3.

Atom structure

3.1. Atom components At the end of the last century (1897), it has been proved that atoms, very small and stable particles are systems composed by two parts: - a central nucleus, positively charged, heavy, thus, the whole mass of the atom is concentrated inside it; - an electronic cover, composed by electrons that move around the nucleus, negatively charged, with a smaller mass than that of the nucleus and the number of negative charges are charges compensate by the positive charges of the nucleus. Every atom, according to experiments made by Rutherford, has a single nucleus in which the entire positive charge and almost the whole mass of the atom is concentrated [1, 2] Central nucleus is formed by nucleons that are protons, which have a positive electrical charge and are almost 1836 times bigger than electrons and neutrons, which dont have an electrical charge and which are about 1839 times bigger than the electrons. Before 1961, only electrons, protons and neutrons where accepted as subatomic particles. Today, it is known that protons and neutrons are made by of very small particles, called quarks. Quarks are the smallest known parts of matter, which dont exist anytime alone. They are always found in combination with other quarks in bigger particles of matter. Protons and neutrons, particles which form atoms, are formed by quarks. There are six types of quarks: up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom. All quarks have a certain mass and electrical charge. Ordinary matter, that is matter made up of atoms, contains only the smallest two quarks, up and down. [3] Charm and strange quarks are found in cosmic

radius. Researchers obtained top and bottom quarks in the laboratory, the heaviest quarks, but they didnt find them in nature.
Table 3.1: Symbol, charge and mass of the six quarks

Name Down Up Strange Charm Bottom Top

Symbol charge d u s c b t -1/3 +2/3 -1/3 +2/3 -1/3 +2/3

Mass (approx.,GeV/c2) 0.008 0.004 0.15 1.5 4.5 180

The majorities of particles discovered at high energies in accelerators of particles or in cosmic radiations are made up of combinations of quarks. These particles are classified in two big categories: mesons (formed by two quarks) and baryons (formed by three quarks, for example proton and neutron). The proton is formed by two quarks: up and down. The neutron is formed by two quarks: down and up. Thus, the proton charge is u(+2/3) +u(+2/3) +d(-1/3) = +1, and the neutron charge is u(+2/3) +d(-1/3) +d(-1/3) =0, as was experimentally measured. In 2001, particles formed by penta-quarks where observed, in experiments of high energies physics. Although the experimental situation is not very obvious, the theory admits the existence of this type of particles.

The electron has a neutral partner from electrical point of view, almost without mass, called neutrino. The electron and neutrino are leptons. In conclusion, atoms are composed only by quarks and leptons. Bosons are particles for transporting the interaction forces. Thus, electrons are bounded to the nucleus through photons which transport the electromagnetic force. Protons and neutrons are maintained together in nucleus through gluons which transport the nuclear force. The numbers of negative charges from the electronic cover is equal to the number of positive charges existing in the nucleus and are noted with Z, called the atomic number. Based on these suppositions, a lot of phenomenon known from antiquity, the periodical table of elements, valence and chemical bond nature, electrical phenomenon (emission and absorption of light) could be explained. Isotopes are atoms species which belong to the same element, differing through their mass, but are through their physical and chemical properties, they have identical atomic numbers Z, but different mass numbers A. [4] Mass number A of one isotope is equal to the sum between the protons number Z and neutrons number N, from the nucleus: A=Z+N the four corners, definitive characteristics are attached:
Mass number A

(3.1)

Different nuclear species are noted using symbols of elements, and in

Ionisation state
e

Atomic number Z

Chemical symbol of element

Number of neutrons N

Only 21 elements from the periodical system are monoisotopic that is in other words, atomic nucleus of single specie. Almost all 21 have odd number Z (11Na, 55Cs, 4Be, 13Al, 9F). [5] The others elements from nature represent mixtures of isotopes in constant proportions, excepting the easy elements (H, C, O, etc.). Elements with even Z have more isotopes, as for example Ca: 96.97 %
40 20

Ca , 0.64 %

42 20

Ca , 0.145 %

43 20

Ca .

Hydrogen (H) (Standard atomic mass: 1.00794(7) u) has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H, and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today [6, 7]:
1 2

H (protium) (99.98%). H (deuterium) (0.0026 0.0184%) is not radioactive, and does not

represent a significant toxicity hazard. Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium: heavy water.
3

H (tritium) is radioactive, decaying into helium-3 through decay H is a highly unstable isotope of hydrogen. It has been synthesized

with a half-life of 12.32 years.

4

in the laboratory by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei. It decays through neutron emission and has a half-life of (1.39 0.10) 1022 seconds.
5

H is a highly unstable isotope of hydrogen. It has been synthesized

in the laboratory by bombarding tritium with fast-moving tritium nuclei. It decays through double neutron emission and has a half-life of at least 9.1 1022 s.

H decays through triple neutron emission and has a half-life of H was first synthesized in 2003 by a group of Russian, Japanese and

31022 s.
7

French scientists at RIKEN's RI Beam Science Laboratory by bombarding hydrogen with helium-8 atoms.[8] Isotopes are frequently used in chemistry, in the study of chemical reactions kinetics, as tracer elements (in agricultural application), at synthesis of labeled compound, in the study of chemical compounds, of structures and chemical reactions as well as in biochemistry. The 14C isotope is used in archaeological dating. The isotopes are used in medicine (treatment and diagnosis) and nuclear medicine (diagnostic tests of this type are done by injecting a radionuclide or radioisotope into the bloodstream intravenously). On the other hand, the radioisotope Technetium-99 can be attached to certain pharmaceuticals to be transported to the bones. Any increased physiological function, such as due to a fracture in the bone, will usually mean increased concentration of the tracer. Nuclides are nuclear species, characterized by a mass number A, atomic number Z and energy state, with the condition of that, the life of this state to be is high enough (t > 10-8s). [9,10] If nuclides depart from stability line, a radioactivity in emission of protons or neutrons can exist. For stable nucleus:
Z= A 1.98 + 0.014A 2 / 3

(3.2)

Z
Fig. 3.1. Function of maximum nuclear stability A = f(Z)

If Z < 20, Z A/2. In figure 3.1 it is graphically represented Z = f(A), according to relation (3.2). Some elements, as uranium or radium, have the property to issue invisible radiations, which can cross different metallic foils, can impress photographic covered plates or cause fluorescence of some substances. More frequent, the representation N = f(Z) is used (figure 3.2). The return to stability line is made by radiation emission . N

Z
Fig. 3.2. Function of maximum nuclear stability N = f(Z)

3.2. Electric elementary charge Notion of electricity descends from elektron (amber, in Greece) and it was introduced by Gilbert (sec. XVI) for defining the attraction force of a stick of electrified amber through friction, on easy objects. The attraction between the stick of glass and a piece of electrified amber, led to

the definition of two electrified forces, a negative one and a positive one. In the case of attraction, we can observe the presence of an electric current which circulates from the negative charged glass to the positive charged amber. Attraction force (F) between two opposite charges, q1 and q2 situated at r distance, is expressed by the Coulomb law:
F=k q1 q 2 r2

(3.3)

Elementary electric charges have the following characteristics: - are additive; - are indestructible (they cant be detached of electrons); - are identical; - positive elementary charge (p+ proton), situated in nucleus or in free state, is equal in absolute value with negatively elementary charge (e- electron), but it has a mass of approximate 1840 times higher; - charges the negative or positive bodies (excess or deficit of electrons); - can be conductors of electricity, the charges are freely, in large spaces, independent of temperature. All these take place in the case of metals, alloys and electrolyte solutions; - can be isolators or dielectrics, charges are joined, in the case of inert gases, covalent molecules and ionic substances in solid state; - can be semiconductors, the number of free charges depends on the temperature. The electrochemical equivalent of an element is the quantity from the respective element, removed from (or towards) one electrode, by a quantity of electricity equal to 1 coulomb = 1 ampere second.

The elementary electric charge e is a universal constant, characteristic to some particles with repose mass, quantified at the values of electric charge q and has the value obtained from the electrolysis laws (Faraday). The number of charges from a faraday is equal to the Avogadro number: e=

F 96500 = = 1.602.10-19coulombs/electron 23 N A 6.023 10

(3.4)

3.3. Dimensions of electron

J. J. Thomson (1897) discovered the electron and concomitantly he calculated the rated and e/me ratio from deviation of cathode radius in electric and magnetic fields:

e / m e = 1,759 10 8 coulombs / gram

(3.5)

From the constant value found for e/me, independent of the gas nature present in the tube of discharge or of material used for obtaining the cathode, it was he concluded that electrons have negative charge and they are the fundamental constituents of matter. Electron mass in repose is of 1837 times smaller than hydrogen atom mass and is calculated; knowing that the electron charge is 1, from the value of ratio e/me and of elementary electric charge:
me = 1.602 10 19 coulombs / electron 1.759 10 coulombs / gram
8

=9.108.10-28g/electron(3.6)

3.4. Electromagnetic radiation. The photon

The energy of electromagnetic field is determines the absorption and emission of electromagnetic radiation and due to this reason it is used in spectroscopy and photochemistry.

An electromagnetic field is a perturbation which is propagated in vacuum with rate of light in vacuum c 3108 m s-1.
3.4.1. Undulation theory of light

Undulatory theory of light conceives the light as a succession of electromagnetic waves (Huygens, 1672), in contrast with corpuscular theory which assimilates it with a flux of particles (Newton). An electromagnetic field can be seen as being formed by two components, an electric field (which acts on charged particles or on polarized bodies in repose or motion) and a magnetic field (which acts only on charges in motion); every field produces a force which can accelerate the particle. An electromagnetic field is generated by charges in motion. For example, the electrons are moving forward and backwards in an aerial and thus generate an electromagnetic perturbation [11] which is propagated in space. An electromagnetic field can induce movement in charged particles, as is taking place in aerial of a radio apparatus at reception. The electromagnetic field is propagating as a sinusoidal wave and is characterized by wave length (which is the distance between the neighboring maximum of the wave), wave frequency, total amplitude AT, which is the maximum value of perturbation and of intensity, which is direct proportional with the square of amplitude (figure 3.3).
wavelenght

A amplitude
T

Fig. 3.3: Propagation of electromagnetic field

Wave frequency () represents the number of waves which pass in a second through a certain point. <>S.I. = time-1 = Hz (Hertz); <.>= <c> = length. time-1 (are dimensions of a rate) Number of wave (), the inverse of wave length, represents the number of wave lengths from a centimeter:
= 1/ = /c

(3.7)

where: <> = cm-1. In table 3.2 is presented the classification of electromagnetic radius function of frequency and of wave length, together with the types of motions which absorb or emit energy of a certain wave length.
Table 3.2: Classification of electromagnetic radiation [12]

Motion

Radiation type radio > 1m

molecular rotation

microwave infrared far off near infrared red green visible violet ultraviolet vacuum ultraviolet

molecular vibration

electronic excitation

excitement of electronic heart nuclear excitation [13]

X radius
radius cosmic radius

1m 1 mm 10-3 m 10-5 m 10-6m=1 m 700 nm 700-620 nm 560-510 nm 450-400 10-7 m 10-8m 10-9m=1nm 10-10m=1 10-11m 10-12m=1pm 10-12-10-13m <10-14m

The spectrum of electromagnetic radiations is divided after criterion of wave length in some domains, from low to high frequencies (figure 3.4): - radio radiations (waves); - microwaves; - hertzien radiations; - infrared radiations; - luminous radiations; - ultraviolet radiations; - X (Roentgen) radiations; - "" radiations
Radio waves are used for the transmission of television signals, for

communication through satellite and mobile telephony. Microwaves are used in communication and in microwave oven, which is based on relatively strong absorption of radiations of this frequency in water and in vegetal and animal matter. Millimeter waves are used in astronomy, for example.
Terahertziene waves recently started to be researched and used in practical

applications. Infrared radiation (light) is very useful in physical-chemical analysis through spectroscopy. Also, it is used for transmission of data without wire but at small distances, as is the case of almost all remote controls for television and other home apparatus. Visible light is the most near at hand example of electromagnetic waves. Ultraviolet radiation (light) is responsible for skin bronzing. X (or Roentgen) radius are used for a long time in medicine for visualizing of intern organs. Gamma radius is often produced in nuclear reactions.

Fig. 3.4: The electromagnetic spectrum [14]

3.4.2. The quantum theory

Max Planck, in 1900, showed that a hot body cant emit or absorb light of a certain wave length in minimal quantities, only a certain minimal energy quantity which he called energy quantum or photon ().
Photon is the smallest energy quantity of an electromagnetic

radiation which can exist. It hasnt a constant value, it depends on the radiation frequency () emitted or absorbed by a body.
= h

(3.8)

where: h = 6.6256.10-34 J.s = Plancks constant, being an universal constant of action, because it has the dimensions [energy] x [time], that is dimensions of an action. Expression (3.8) is the fundamental equation of quantum theory. A body can emit or absorb only a round quantum number.

3.5. Radioactivity. Radiations , , Radioactivity is defined as being the nucleus property (some

nuclides) to spontaneously emit , particles or to suffer an electronic capture and disintegration .15 Radioactive radiations arent homogeneous, thus if the radiations emitted by a radioactive source are passed through a magnetic field, they are deviated differently (figure 3.5). The natural radioactivity is especially met at the elements situated at the end of the periodical system of elements. There are only some elements with medium atomic mass which emit radiations (40K,
187 82

Rb ,

152

Sm,

176

Lu,

Re). All these elements emit radiations, excepting samarium which

emits radiation.

The radioactive substances emanate three types of radiations; , and (figure 3.5). Radiations are deviated in electric and magnetic field in a smaller measure towards radiations. Radiations arent deviated in electric or magnetic field, which is proof that they havent electric charges. Pb clothing radioactive substance

N S

+ B

Fig. 3.5: Representation of , and radiations

3.5.1 Heavy charged particles (, p+ radiations, deuterons) radiations are nuclides of helium, positively charged, moving with

very high rates, which pass the thin walls of a metallic pot, accumulating inside this as helium form. Heavy charged particles can suffer three types of interactions [16]: percussions with atomic electrons (the most important); in these percussions radiation loses its energy in proportion of over 98% and the effects of percussion are excitation (detectors used in the study of radiations: ZnS), ionization (complete) removal of electrons in atoms or molecules, which produces positive and negative ions) and dissociation; braking in the electric field of the nucleus (retransmission of and X radiations); nuclear reactions which take place with a very small probability, of about 10-3%.

3.5.2 and radiation radiations are negatively charged, being formed by electrons which

are moving with very high rates (of 20 times higher than the rate of radiations , respectively up to 99% from the light rate c). Thats why radiations have a higher power of penetration than radiation.
radiations are of electromagnetic nature, as the light, but with a

wave length smaller than X radius obtained in tubes of X radius, at very high voltages. They arent influenced by an electromagnetic field and they havent an electric charge, the ionization power being reduced. [17, 18] In conclusion, substances are formed by atoms. Hypothetical, there could be antimatter composed by antiatoms. In different experiments in very intense electromagnetic fields, they could isolate for short time, nucleus of antimatter, and positrons were detected in cosmic radiations. From the study of radiations send out by radioactive elements and of phenomenon produced by these, it was proved that the atom has a lacuna
structure, being composed by a small, heavy and positively charged nucleus,

which concentrates almost the whole mass of the atom and a small, easy and negatively charged electrons, which are rotating around the nucleus at very large relative distances compared with the nucleus dimensions.

3.5.3 Mass spectra

Through bombarding of a sample substance with radiations and , electrons from the superior layers of the atom electronic cover can be detaching. In accordance with the energy flux applied to molecules can be ionized, they can rive in ionized fragments or elementary ions [19,20]. Another modality of ionization is realized using radiations or photons.

By applying an electric potential, a flux of positive ions can be produced through a negatively charged electrode and a flux of electrons through a positively charged electrode (figure. 3.6) [21, 22, 23]. radiation probe B E + U N S C

Fig. 3.6. The principle of mass spectrometry

In sequel, the flux of positive ions is passed through a region with magnetic filed, they suffer deviations from rectilinear trajectory, when they are framing on a trajectory as arc shape in the presence of magnetic field B. In mass spectrometry [24, 25, 26] there can be used a photosensitive plate or a photosensitive screen for recording the deviation of every bearer of electric charges. On the photosensitive screen C the bearer of positively electric charges are separated in accordance with the ratio m/q, where m is the mass of the bearer and q is its charge. The method is used for quantitative determination of sample composition. The method of deviation in magnetic field, combined with the acceleration in electric field [27] is also used for cyclotrons construction (figure 3.7). [28]

(m,q)

+ + E /2 E

Fig. 3.7: The constructive principle of cyclotron

The cyclotron (figure 3.7) is an accelerator of particles, obtained by

advanced positive ionization of atoms. Frequently, the ionization leads to the extraction of 8-10 electrons from the atoms. [29] The cyclotron role [30] is to accelerate these particles at rates which assure them a kinetic energy, enough to bombard other atoms nucleus, usually heavier and from the category of transuranium elements, for producing nuclear reactions.[31, 32]

3.6. Tests your knowledge

3.6.1. The nucleus of an atom contains: a) protons only; b) neutrons only; c) electrons only; d) protons and neutrons. 3.6.2. How many protons and neutrons are in an atom of iron that has a mass number of 55? a) 26 protons and 55 neutrons; b) 26 protons and 29 neutrons; c) 29 protons and 26 neutrons; d) 26 protons and 26 neutrons.

3.6.3. What is the mass number of an atom of tin that has 70 neutrons? a) 118.7; b) 70; c) 119; d) 120. 3.6.4. How many electrons are in the outer electron level of the halogen? a) 2; b) 5; c) 1; d) 7. 3.6.5. The beta particle consists of: a) high-energy rays; b) 1 neutron; c) 2 neutrons and 2 protons; d) 1 electron. 3.6.6. What is the product of the alpha decay of Rn-220? a) Po-216; b) Rn-220; c) Rn-216; d) Ra-224. 3.6.7. The radioisotopes used for diagnosis in nuclear medicine: a) they have short half lives. b) they travel rapidly through tissue. c) are usually gamma emitters. d) all of the above.

3.6.8. Most atoms are neutral. This means: a) The nucleus is only made up of neutrons. b) There are equal numbers of electrons and positrons in the electron shells c) The electrons normally have zero charge. d) The number of electrons balances out the number of protons. 3.6.9. Which one of these statements is true about an isotope of an element? a) The number of protons remains the same, but the number of neutrons is different. b) The number of neutrons remains the same, but the number of protons is different. c) The number of protons and neutrons remain the same, but the number of electrons is different. d) The number of protons remains the same, but electrons are added to the nucleus. 3.6.10. An isotope of cadmium has an atomic number of 48 and a mass number of 112. This means that the cadmium atom has: a) ? 48 protons 64 neutrons and 48 electrons. b) ? c) ? 64 protons 48 neutrons and 64 electrons. 48 protons 112 neutrons and 48 electrons. d) ? 112 protons 48 neutrons and 112 electrons.

References
[1] Flowers B. H., The structure of the nucleus, J. Chem. Ed., 37, 610, 1960. [2] Luck Werner A. P., Why doesn't the electron fall into the nucleus (LTE)?, J. Chem. Ed., 62, 914, 1985. [3] Barnett Michael R., Muehry Henry, Quinn Helen R., More details on The Charm of Strange Quarks:Mysteries and Revolutions of Particle Physics, Springer Verlag; ISBN: 0387988971, 320 pages. [4] Eck C. F., Stable isotopes of the atmosphere, J. Chem. Ed., 46, 706, 1969. [5] Anders O. U., The place of isotopes in the Periodic table, J. Chem. Ed., 41, 522, 1964. [6] Audi G., Wapstra A.H., Thibault C., Blachot J., Bersillon O., Isotope masses from Ame2003 Atomic Mass Evaluation, Nuclear Physics A729, 2003. [7] IUPAC Technical Report, Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from Atomic weights of the elements, Pure Appl. Chem. Vol. 75, No. 6, p. 683-800, 2005. [8] Korsheninnikov A. A., E. Y. Nikolskii, E. A. Kuzmin, A. Ozawa, K. Morimoto, F. Tokanai, R. Kanungo, I. Tanihata, N. K. Timofeyuk, M. S. Golovkov Experimental Evidence for the Existence of 7H and for a Specific Structure of 8He, Physical Review Letters 90 (8): 82501, 2003. [9] Hendrickson Eric, The abundance of nuclides: A lab simulation using pennies, J. Chem. Ed., 65, 986, 1988. [10] Logan S. R., Instability of Large Nuclides with Respect to Decay by alphaParticle Emission, J. Chem. Ed., 71, 888, 1994. [11] Electromagnetic radiation, Britannica.com and Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc., 1999 - 2000.

[12] Jantschi L., Ungurean M. L., Capitole speciale de chimie pentru

automatic, Ed. U.T. Pres, ISBN 973-8335-15-9, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 50.
[13] Schewe P. F., The Nuclear Age Began 50 Years Ago, AIP Public Information, Nr. 105, December 4, 1992.

[14]http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radia%C5%A3ie_electromagnetic%C4%83 [15] Bodner George M., Rhea Tony A., Natural sources of ionizing radiation, J. Chem. Ed., 61, 687, 1984. [16] Strjescu M, Cosma M., Chimie anorganic pentru elevi i absolveni de licee, Cluj-Napoca, Ed. Dacia, 1975. [17] Pyle John T., Planck's radiation law: Spectral distribution and the gamma functions, J. Chem. Ed., 62, 488, 1985. [18] Lyons R. G., Crossley P. C., Fortune, D., High-Sensitivity Gamma Radiation Monitor for Teaching and Environmental Applications, J. Chem. Ed. 71, 524, 1994. [19] Wiberley Stephen E., Mass spectrometry (Chem Inst.), J. Chem. Ed., 41, A75, A153,1964. [20] Jeffrey R. Bacon, Jeffrey S. Crain, Luc Van Vaeck, John G. Williams, Atomic mass spectrometry, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1025-1053, 2000. [21] Eichstadt Karen E., Integrating research instrumentation with the general chemistry curriculum. Part I: Mass spectrometry, J. Chem. Ed., 69, 48, 1992. [22] Souza Nelson Angelo, Bravo Ruiess Van Fossen, An easy model for teaching mass/ charge in mass spectrometry, J. Chem. Ed., 66, 1039, 1989. [23] Finet Daniel, A simple system to illustrate mass spectrometry principles, J. Chem. Ed., 57, 232, 1980. [24] Dopke Nancy Carter, Treichel Paul M., Jr., Vestling Martha M., Significant Figures, the Periodic Table, and Mass Spectrometry: The Challenge of Large Biomolecules, J. Chem. Ed., 77, 1065, 2000. [25] Illies A., Shevlin P. B., Childers G., Peschke M., Tsai J., Mass Spectrometry for Large Undergraduate Laboratory Sections, J. Chem. Ed., 72, 717, 1995. [26] Crute Thomas D., Myers Stephanie A., A Model for Mass Spectrometry, J. Chem. Ed., 72, 232, 1995. [27] Grassel Eugene E., A model demonstrating the cyclotron principle, J. Chem. Ed., 20, 460, 1943.

[28] Hawryluk R. J., Batha S., Blanchard W. et al., Fusion plasma experiments on TFTR: A 20 year retrospective, Physics of Plasmas, 5, 1577, 1998. [29] Uhm H. S., Hendricks K. J, Arman M. J. et al., A nonlinear theory of relativistic klystrons connected to a coaxial waveguide, Physics of Plasmas, 4, 2691, 1997. [30] Burnier R. C., Freiser B. S., An interpretive experiment in ion cyclotron resonance spectroscopy (IE), J. Chem. Ed., 56, 687, 1979. [31] Shirai H. and the JT-60 Team, Recent experimental and analytic progress in the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute Tokamak-60 Upgrade with W-shaped divertor configuration, Physics of Plasmas, 5, 1712, 1998. [32] Atwood Charles H., Paul Kimberly M., Todd Stefani D., Simulating and Visualizing Nuclear Reactions, J. Chem. Ed., 72, 515, 1995.