which are more excellent than the most excelent The one, sensory system helps us defend ourselves fromlike thedigestive, surrounding hazards. a lot of systems muscular, nervous, bone, respiratory and vascular systems In addition to this, autonomic work harmoniously in human body. nervous

All of these systems carry out life functions, but the nervous system is of special importance. It has the task of coordination within all other systems. In other words, it is the administrator one. In actual fact, there is electrical activity in every single cell, but speciality of the cells of nervous system neurons - is to conduct their electrical signal to neighboring cells under certain conditions.

system is responsible for working of some very important organs like heart, stomach, liver, kidney, ect. All these activities are controlled by electrical activity in nervous system.

Anatomically speaking; the brain and spinal cord form central nervous system. Peripheral nerves come out of the spinal cord as thirtyone pairs just like branches of a tree, and they spread all over the body.

Physiologically speaking; bare nerve endings, namely receptors, located very close to skin, work just like energy transformers transducers in technology. .

When a receptor percept any kind of physical stimulant (touching, warm-cold, seeing, hearing, tasting), it is first of all converted into miniature electrical signals, e.g. in case of touching, mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. Nerve impulses, formed this way, are conducted to the spinal cord by peripheral nerves.

Within the nervous system, there are contact points, namely synapse, where two neurons get in touch. At the entrance of the spinal cord, the first synaptic contact happens; soon after that another synapse occurs; the part of nerve between these two synapses is called interneuron. By means of interneuron, nerve impulses pass across the cord, thus the second transmission way starts, and goes up to the thalamus where a new synapse is created to form the third transmission way for the impulses to reache the sensory cortex. For instance; in order to record electrical activity of heart ECG (electrocardiography) is used, for electrical activity of muscle EMG (electromyography), for electrical activity of brain EEG (electroancephelography). All these devices, operating like an osiloskop display bioactive signals on the screen or it give print outs. During recording, the patient is alive, these Impedance of theifCell, Tissue and Skin devices show very small potentials as a sign of life. On the cellular basis, When patient dies, a straight line will be shown on the zero axis.

Nerve impulses carrying various sensations is called action potentials, a kind of biopotentials. Brain demodulates action potentials arriving in the sensory cortex by evaluating the patterns of the signals, and recognises what the sense is.
In medical for Current the purpose The Effectsapplications, of Electrical on of diognosis, some devices in order to record Human Body biopotentials have been developed.

1- Thermic effect: burning of the body because of excessive current, 2- Chemical effect: degeneration of the nervous system, 3- Shock effect: stopping of heart by excessive current.

e.g. in neurons, the different chemical concentrations of ions inside and outside the cell causes a potential difference across the membrane, inside of the cell being more negative than the outside, because these ions have electrical charges.

Because the blood and other body fluids are in motion, the impedence of the living tissue is variable. It is not a fixed value, changes according to time and place. The values differ from person to person, in different parts of the same body, even in the same part of the same body at different times.

Different Effects of Direct and Alternating Currents Both direct and alternating current will be harmful when they flow through the body over safety limits, but the degree of effect is different to type of current. We know that impedance of the living tissue is frequency dependant, because of its capacitive future. We also know that electrical conductivity is proportional to the frequency for the same reason. XC =1/C=1/2fC iC = V / XC = V / 1/C = V / 1/2fC = 2fC.V As seen from the equations of capacitive reactance and current, when the frequency increases current increases, and when it decreases the current decreases.

In case of direct current (D.C.); f = 0 then iC = 0 in fact, the cell, tissue and skin has two components of current: resistive component and capacitive component. i = iR + iC In labs during experiments for during D.C.; educational purposes; i = iR 42 V A.C. and 70V D.C. are legally allowed current limits.
So, one may ask a question that why do we use electricity and take such a risk, then? In networks that connected to the

In case of alternating current (A.C.); depending on f, there is also capacitive current. f i

This mathematical analysis shows that A.C. compared with D.C. with the same amplitude is more effective in harming the living tissue. e.g. 42 V A.C. can cause the same effect with 70V D.C.
The electricity pruduced in a power station is first raised to 380 kV that is very high voltage by a raiser transformator, and it is then given to the national network.

The impedence ofnot dry skin between 100 Wouldnt be better to use is electricity? k and 600 k, voltage is accepted as 65V safe touching Electricity is, certainly, one of thedown best products but in wet skin this value falls to 1k, A.C. by the Ministry of Energy. of technology, and we need to use it at homes, in thus the impedence decreases between 100 offices, in industry, in medicine and other fields. and 600 folds.
Even if we only think about the importance of light, Thats parents their children not to without why electricity the warn life would reflect a Middle touch the electrical ligth switches and plug Age life style vision. sockets wet hands. We need with electricity, and we must use it, safely, in accordance with technical rules. Otherwise we can face with results which are unrecoverable.

ground;

As Problem: seen from the table of safe and When energy arrives in a main distribution How dangerous much currentto passes values, athat person center, it is lowered 166 kVthrough or 66 kV is who touches the electrical network system high voltage. by wet hands? electrical current Comment of 220 mA, on passing the result through of this accident? a person who touches the electrical network In the distribution centers in cities, the voltage is lowered to 34,5 kV or 15 kV that is Solution: by wet hands, intermediate voltage . in this accident. kills the person involved I = V / Z = 220 V / 1000 = 0.22 A = 220 Whatever it is finally lowered to 0.4 kV by a last mA step transformer located in certain places in the To answer the second part of the question, districts. As seen the given, we mustfrom look at example the table of safe and That is the voltage of energy coming to our electrical current can cause a dangerous current values. fatal effect on houses or work places.
human body.

After substraction of the line loses which is 5%, we have the standart voltage of 380 kV that is called interphasal voltage. 0,4 kV = 400 V 400 V x 0.05 = 20 V 400 V - 20 V = 380 V The phase neutr voltage is 220 volt. There is a 3 coefficeint beetwen these voltages: We know that U: interphasal 65 V A.C. is accepted as safe voltage touching V: phase-neutr voltage voltage by the Ministry of Energy. U = 3 . V 380 V = 3 x 220 V to minds; So one question may come why do we still insist on using 220/380 V network system in cities since it is so dangerous? To prepare the answer to this question, technical and economical aspects must be considered.

P: power (W) l: distance (m) k: selfconductivity (m/-mm2) q: cross section of the energy transmission line (mm2) U: interphasal voltage (V) V: phase-neutr voltage (V) Line Looses;

P.l %u = ---------------- in 1-phase system k.q.U P.l %v = --------------k.q.V

in 3-phase system

These formulas for calculating line losses reveal that thick wires should be used to decrease the looses. In long distances, this is impossible for both technical and economical reasons. So, very high (380 kV) and high voltages (166 kV or 66 kV) are to be used in the national network, intermediate voltages (34.5 kV or 15 kV) in intercity distribution system, and low voltages (220/380 V) in houses and working places.

Factors Which Increase the Risk of Electrical Accident Broken instruments and tools, Useage of materials which are out of standard, Wrong electrical connections to devices, Excessive current, Wrong temporary electrical applications, Humidity, Incompatible network voltage. Electrical Security Systems Grounding Systems In the places where electricity is used, connection of condutive metallic parts to ground is called grounding.

Precautions Against Electric Accidents Handling and repair of electrical equipment, Control and check, Inter-vocational trainning of personnel against electric accidents, Allowing of only licenced technical personnel to use electric instruments, Application of standard fuses and other protective circuit elements, Application of complete and appropriate Electrical current prefers a pathway with grounding. smaller resistance to flow. Curent always follows short circuit. Because a short circuit has the lowest resistance, zero. These are major rules of electrical engineering. There are three types of grounding: 1) Protection grounding, 2) Operational grounding (related to TEA and TEDA), 3) Special grounding (not our concern).

Protection Grounding Protection grounding is applied to send escaped current, resulting from a breakdown in the system, to the ground, for protecting people who touch metallic parts of a machine on which there is no current in normal operational conditions. Grounding of the metallic parts of machines that work with electricity, electrical devices, metallic parts of transformers, seconder windings of measurement transformers, steel armour of underground cables, and bodies of steel buildings are

Grounding Equipments Grounding Plates and Pipes, Grounding Conductors, Grounding Pools.

Grounding Plates and Pipes Usually copper plates or galvanized steel plates are used as grounding plates. According to the relevant regulating rules; the copper plates must be minimum 2 mm in thickness and must have a surface of 0.5 m. In order to provide this surface area, there are 70 cm70 cm copper plates available in markets. On the other hand galvanized steel plates must be minimum 3 mm thickness and 0.5 m surface

Grounding Conductors The grounding line which connects the grounding plate to the main energy enterance of the building should be bare, full copper wire with 50 mm. The same type of wire which is of minimum 16 mm should be used between the main energy distribution panel and the energy enterance of the building. The grounding line between the main panel and the subpanels should be half of the phase 6.Sunum Radiation Biophysics conductor in thickness not being less than 4 mm. Inside the building, 2.5 mm grounding line is suitable for the plugs.

Grounding Pits
A humid place which can take rain continously is suitable for a grounding pit. The pool should be at least 1.5 m in deep. If the soil is dry, the deep of the hole may be increased in order to reach a humid soil. The grounding plate should be put into the hole with a right angle and the upper end of the plate should be 50 cm below the surface of the soil. If the soil which has been digged is not clear, it should be sieved before it is used for stuffing. The surface of the grounding should be A nucleus is formed by two pool components: arranged in a pool like shape in order to make protons and neutrons. the rain water accumulate there. The soil which is pressed by knocking on after Protons are positively charged, and they have a unit load (+ 1). Neutrons are neutral. Protons and neutrons, forming the nucleus, are together called nucleon.

The number of protons may be same with the number of neutrons. If the number of proton is equal or close to the number of neutron, this atom is said to be in stable state. If the number of proton is less or more than the number of neutron, the atom is in unstable form, and it tries to pass the resolute state. For this purpose, the destruction or deterioration occurs in nucleus and spreads radiation.

Neutrons exist in nuclei that have 2 or more protons.

Problem: What is the reason for 137 Cesium to be radioactive (its atomic number is 55)? 137 Cs 55 M = 137 A = P = 55 M=P+N 137 = 55 + N N = 137 - 55 = 82 N >>> P Thats why 137 Cesium is radioactive.

Atoms can be in two different forms: Stable Form (Stable Atoms) PN ~ NN Unstable Form (Unstable Atoms) (Radioactive Atom) (Radioisotope) PN > veya < NN These group of atoms try to pass to stable form, and to achieve this, they emit radiation. Later on, it was understood that a (alfa) radiation was similar to 42He nucleus, and b (beta) radiation looked like e- . The mass of b particule is the same with that of electron, and its charge is 1.

Studies by Ernest RUTHERTFORT (1898) showed that uranium emited two kinds of radiation: (alfa) and (beta), and this way it could be converted into another elements.

Until 1912, 30 more radioactive elements were found. These elements, some of which were natural, some others artificial, were called as radioisotopes.

If the sign of b particule is negative, it will be First calledradioactivity electron, tests on the livings

were undertaken on frogs. When the frogs, were drunk If it is positive (+), which it will be called positron. radioiodine, placed on photograph films including carbon, it was observed that the films got darken, after removing the upper skin, even more darken.

There is not an exact rule to determine if an isotope is radioactive or not. After all, there are some experimental data about the criteria of radioactivity: Atoms with nucleus having double number of electrons are, generally, in steady state. The ratio of number of neutrons and protons in nucleus give an idea about the radioactivity. The partition criteria for a nucleus: 45 < A2/M < 53,5

Experimental studies, employing natural radioactive series, revealed that most of elements with atomic number between 81 and 92 are radioisotopes. The reason for this; The strong Coulomb repelling effect between protons of elements with high atomic number makes these elements unstable. To decrease the effect of Coulomb repelling, the nucleus undergoes a action, and thus it losses 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Sometimes, the nucleus emits b beam. . During this procedure; 1 neutron is converted into 1 e+ and 1 e- .

When neutron and proton numbers is represened by a graphic, elements composed of stable atoms fall into steady state region. Radioactive elements, of which the ratio of number of neutrons and protons are less or greater than 1, are out of steady state region. A few isotopes within stable state region are still radioactive.

How a radioactive element will reach to the stable state depends on the ratio of number of neutrons and protons, and how close it to a stable element. A nucleus that is out of stable state region can emit either or particule to reach to stable state. But, there is not a certain rule to reach stable state region. e.g. The nucleus of torium 233, which is expected to emit , prefers activity.

Atoms can be in two different forms: Stable Form (Stable Atoms) PN ~ NN Unstable Form (Unstable Atoms) (Radioactive Atom) (Radioisotope) PN > veya < NN These group of atoms try to pass to stable form, and to achieve this, they emit radiation.

Atom ic Bomb The explosion of atomic bomb based on the principle that combine specific amount of radioactive elements(236U or 233Th) which is called critical mass. Critical mass of uranium is estimated to be mcritic @ 2,6 kg When the atomic bomb is explosed temperature will be 4x106 oK

A fission (partition) reaction.

H y dremaining r o g e n product B o m b resulting from fusion The The heat which is necessary making reaction is much less than for those from hydrogen bomb that is a kind of fusion reaction fission. is provided from explosion of atomic bomb. The amount of nuclear waste remaining For this reason, fusion reaction is a potential from fusion reaction is much less than those candidate as an alternative energy from fission; thats why hydrogen bombsource has in the future. been called clean bomb.

The reaction in a nuclear powerstation is based upon the disintegration of substances by partition. Generally uranium 236 is used as a substance. The equation of reaction that is a fission reaction; 236U 92Kr + 144Ba + enerji Paraphine wall prevents the radiation to escape the environment. Because water, pumped through the water channels, involves in radioactivity, it is not directly used; instead the vapor, taken from another water depot, results in movement of the turbine. This mechanical energy is then converted into electrical energy by alternators
If in t time interval only N number of radioactive atom is broken into pieces from N number of radioactive atom, N / t = - N can be written. In this equation, (-) sign shows that the number of radioactive atoms decreases in time. By integration; N = N0.e-t N0: the number of radioactive atoms at the beginning N: the number of radioactive atoms by the end of time t Physical Half Life e: 2.718 (base of natural logarithme) -t = is N/N Factor 0 = e : Decay Time DF that necessary for the number of (%radioactive how many left from the atoms the eginning) atoms to decrease at down to half of its

The Law of Radioactive Decay Partition of radioactive nucleuses is a random process; it cannot be exactly known which one will be divided and when. But, it can be talked about the probability of disintegration. : Partition constant (probability of disintegration per unit time). e.g. I-131 = 10-6 s-1 Problem: This means that The number of atoms of a radioactive material is only 1 out of 1000000 radioactive 10000, and partition constant 0.05.iode Findatom the nucleus will be divided in 1 s. number of atoms being divided and the
remainings by the end of first, second and third second. Solution: after 1 s; 0.05x10000 = 500 (divided) 10000 - 500 = 9500 (the rest) after 2 s; 0.05x9500 = 475 (divided) Decay Curve 9500 - 475 = 9025 (the rest) Decay which is= a 451.25 curve that shows change after 3curve s; 0.05x9025 (divided) of decay factor9025 according to time on a half 451.25 = 8573.75 (the rest) logaritmic graphic paper. At the beginning (t=0)100 % decay factor (DF) is marked (1st point). At the time of physical halflife 50 % DF is marked (2nd point). The line connecting these two points determines decay curve.

original value at the beginning. t = t1/2 N = N0/2 By taking natural logarithm; t1/2 = 0,693/ Physical half-life is inversily proportional to partition constant. As partition constant increases physical half-life gets shorten. Decay constant is independant from chemical and physical conditions (pressure, temperature, light). So, radioactive decay cannot be stopped, slowed or accelerated. By the end of physical half-lie, half of the radioactive atoms get lost, then half of the rest, and thus; in consistent with the equation 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, ... 1/2n patition continues.

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