Quinta Essentia

QUINTA ESSENTIA
A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering
PART 4
THE DERIVATION OF THE HUBBLE
CONSTANT & THE COSMIC
MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
RADIATION (CMBR) TEMPERATURE
To my parents
RESEARCH NOTES
Key Words: Big-Bang, CMBR, Cosmological Evolution / Expansion / History / Inflation, Dark
Energy / Matter, Gravitation, Hubble constant.
2nd Edition
Project Initiated: October 13, 2005
Project Completed: April 14, 2007
Revised: Thursday, 24 November 2011
RICCARDO C. STORTI1
www.deltagroupengineering.com
1
rstorti@gmail.com
Copyright 2011: Delta Group Engineering (dgE): All rights reserved.
Preface
This text is a compilation of research notes and a companion to Quinta Essentia - Part 3,
extending the principles of Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) to two important aspects of Cosmology
[i.e. the present value of the Hubble constant H0 and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR) temperature T0]. Subsequently, the reader is actively encouraged to review Part 3, to
obtain a full appreciation of the EGM method.
Part 3 develops an equation facilitating the harmonic representation of all fundamental
particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen base particle. It is demonstrated, for example, that the
EGM wavefunction frequency of an Electron (r,me) is twice that of the Proton (r,mp),
and the harmonic relationship between them St has a value of 2. Hence, a table of fundamental
particle harmonics was formulated.
This resulted in a relationship between the mass-energy and size of fundamental particles
based upon Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) equilibria. Although the EGM harmonic representation is an
approximation derived from basic engineering principles, it produces experimentally verified
results substantially beyond the current abilities of the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics to
do so, to at least four orders of magnitude.
Part 4 utilises the principles of mass-energy distribution and similitude by ZPF equilibria
developed in Part 3, to derive H0 and T0. It is demonstrated that a mathematical relationship
exists between the Hubble constant and CMBR temperature such that T0 is derived from H0.
Consequently, this enables the complete and precise specification of the thermodynamic,
inflationary and expansive history of the Universe, from the Big-Bang to the present day.
Astonishingly, the application of the EGM construct to Cosmology produces Black-BodyRadiation curve characteristics, without the application of the Black-Body-Law, further
reinforcing the validity of the H0 and T0 formulations of approximately 67.0843(km/s/Mpc)
and 2.7248(K) respectively. Considering that the experimental tolerance of the CMBR
temperature is presently 2.725 0.001(K), it is obvious that any determination within such a tight
tolerance should be given serious consideration.
The derivation of H0 and T0 is possible assuming that, instantaneously prior to the BigBang, the Primordial Universe was analogous to a homogeneous Planck scale particle of maximum
permissible energy density, characterised by a single EGM wavefunction. Simultaneously, we
represent the Milky-Way as a Planck scale object of equivalent total Galactic mass MG, acting
as a Galactic Reference Particle (GRP) characterised by a large number of EGM wavefunctions
with respect to the solar distance from the Galactic centre Ro.
This facilitates a comparative analysis between the Primordial and Galactic particle
representations utilising the harmonic equation derived in Part 3, yielding H0 in terms of Ro
and MG. Moreover, we extend the analysis by determining the theoretical frequency shift of a
fictitious EGM wavefunction being radiated from the Primordial particle, yielding T0 in terms of
H0. Consequently, by utilising the measured value of T0, we derive improved estimates for Ro
and MG as being approximately 8.1072(kpc) and 6.3142 x1011(solar-masses) respectively.
Because the value of H0 is still widely debated and the associated experimental tolerance
is much broader than T0, the EGM construct implies that the observed accelerated expansion of
the Universe is attributable to the determination of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF being
< -2.52 x10-13(Pa). Moreover, it is graphically illustrated that the gradient of the Hubble constant
in the time domain is presently positive.
Subsequently, it is demonstrated that the majority of what is currently conjectured to
constitute Dark Matter / Energy by the scientific community, is nothing more than Photons due to
the definition of a Graviton under the EGM construct. In addition, it is mathematically shown that
the magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of the Hubble constant and
CMBR temperature is < 1(%) such that the Universe is composed of:
> 94.4(%) Photons, < 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy and 4.6(%) Atoms.
3
Table of Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Scientific Achievements .............................................................................................................. 23
1
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 25
1.1
The natural philosophy of the Cosmos ............................................................................... 25
1.1.1
Objectives and scope................................................................................................... 25
1.1.2
How are these objectives achieved? ............................................................................ 25
1.1.2.1 Synopsis................................................................................................................. 25
1.1.2.2 Derivation process.................................................................................................. 26
1.1.2.2.1 Hubble constant HU ...................................................................................... 26
1.1.2.2.2 CMBR temperature TU ................................................................................. 27
1.1.2.2.3 HU HU2, TU TU2 TU3 ........................................................................ 28
1.1.2.2.4 Rate of change dHdt ...................................................................................... 29
1.1.3
Sample results............................................................................................................. 30
1.1.3.1 Numerical evaluation and analysis.......................................................................... 30
1.1.3.1.1 Cosmological properties................................................................................... 30
1.1.3.1.2 Significant temporal ordinates .......................................................................... 32
1.1.3.2 Graphical evaluation and analysis........................................................................... 33
1.1.3.2.1 Average Cosmological temperature vs. age ...................................................... 33
1.1.3.2.2 Magnitude of the Hubble constant vs. Cosmological age .................................. 34
1.1.3.2.3 Cosmological evolution process ....................................................................... 35
1.1.4
History of the Universe according to EGM ................................................................. 36
1.1.5
Discussion .................................................................................................................. 38
1.1.5.1 Conceptualization................................................................................................... 38
1.1.5.1.1 x.................................................................................................................. 38
1.1.5.1.2 TL ................................................................................................................. 38
1.1.5.1.3 C_J .............................................................................................................. 38
1.1.5.1.4 St ................................................................................................................ 39
1.1.5.2 Dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity......................................................... 39
1.1.5.2.1 HU ................................................................................................................ 39
1.1.5.2.2 TU................................................................................................................. 40
1.1.6
Concluding remarks.................................................................................................... 40
1.2
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................... 42
1.2.1
General Relativity (GR) .............................................................................................. 42
1.2.2
Black-Holes (BHs) .................................................................................................... 43
1.2.3
Quantum Mechanics (QM).......................................................................................... 44
1.2.4
Particle-Physics .......................................................................................................... 45
1.2.4.1 Synopsis................................................................................................................. 45
1.2.4.2 Subatomic particles ................................................................................................ 45
1.2.4.3 History ................................................................................................................... 45
1.2.4.4 Standard Model (SM)............................................................................................. 46
1.2.4.5 Experiment............................................................................................................. 46
1.2.4.6 Theory.................................................................................................................... 46
1.2.5
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Theory ................................................................................... 48
1.2.5.1 Synopsis................................................................................................................. 48
1.2.5.1.1 Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE) ................................................................................. 48
5
1.2.5.1.1.1 General...................................................................................................... 48
1.2.5.1.1.2 Elementary particles .................................................................................. 48
1.2.5.1.1.3 Implications............................................................................................... 48
1.2.5.1.2 History ............................................................................................................. 49
1.2.5.1.3 Foundational Physics........................................................................................ 49
1.2.5.1.4 Varieties of ZPE............................................................................................... 50
1.2.5.1.5 Experimental evidence ..................................................................................... 50
1.2.5.1.6 Gravitation and Cosmology.............................................................................. 50
1.2.5.1.7 Propulsion theories........................................................................................... 50
1.2.5.1.8 Popular culture................................................................................................. 51
1.2.5.2 Spectral Energy Density (SED) .............................................................................. 51
1.2.6
The Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of gravity .......................................................... 51
1.2.7
Dimensional Analysis Techniques and Buckinghams (Pi) Theory ...................... 52
1.2.7.1 The principles......................................................................................................... 52
1.2.7.2 The atomic bomb.................................................................................................... 53
1.2.7.3 The birth and foundations of Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) ............................... 54
1.2.8
EGM: the natural philosophy of fundamental particles ................................................ 57
1.2.8.1 How was it derived? ............................................................................................... 57
1.2.8.2 Poynting Vector S ............................................................................................. 61
1.2.8.3 The size of the Proton, Neutron and Electron (radii: r, r, r) ....................... 62
1.2.8.4 The harmonic representation of fundamental particles ............................................ 64
1.2.8.4.1 Establishing the foundations............................................................................. 64
1.2.8.4.2 Improving accuracy.......................................................................................... 64
1.2.8.4.3 Formulating an hypothesis ............................................................................... 65
1.2.8.5 Identifying a mathematical pattern.......................................................................... 65
1.2.8.6 Results ................................................................................................................... 66
1.2.8.6.1 Harmonic evidence of unification..................................................................... 66
1.2.8.6.2 Recent developments........................................................................................ 67
1.2.8.6.2.1 PDG mass-energy ranges........................................................................... 67
1.2.8.6.2.2 Electron Neutrino and Up / Down / Bottom Quark mass............................ 68
1.2.8.6.2.3 Top Quark mass ........................................................................................ 68
1.2.8.6.2.3.1 The dilemma....................................................................................... 68
1.2.8.6.2.3.2 The resolution..................................................................................... 68
1.2.8.7 Discussion.............................................................................................................. 69
1.2.8.7.1 Experimental evidence of unification ............................................................... 69
1.2.8.7.2 The answers to some important questions......................................................... 70
1.2.8.7.2.1 What causes harmonic patterns to form?.................................................... 70
1.2.8.7.2.1.1 ZPF equilibrium.................................................................................. 70
1.2.8.7.2.1.2 Inherent quantum characteristics......................................................... 70
1.2.8.7.2.2 Why havent the new particles been experimentally detected?................ 71
1.2.8.7.2.3 Why can all fundamental particles be described in harmonic terms? .......... 71
1.2.8.7.2.4 Why is EGM a method and not a theory?................................................... 72
1.2.8.7.2.5 What would one need to do, in order to disprove EGM? ............................ 72
1.2.8.7.2.6 Why does EGM produce current and not constituent Quark masses? ......... 72
1.2.8.7.2.7 Why does EGM yield only the three observed families? ............................ 73
1.2.8.8 What may the periodic table of elementary particles look like under EGM? ........... 73
1.2.8.9 What are the most important results determined by the EGM construct?................. 74
1.2.8.9.1 PV and ZPF ..................................................................................................... 74
1.2.8.9.1.1 Gravitational amplitude spectrum CPV.................................................... 74
1.2.8.9.1.2 Gravitational frequency spectrum PV.................................................... 74
1.2.8.9.1.3 Harmonic cut-off frequency .............................................................. 74
1.2.8.9.2 Photons, Gravitons and Euler's Constant .......................................................... 74
6
1.2.8.9.2.1 The mass-energy of a Graviton mgg ........................................................ 74

1.2.8.9.2.2 The mass-energy of a Photon m ........................................................... 74
1.2.8.9.2.3 The radius of a Photon r ....................................................................... 75
1.2.8.9.2.4 The radius of a Graviton rgg.................................................................... 75
1.2.8.9.3 All Other Particles............................................................................................ 75
1.2.8.9.3.1 The Fine Structure Constant ................................................................ 75
1.2.8.9.3.2 Harmonic cut-off frequency ratio (the ratio of two particle spectra) St.. 75
1.2.8.9.3.3 Neutron Magnetic Radius rM................................................................. 75
1.2.8.9.3.4 Proton Electric Radius rE ...................................................................... 75
1.2.8.9.3.5 Proton Magnetic Radius rM ................................................................... 75
1.2.8.9.3.6 Classical Proton Root Mean Square Charge Radius rp ............................ 76
1.2.8.9.3.7 The first term of the Hydrogen Spectrum (Balmer Series) A ................. 76
1.2.8.10 Graphical representation of fundamental particles under EGM ............................... 76
1.2.8.11 Concluding remarks about EGM ............................................................................ 78
1.2.9
The Hubble Constant H0.......................................................................................... 79
1.2.9.1 Description............................................................................................................. 79
1.2.9.2 Discovery............................................................................................................... 79
1.2.9.3 Interpretation.......................................................................................................... 80
1.2.9.4 Olbers paradox...................................................................................................... 81
1.2.9.5 Measuring the Hubble constant .............................................................................. 82
1.2.10 CMBR temperature..................................................................................................... 83
1.2.10.1 Description............................................................................................................. 84
1.2.10.2 Features.................................................................................................................. 84
1.2.10.3 Relationship to the Big-Bang .............................................................................. 85
1.2.10.3.1 General .......................................................................................................... 85
1.2.10.3.2 Temperature................................................................................................... 85
1.2.10.3.3 Primary anisotropy ......................................................................................... 86
1.2.10.3.4 Late time anisotropy....................................................................................... 87
1.2.10.3.5 Polarisation .................................................................................................... 88
1.2.10.4 Microwave background observations...................................................................... 88
2
2.1
Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 93

Numbering conventions..................................................................................................... 93
2.2
Quinta Essentia Part 3..................................................................................................... 93
2.2.1
Alpha Forms x ....................................................................................................... 93
2.2.2
Amplitude Spectrum ................................................................................................... 93
2.2.3
Background Field........................................................................................................ 93
2.2.4
Bandwidth Ratio R .............................................................................................. 93
2.2.5
Beta Forms x.......................................................................................................... 93
2.2.6
Buckingham Theory (BPT) ..................................................................................... 93
2.2.7
Casimir Force FPP .................................................................................................... 93
2.2.8
Change in the Number of Modes nS....................................................................... 93
2.2.9
Compton Frequency Cx.......................................................................................... 93
2.2.10 Cosmological Constant ............................................................................................... 94
2.2.11 Critical Boundary ............................................................................................... 94
2.2.12 Critical Factor KC .................................................................................................... 94
2.2.13 Critical Field Strengths EC and BC ........................................................................... 94
2.2.14 Critical Frequency C.............................................................................................. 94
2.2.15 Critical Harmonic Operator KR H ............................................................................. 94
7
2.2.16
2.2.17
2.2.18
2.2.19
2.2.20
2.2.21
2.2.22
2.2.23
2.2.24
2.2.25
2.2.26
2.2.27
2.2.28
2.2.29
2.2.30
2.2.31
2.2.32
2.2.33
2.2.34
2.2.35
2.2.36
2.2.37
2.2.38
2.2.39
2.2.40
2.2.41
2.2.42
2.2.43
2.2.44
2.2.45
2.2.46
2.2.47
2.2.48
2.2.49
2.2.50
2.2.51
2.2.52
2.2.53
2.2.54
2.2.55
2.2.56
2.2.57
2.2.58
2.2.59
2.2.60
2.2.61
2.2.62
2.2.63
2.2.64
2.2.65
2.2.66
Critical Mode NC..................................................................................................... 94

Critical Phase Variance C....................................................................................... 94
Critical Ratio KR...................................................................................................... 94
Curl ............................................................................................................................ 94
DC-Offsets ................................................................................................................. 94
Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's)................................................................. 95
Divergence ................................................................................................................. 95
Dominant Bandwidth .................................................................................................. 95
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)................................................................................. 95
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum ................................................................. 95
Energy Density (General) ........................................................................................... 95
Engineered Metric ...................................................................................................... 95
Engineered Refractive Index KEGM .......................................................................... 95
Engineered Relationship Function K0(,X) ........................................................... 95
Experimental Prototype (EP)....................................................................................... 95
Experimental Relationship Function K0(,X) .......................................................... 95
Fourier Spectrum ........................................................................................................ 95
Frequency Bandwidth PV .................................................................................... 96
Frequency Spectrum ................................................................................................... 96
Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M)........................................................... 96
Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M) ........................................................ 96
General Modelling Equations (GMEx) ........................................................................ 96
General Relativity (GR) .............................................................................................. 96
General Similarity Equations (GSEx) .......................................................................... 96
Gravitons g............................................................................................................. 96
Graviton Mass-Energy Threshold mg...................................................................... 96
Group Velocity ........................................................................................................... 96
Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency ............................................................................. 96
Harmonic Cut-Off Function ................................................................................. 97
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n .................................................................................... 97
Harmonic Inflection Mode NX................................................................................. 97
Harmonic Inflection Frequency X.......................................................................... 97
Harmonic Inflection Wavelength X ........................................................................ 97
Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx) ....................................................................... 97
IFF.............................................................................................................................. 97
Impedance Function.................................................................................................... 97
Kinetic Spectrum ........................................................................................................ 97
Mode Bandwidth ........................................................................................................ 97
Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) n............................................................ 97
Number of Permissible Modes Nr........................................................................... 98
Phenomena of Beats.................................................................................................... 98
Photon Mass-Energy Threshold m.......................................................................... 98
Polarisable Vacuum (PV)............................................................................................ 98
Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth ....................................................... 98
Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum ............................................................................ 98
Potential Spectrum...................................................................................................... 98
Poynting Vector.......................................................................................................... 98
Precipitations .............................................................................................................. 98
Primary Precipitant ..................................................................................................... 98
Radii Calculations by Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) .............................................. 99
Range Factor St ..................................................................................................... 99
8
2.2.67
2.2.68
2.2.69
2.2.70
2.2.71
2.2.72
2.2.73
2.2.74
2.2.75
2.2.76
2.2.77
2.2.78
2.2.79
2.2.80
2.2.81
2.2.82
2.2.83
2.2.84
2.2.85
2.2.86
2.2.87
2.2.88
2.2.89
2.2.90
2.2.91
2.2.92
2.2.93
Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R) ...................................... 99

Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx R) ...................................................... 99
Refractive Index KPV ............................................................................................... 99
Representation Error RError....................................................................................... 99
RMS Charge Radii (General) ...................................................................................... 99
RMS Charge Radius of the Neutron r ..................................................................... 99
Similarity Bandwidth S ....................................................................................... 99
Spectral Energy Density 0()............................................................................... 100
Spectral Similarity Equations (SSEx) ........................................................................ 100
Subordinate Bandwidth............................................................................................. 100
Unit Amplitude Spectrum ......................................................................................... 100
Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE).......................................................................................... 100
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) ............................................................................................. 100
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Spectrum ............................................................................. 100
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF...................................................... 100
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF......................................... 100
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Mode n ZPF................................................. 100
1st Sense Check St................................................................................................ 100
2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)................................. 100
2nd Sense Check St ............................................................................................... 100
3rd Sense Check St................................................................................................ 101
4th Sense Check St................................................................................................ 101
5th Sense Check St ............................................................................................... 101
6th Sense Check St................................................................................................ 101
Physical Constants .................................................................................................... 101
Mathematical Constants and Symbols ....................................................................... 102
Solar System Statistics .............................................................................................. 102
2.3
Quinta Essentia Part 4................................................................................................... 103
2.3.1
Big-Bang............................................................................................................... 103
2.3.2
Black-Hole BH...................................................................................................... 103
2.3.3
Broadband Propagation............................................................................................. 103
2.3.4
Buoyancy Point......................................................................................................... 103
2.3.5
CMBR Temperature T0 ......................................................................................... 103
2.3.6
EGM-CMBR Temperature TU ............................................................................... 103
2.3.7
EGM Flux Intensity C_J ....................................................................................... 103
2.3.8
EGM Hubble constant HU...................................................................................... 103
2.3.9
Event Horizon RBH ................................................................................................ 103
2.3.10 Galactic Reference Particle GRP ........................................................................... 103
2.3.11 Gravitational Interference ......................................................................................... 103
2.3.12 Gravitational Propagation ......................................................................................... 103
2.3.13 Hubble Constant H0............................................................................................... 104
2.3.14 Narrowband Propagation .......................................................................................... 104
2.3.15 Non-Physical ............................................................................................................ 104
2.3.16 Physical .................................................................................................................... 104
2.3.17 Primordial Universe.................................................................................................. 104
2.3.18 Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH ............................................................................ 104
2.3.19 Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole SPBH .............................................................. 104
2.3.20 Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle .................................................................................. 104
2.3.21 Singularity ................................................................................................................ 104
2.3.22 Singularity Radius rS ............................................................................................. 104
2.3.23 Solar Mass ................................................................................................................ 104
9
2.3.24
2.3.25
2.3.26
3
Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH........................................................................ 105

Total Mass-Energy.................................................................................................... 105
Astronomical / Cosmological statistics...................................................................... 105
Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................. 107
3.1
3.1.1
Acronyms ................................................................................................................. 107
3.1.2
Symbols in alphabetical order ................................................................................... 109
3.2
3.2.1
Acronyms ................................................................................................................. 116
3.2.2
Symbols by chapter................................................................................................... 117
3.2.3
Symbols in alphabetical order ................................................................................... 121
4
Derivation Processes.......................................................................................................... 125
4.1
Main sequence................................................................................................................. 125
4.1.1
Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum........................................................... 125
4.1.2
Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole characteristics ..... 125
4.1.3
Fundamental Cosmology .......................................................................................... 125
4.1.4
Advanced Cosmology............................................................................................... 126
4.1.5
Gravitational Cosmology .......................................................................................... 126
4.1.6
Particle Cosmology................................................................................................... 126
4.2
The Hubble sequence....................................................................................................... 127
4.2.1
Preconditions ............................................................................................................ 127
4.2.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 127
4.2.3
Simplified sequence.................................................................................................. 127
4.3
The CMBR temperature sequence ................................................................................... 128
4.3.1
Preconditions ............................................................................................................ 128
4.3.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 128
4.3.3
Simplified sequence.................................................................................................. 128
5
Characterisation of the Gravitational Spectrum ............................................................. 129
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 129

5.1
Simplification of the EGM equations............................................................................... 130
5.1.1
1, n n_1 and _1 ............................................................... 130
5.1.2
Computing errors ...................................................................................................... 130
5.2
Derivation of gravitational acceleration in terms of ................................................. 131
5.2.1
Transformation: _1 _2................................................................................ 131
5.2.1.1 Simplification....................................................................................................... 131
5.2.1.2 Computing errors ................................................................................................. 132
5.2.1.2.1 _1 _2 ............................................................................................... 132
5.2.1.2.2 g ................................................................................................................. 132
5.2.1.3 Error analysis ....................................................................................................... 132
5.2.2
Transformation: _1 _3................................................................................ 133
5.2.2.1 Simplification....................................................................................................... 133
10
5.2.2.2
Computing errors ................................................................................................. 133
5.3
Formulation of a generalised cubic frequency expression in terms of g: g PV3 .... 134
5.4
Determination of the gravitationally dominant EGM frequency: S cUm............... 134
5.5
Derivation of EGM Flux Intensity C_J ........................................................................ 135
5.5.1
Simplification ........................................................................................................... 135
5.5.2
5.5.3
Error analysis............................................................................................................ 135
6
Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole Characteristics ...... 137
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 137

6.1
Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius... 138
6.1.1
What does physical mean?..................................................................................... 138
6.1.1.1 Conceptualisation................................................................................................. 138
6.1.1.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 138
6.1.1.3 Definitions ........................................................................................................... 139
6.1.1.3.1 Matter ............................................................................................................ 139
6.1.1.3.2 Energy density ............................................................................................... 139
6.1.1.3.3 Planck scale properties ................................................................................... 139
6.1.2
What is a Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle? ............................................................. 140
6.1.2.1 Conceptualisation................................................................................................. 140
6.1.2.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 140
6.1.2.3 Definition............................................................................................................. 140
6.1.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 141
6.1.4
6.1.5
Convergent and divergent spectra ............................................................................. 144
6.1.6
Honourable mention ................................................................................................. 144
6.1.7
Concluding remarks.................................................................................................. 144
6.1.7.1 Characteristics of a physical SPBH....................................................................... 144
6.1.7.2 Characteristics of a non-physical Planck-Particle .............................................. 144
6.1.7.3 Physicality of the EGM adjusted Planck Length ................................................... 145
6.2
Derivation of the value of the KPV at the event horizon of a SPBH ............................... 146
6.2.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 146
6.2.2
Construct .................................................................................................................. 146
6.2.2.1 1st Formulation ..................................................................................................... 146
6.2.2.2 2nd Formulation .................................................................................................... 148
6.2.3
6.3
Derivation of at the event horizon of a SPBH ......................................................... 149
6.3.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 149
6.3.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 149
6.3.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 149
6.3.4
PV(1,xh,mxmh) .................................................................................................. 150
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.4
Derivation of at the event horizon of a SBH............................................................ 152
6.4.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 152
11
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.4.5
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 152

Construct .................................................................................................................. 152
Sample calculations .................................................................................................. 152
6.5
Derivation of rS ............................................................................................................ 154
6.5.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 154
6.5.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 154
6.5.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 154
6.5.3.1 1st Formulation ..................................................................................................... 154
6.5.3.2 2nd Formulation .................................................................................................... 155
6.5.3.3 3rd Formulation..................................................................................................... 155
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.6
n and profiles (as r RBH) of SBHs............................................................. 157
6.6.1
n.......................................................................................................................... 157
6.6.1.1 Synopsis............................................................................................................... 157
6.6.1.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 157
6.6.1.3 Construct.............................................................................................................. 157
6.6.1.4 Sample calculations.............................................................................................. 157
6.6.1.5 Sample plots (log vs. log) ..................................................................................... 158
6.6.2
......................................................................................................................... 158
6.6.2.1 Synopsis............................................................................................................... 158
6.6.2.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 158
6.6.2.3 Construct.............................................................................................................. 159
6.6.3
PV(1,r,MBH) ......................................................................................................... 160
6.6.3.1 Synopsis............................................................................................................... 160
6.6.3.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 160
6.6.3.3 Construct.............................................................................................................. 161
6.6.3.6 Honourable mention............................................................................................. 162
6.6.4
6.7
Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL ..................................... 163
6.7.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 163
6.7.1.1 Fundamentals ....................................................................................................... 163
6.7.1.2 Assumptions......................................................................................................... 164
6.7.2
Construct .................................................................................................................. 165
6.7.2.1 Reconciliation ...................................................................................................... 165
6.7.2.1.1 Dilemma ........................................................................................................ 165
6.7.2.1.2 Resolution...................................................................................................... 165
6.7.2.1.2.1 Uncertainty.............................................................................................. 165
6.7.2.1.2.2 Quasi-Uncertainty ................................................................................... 165
6.7.2.2 TL ..................................................................................................................... 165
6.7.2.2.1 Fundamentals ................................................................................................. 165
6.7.2.2.2 Sample calculations........................................................................................ 166
12
6.7.2.2.3 Simplifications ............................................................................................... 167

6.7.3
6.8
Derivation of the average emission frequency per Graviton g..................................... 168
6.8.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 168
6.8.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 168
6.8.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 168
6.8.4
6.8.5
6.9
Why can't we observe BHs? ........................................................................................... 170
6.9.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 170
6.9.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 170
6.9.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 171
6.9.4
6.9.4.1 SBHs .................................................................................................................. 171
6.9.4.2 SPBHs ................................................................................................................ 172
6.9.5
7
Fundamental Cosmology................................................................................................... 175
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 175

7.1
Derivation of the primordial and present Hubble constants H, HU............................... 176
7.1.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 176
7.1.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 176
7.1.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 177
7.1.3.1 AU, RU, HU........................................................................................................ 177
7.1.3.2 H..................................................................................................................... 178
7.1.3.3 U ..................................................................................................................... 179
7.1.3.4 MU .................................................................................................................... 179
7.1.4
7.2
Derivation of the CMBR temperature TU...................................................................... 180
7.2.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 180
7.2.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 180
7.2.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 181
7.2.4
7.3
Numerical solutions for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and TU ........................................... 182
7.3.1
r2, r3, M2, M3 ......................................................................................................... 182
7.3.2
Computational results ............................................................................................... 183
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.4
Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and TU...................... 185
7.4.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 185
7.4.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 185
7.4.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 185
7.4.4
7.5
TU as a function of a generalised Hubble constant TU TU2 .................................... 186

13
7.6
Derivation of Ro, MG, HU2 and U2 from TU2................................................... 187
7.6.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 187
7.6.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 187
7.6.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 188
7.6.3.1 Ro or MG........................................................................................................ 188
7.6.3.2 Ro and MG ..................................................................................................... 189
7.6.3.3 Ro, MG, HU2 and U2 ............................................................................... 190
7.6.3.3.1 Ro and MG ............................................................................................... 190
7.6.3.3.2 HU2 and U2 ............................................................................................. 190
7.6.4
7.7
Experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF............... 192
7.7.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 192
7.7.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 192
7.7.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 192
7.7.4
8
Advanced Cosmology ........................................................................................................ 195
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 195

8.1
Time dependent CMBR temperature TU2 TU3 .......................................................... 196
8.1.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 196
8.1.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 196
8.1.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 196
8.1.4
8.1.5
Sample plots ............................................................................................................. 197
8.1.5.1 TU3 vs. H: Figure 4.22 ..................................................................................... 198
8.1.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.23................................................................... 199
8.1.6
8.1.7
8.2
Rates of change of CMBR temperature TU3 TU4 d1,2,3TU4/dt1,2,3 ........................... 201
8.2.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 201
8.2.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 201
8.2.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 201
8.2.4
8.2.5
Sample plots ............................................................................................................. 203
8.2.5.1 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.24.................................................................. 204
8.2.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.25................................................................. 205
8.2.5.3 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (i): Figure 4.26 ................................................................... 206
8.2.5.4 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (ii): Figure 4.27 .................................................................. 207
8.2.5.5 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (i): Figure 4.28................................................................. 208
8.2.5.6 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (ii): Figure 4.29................................................................ 209
8.2.5.7 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.30............................................................. 210
8.2.5.8 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.31............................................................ 211
8.2.5.9 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.32 .......................................................... 212
8.2.5.10 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.33 ......................................................... 213
8.2.5.11 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.34......................................................... 214
8.2.5.12 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.35 ....................................................... 215
8.2.6
14
8.3
Rates of change of the Hubble constant d1,2H/dt1,2........................................................ 217
8.3.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 217
8.3.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 217
8.3.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 217
8.3.4
8.3.5
Construct errors ........................................................................................................ 222
8.3.5.1 How can they be determined?............................................................................... 222
8.3.5.2 Analytical............................................................................................................. 222
8.3.5.3 Graphical ............................................................................................................. 223
8.3.5.4 Numerical ............................................................................................................ 223
8.3.5.4.1 General case................................................................................................... 223
8.3.5.4.2 Specific case .................................................................................................. 223
8.3.6
Sample plots ............................................................................................................. 224
8.3.6.1 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.36 ................................................................... 225
8.3.6.2 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.37.................................................................. 226
8.3.6.3 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.38................................................................. 227
8.3.6.4 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.39 ................................................................. 228
8.3.6.5 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.40 ................................................................ 229
8.3.6.6 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.41 ............................................................... 230
8.3.6.7 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.42 .............................................................. 231
8.3.6.8 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.43............................................................... 232
8.3.6.9 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (v): Figure 4.44................................................................ 233
8.3.6.10 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45............................................................... 234
8.3.6.11 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.46 ....................................................................... 235
8.3.6.12 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.47 ...................................................................... 236
8.3.6.13 TU2,3 vs. |H|: Figure 4.48 ................................................................................... 237
8.3.6.14 TU2 vs. |H|: Figure 4.49 ..................................................................................... 238
8.3.7
8.4
Cosmological evolution process ...................................................................................... 241
8.5
History of the Universe.................................................................................................... 243
8.5.1
According to the Standard Model (SM)..................................................................... 243
8.5.1.1 Graphical representation (i) .................................................................................. 243
8.5.1.2 Graphical representation (ii) ................................................................................. 244
8.5.1.3 Graphical representation (iii) ................................................................................ 245
8.5.1.4 Graphical representation (iv) ................................................................................ 246
8.5.2
According to EGM.................................................................................................... 247
8.6
EGM Cosmological construct limitations ........................................................................ 248
8.6.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 248
8.6.2
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 248
8.6.3
Construct .................................................................................................................. 248
8.6.3.1 The mass limit ML ............................................................................................ 248
8.6.3.2 The size limit rL ................................................................................................ 248
8.6.3.3 The age limit tL ................................................................................................. 249
8.6.4
Boundary ratio .......................................................................................................... 249
8.6.5
8.6.6
8.7
Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for gravitational astronomy? ............... 250
8.7.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 250
15
8.7.2
8.7.3
8.7.4
8.7.5
9
Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 250

Construct .................................................................................................................. 250
Gravitational Cosmology .................................................................................................. 253
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 253

9.1
Gravitational propagation: the mechanism for interaction ................................................ 254
9.1.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 254
9.1.2
Construct .................................................................................................................. 255
9.1.2.1 Broadband............................................................................................................ 255
9.1.2.2 Narrowband ......................................................................................................... 255
9.1.3
Testing...................................................................................................................... 257
9.1.3.1 Newtonian............................................................................................................ 257
9.1.3.2 Relativistic ........................................................................................................... 257
9.1.3.3 PV........................................................................................................................ 258
9.1.4
9.2
Gravitational interference: the mechanism of interaction ................................................. 259
9.2.1
Synopsis ................................................................................................................... 259
9.2.2
Construct .................................................................................................................. 259
9.2.2.1 Broadband............................................................................................................ 259
9.2.2.2 Narrowband ......................................................................................................... 260
9.2.3
9.2.3.1 Broadband............................................................................................................ 262
9.2.3.2 Narrowband ......................................................................................................... 262
10
Particle Cosmology........................................................................................................ 263
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 263

10.1
Derivation of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.................................... 264
10.2
Derivation of the Photon and Graviton RMS charge radii lower limit .............................. 264
10.3
Derivation of the Photon charge threshold ....................................................................... 264
10.4
Derivation of the Photon charge upper limit..................................................................... 265
10.5
Derivation of the Photon charge lower limit..................................................................... 266
10.6
Other useful relationships ................................................................................................ 266
11
Equation Summary ....................................................................................................... 269
11.1 Gravitation ...................................................................................................................... 269

11.1.1 Stg ......................................................................................................................... 269
11.1.2 _2....................................................................................................................... 269
11.1.3 aEGM_ ................................................................................................................. 269
11.1.4 StG......................................................................................................................... 269
11.1.5 _3....................................................................................................................... 269
16
11.1.6
11.1.7
11.1.8
11.1.9
11.1.10
11.1.11
11.1.12
11.1.13
11.1.14
11.1.15
11.1.16
11.1.17
11.1.18
11.1.19
11.1.20
_3 ....................................................................................................................... 269
G ........................................................................................................................... 269
PV(nPV,r,M)3 ........................................................................................................ 269
StJ.......................................................................................................................... 269
C_J1, C_J ........................................................................................................... 269
n_2 ....................................................................................................................... 270
KDepp ..................................................................................................................... 270
KPV........................................................................................................................ 270
TL.......................................................................................................................... 270
g.......................................................................................................................... 270
ngg ......................................................................................................................... 270
r........................................................................................................................... 270
aPV......................................................................................................................... 270
ag........................................................................................................................... 270
gav ......................................................................................................................... 270
11.2 Planck-Particles............................................................................................................... 270

11.2.1 mx.......................................................................................................................... 270
11.2.2 x .......................................................................................................................... 270
11.2.3 m, S .................................................................................................................... 271
11.2.4 r3, M3..................................................................................................................... 271
11.3 SBHs.............................................................................................................................. 271
11.3.1 StBH ....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.2 _4....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.3 rS ........................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.4 n_4 ....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.5 n_5 ....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.6 nBH ........................................................................................................................ 271
11.3.7 _5....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.8 BH........................................................................................................................ 271
11.3.9 _6....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.10 _7....................................................................................................................... 271
11.3.11 PV_1 ..................................................................................................................... 272
11.3.12 ng........................................................................................................................... 272
11.4 Cosmology ...................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.1 r2, M2..................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.2 y .......................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.3 KU ......................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.4 AU ......................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.5 RU ......................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.6 HU, HU2, HU5, |H| ................................................................................................... 272
11.4.7 H ......................................................................................................................... 272
11.4.8 U, U2................................................................................................................... 273
11.4.9 MU......................................................................................................................... 273
11.4.10 KT ......................................................................................................................... 273
11.4.11 TW ......................................................................................................................... 273
11.4.12 StT ......................................................................................................................... 273
11.4.13 TU, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5 ............................................................................................ 273
11.4.14 dTdt, dT2dt2, dT3dt3................................................................................................. 274
17
11.4.15 dHdt, dH2dt2 ........................................................................................................... 274

11.4.16 t1, t2, t3, t4, t5 .......................................................................................................... 274
11.5 ZPF ................................................................................................................................. 275
11.5.1 EGM ..................................................................................................................... 275
11.5.2 ZPF ...................................................................................................................... 275
11.5.3 UZPF....................................................................................................................... 275
11.6 EGM Construct limits...................................................................................................... 275
11.6.1 ML......................................................................................................................... 275
11.6.2 rL ........................................................................................................................... 275
11.6.3 tL ........................................................................................................................... 275
11.6.4 ML / rL = MEGM / REGM = tL / tEGM .......................................................................... 275
11.7 Particle-Physics ............................................................................................................... 275
11.7.1 m2 ....................................................................................................................... 275
11.7.2 mgg2 ....................................................................................................................... 275
11.7.3 r2 ......................................................................................................................... 275
11.7.4 rgg2......................................................................................................................... 276
11.7.5 N .......................................................................................................................... 276
11.7.6 Q .......................................................................................................................... 276
11.7.7 Q......................................................................................................................... 276
11.7.8 Q2........................................................................................................................ 276
11.7.9 tL / TL = m / m2 = Q / Q2................................................................................ 276
11.8
Other useful relationships ................................................................................................ 276
11.9
Quick symbol guide......................................................................................................... 277
APPENDIX 4.A......................................................................................................................... 281

Thermodynamic Groupings of BHs .................................................................................... 281
Conventional calculation of SPBH temperature TBH ................................................................ 281
TU2 : TBH.................................................................................................................................. 282
Approximations of TU2(t1-1) ..................................................................................................... 282
1st Form................................................................................................................. 282
2nd Form ................................................................................................................ 284

Approximation of x in terms of physical constants ................................................................. 284
Physical interpretation of x..................................................................................................... 285
Bibliography 4........................................................................................................................... 287
APPENDIX 4.B ......................................................................................................................... 291
Quinta Essentia Part 3 .............................................................................................................. 291
MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine .............................................................. 291

a. Computational environment ........................................................................................ 291
18
b.
c.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Units of measure (definitions) ..................................................................................... 291

Constants (definitions) ................................................................................................ 292
Planck characteristics (definitions) .............................................................................. 293
Astronomical statistics ................................................................................................ 293
Other........................................................................................................................... 293
Arbitrary values for illustrational purposes.................................................................. 293
PV / ZPF equations ..................................................................................................... 294
Casimir equations........................................................................................................ 295
Fundamental particle equations ................................................................................... 296
Particle summary matrix 3.1........................................................................................ 300
Similarity equations .................................................................................................... 304
Calculation results....................................................................................................... 305
Resonant Casimir cavity design specifications (experimental)..................................... 313
MathCad 12: High precision calculation results ........................................................ 315
Computational environment ........................................................................................ 315
Quinta Essentia Part 4 .............................................................................................................. 321
MathCad 8 Professional ............................................................................................ 321

a. Complete simulation ................................................................................................... 321
i.
Computational environment.................................................................................... 321
ii.
Units of measure (definitions)................................................................................. 321
iii. Constants (definitions)............................................................................................ 321
iv. Astronomical statistics............................................................................................ 321
v.
Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum ........................................................ 321
1. 1, n n_1, _1....................................................................... 321
2. g ............................................................................................................. 323
i. _1 _2 ................................................................................................. 323
ii. _1 _3 ................................................................................................. 325
3. g PV3 .......................................................................................................... 325
4. S cUm ...................................................................................................... 326
5. C_J .................................................................................................................. 326
vi. Derivation of Planck-Particle and SBH characteristics ........................................ 327
1. x, mx................................................................................................................ 327
2. m(xh,mxmh), Um(xh,mxmh)......................................................................... 329
3. Physicality of K............................................................................................... 329
4. KPV @ xh....................................................................................................... 329
i. KPV = Undefined........................................................................................... 329
ii. KDepp = KPV................................................................................................... 331
5. _3 .................................................................................................................. 332
6. _4 .................................................................................................................. 333
7. rS....................................................................................................................... 334
i. rS(xh) ......................................................................................................... 334
ii. rS(), rS(R) ........................................................................................... 334
iii. MBH(rS) ........................................................................................................ 335
19
r RBH ............................................................................................................ 336

i. n n_4, n_5, nBH ..................................................................................... 336
ii. _5, BH ........................................................................................... 337
iii. _6, _7, PV_1 .......................................................................................... 338
9. TL ..................................................................................................................... 339
10. g, ngg............................................................................................................... 340
11. BHs..................................................................................................................... 341
vii. Fundamental Cosmology ........................................................................................ 343
1. H, HU .............................................................................................................. 343
i. AU, RU, HU.................................................................................................... 343
ii. H................................................................................................................. 344
iii. U................................................................................................................. 344
iv. MU................................................................................................................ 345
2. TU ..................................................................................................................... 345
3. TU TU2.......................................................................................................... 346
4. TU2 Ro, MG, HU2, U2 .................................................................................... 347
5. UZPF .................................................................................................................. 349
viii. Advanced Cosmology............................................................................................. 349
1. n_2 n_6....................................................................................................... 349
2. KU2 KU3........................................................................................................ 350
3. HU2 HU3, TU2 TU3 ..................................................................................... 350
4. HU3 HU4, TU3 TU4 ..................................................................................... 350
5. HU4 HU5, TU4 TU5 ..................................................................................... 350
6. HU3, HU4, HU5, TU3, TU4, TU5 ............................................................................. 351
7. Time dependent characteristics............................................................................. 351
8. History of the Universe ........................................................................................ 360
9. ML, rL, tL, tEGM .................................................................................................. 361
10. Radio astronomy .................................................................................................. 362
ix. Gravitational Cosmology........................................................................................ 363
x.
Particle Cosmology ................................................................................................ 365
b. Calculation engine ...................................................................................................... 367
i.
ii.
Standard relationships............................................................................................. 367
iii. Derived constants ................................................................................................... 367
iv. Base approximations / simplifications..................................................................... 368
v.
SBH mass and radius.............................................................................................. 369
vi. n........................................................................................................................ 370
vii. , T, ........................................................................................................... 371
viii. Gravitation ............................................................................................................. 373
ix. Flux intensity.......................................................................................................... 374
x.
Photon and Graviton populations ............................................................................ 376
xi. Hubble constant and CMBR temperature................................................................ 377
xii. SBH temperature .................................................................................................... 384
xiii. ZPF ........................................................................................................................ 385
xiv. Cosmological limits................................................................................................ 386
xv. Particle Cosmology ................................................................................................ 386
MathCad 12 .............................................................................................................. 389

c. High precision calculation engine................................................................................ 389
i.
ii.
Astronomical statistics............................................................................................ 389
iii. Derived constants ................................................................................................... 389
8.
20
iv.
d.
Algorithm............................................................................................................... 389
Various forms of the derived constants........................................................................ 390
Periodic Table of the Elements ................................................................................................. 391

Notes
22, 24, 56, 78, 92, 102, 105, 106, 108, 115, 116, 120, 124, 127, 128, 136, 145, 151,
153, 167, 173, 174, 179, 184, 191, 194, 200, 216, 240, 242, 251, 252, 267, 268, 279,
280, 286, 290, 314, 319, 320, 366, 388, 390, 392
ERRATA
21
NOTES
22
Scientific Achievements
The physical characteristics derived herein (from 1st principles), based upon a single paradigm [i.e.
the application of Buckingham Theory (BPT) and Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs)]
may be articulated as follows (many of which are experimentally verified or implied),
Astro-Physics
1. Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) mass and radius.
2. Derivation of maximum permissible energy density.
3. Derivation of the harmonic mode and frequency characteristics and profiles of a SBH.
4. Derivation of the SBH singularity radius.
Cosmology
General
5. Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter.
6. Derivation of the present Cosmological age.
7. Derivation of the present Cosmological size.
8. Derivation of the total Cosmological mass.
9. Derivation of the present Cosmological mass-density.
Hubble constant
10. Derivation of the Hubble constant at the instant of the Big-Bang.
11. Derivation of the maximum Hubble constant since the Big-Bang.
12. Derivation of the present Hubble constant within experimental tolerance.
13. Derivation of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
14. Derivation of the rates of change of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature
15. Derivation of the CMBR temperature at the instant of the Big-Bang.
16. Derivation of the maximum Cosmological temperature since the Big-Bang.
17. Derivation of the present CMBR temperature within experimental tolerance.
18. Derivation of the CMBR temperature in the time domain.
19. Derivation of the rates of change of the CMBR temperature in the time domain.
Evolutionary processes
20. Categorisation of the Cosmological evolution process into two regimes: comprised of
four distinct periods.
21. Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the Hubble constant and
CMBR temperature.
22. Articulation of the precise history of the Universe.
Cosmological constant
23. Experimentally implicit derivation of the Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) energy density
threshold, yielding an insight into the Cosmological constant.
Particle-Physics
24. Derivation of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.
25. Derivation of the Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii lower limit.
26. Derivation of the Photon charge threshold.
27. Derivation of the Photon charge upper and lower limits.
Note: where possible, calculated results have been compared to physical measurement. Cognisant
of experimental uncertainty, key predictions herein may be considered to be exact.
23
NOTES
24
1 Introduction
1.1 The natural philosophy of the Cosmos
1.1.1 Objectives and scope2
The present Hubble constant H0 and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
temperature T0 denote two of the most important Cosmological phenomenon to have been
identified in the last hundred years and may hold significant insight into the natural philosophy of
the Cosmos. Experimental measurements of H0 and T0 are advancing dramatically and have
raised some important aspects regarding the nature of the Cosmological evolution process.
This text is a companion to Quinta Essentia Part 3, applying a method termed ElectroGravi-Magnetics (EGM). [1-19] Storti et. Al. derived the EGM construct, utilising Dimensional
Analysis Techniques (DATs) and Buckingham Theory (BPT)3, to represent fundamental
particles in harmonic form to high computational precision in favourable agreement with the
Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics and experimental measurement.
One of the key findings was that, at a fundamental physical level, mass-energy is distributed
over space-time in only one manner4. The EGM construct has been re-applied to Cosmology with
the following derivational objectives (within experimental tolerance where applicable):
i. The Hubble constant (see: Ch. 7.1, 7.3, 7.6, 8.3).
ii. The CMBR temperature (see: Ch. 7.2, 7.3, 7.5, 8.1, 8.2).
iii. The ZPF energy density threshold (see: Ch. 7.7).
iv. The Cosmological evolution process (see: Ch. 8.4).
v. The history of the Universe (see: Ch. 8.5).
1.1.2 How are these objectives achieved?
1.1.2.1 Synopsis
The primary tool employed to achieve our objectives is similitude5, subject to the following
simplified constraints (see: Ch. 6.1, 7.1 7.3),
i. The Cosmos at an instant prior to the Big-Bang is termed the Primordial Universe. It
was characterised by a single wavefunction with maximum permissible energy density
distributed homogeneously, analogous to a Planck scale particle of radius xh and mass
mxmh such that it was dynamically, kinematically and geometrically similar to a
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH).
ii. The relationship between the Primordial Universe and its present visible size obeys the
EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
iii. The Milky-Way (MW) Galaxy may be represented as a Planck scale particle of
homogeneous energy density and equivalent total mass. This configuration has been
termed the Galactic Reference Particle (GRP), such that dynamic, kinematic and
geometric similarity exists between the Primordial Universe and the GRP.
At the time of commencement of formulation of this text, only the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) 2002 data was available. Subsequently, the NIST 2006 values for physical
constants may differ slightly, but do not change any computed or predicted results herein, or in
Quinta Essentia Part 3, by any significant measure.
3
Refer to the many standard texts relating to DATs and BPT.
4
In accordance with Zero-Point-Field equilibria.
5
A reference to DATs and BPT.
25
1.1.2.2 Derivation process

1.1.2.2.1 Hubble constant HU
i. Utilising harmonic cut-off frequency in _3 form (see: Ch. 5.2.2), derive an expression
for EGM Flux Intensity C_J1: (see: Ch. 5.5),
Output:
St J
C _J1( r , M )
. M
(4.52)
where,
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
St G
3.
3 . h
4 . .h
2
9
(4.51)
2
. c
2
(4.35)
c = 299792458(m/s).
h = 6.6260693 x10-34(Js).
h = 1 / th = 1 / (Gh/c5), G = 6.6742 x10-11(m3kg-1s-2).
ii. Derive an expression for the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL:
(see: Ch. 6.7.2.2),
Output:
TL
h
m
(4.196)
where,
m denotes the mass-energy of a Photon defined in [8,10].
m = 3.195095 x10-45(eV).
iii. Derive an expression for the EGM Hubble constant HU utilising the EGM harmonic
representation of fundamental particles: (see: Ch. 7.1),
Output:
y r 2, M 2
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
1
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
(4.229)
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.231)
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.233)
1
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.235)
where, n_2 denotes the non-refractive form of n defined in [4].

26
1.1.2.2.2 CMBR temperature TU

iv. Derive an expression for the average number of Gravitons ng radiated by a SBH at
frequency : (see: Ch. 6.7.1.1),
Output:
n g , M BH
E M BH
E g( )
(4.177)
where, MBH denotes SBH mass.

v. Derive an expression for the value of the EGM Hubble constant at the instant of the BigBang, termed the primordial Hubble constant H: (see: Ch. 7.1.3.2),
Output:
H r 3, M 3
2.
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
(4.237)
vi. Derive an expansive scaling factor KT incorporating ng, H and HU:

(see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
K T r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
H r 3, M 3
H U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
(4.240)
where, _3 has a generalised definition according to,

9
_3( r , M )
M
St G.
5
r
(4.36)
vii. Derive a thermodynamic scaling factor TW incorporating Wiens displacement constant

KW and EGM wavelength of the form _3: (see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
(4.241)
where,
_3(r,M) _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3)
_3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3) = c / _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3)
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.234)
KW = 2.8977685 x10-3(mK).
viii. Derive an expression for EGM Cosmological temperature TU utilising KT and TW:
(see: Ch. 7.2.3),
Output:
T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
27
(4.242)
1.1.2.2.3 HU HU2, TU TU2 TU3

ix. Derive the minimum physical dimensions of mass and radius for a SBH with maximum
permissible energy density at the Planck scale: (see: Ch. 6.1.3),
Output:
mx
x
2
(4.71)
4 . 2
3
(4.72)
Hence, the dimensions of a SBH at maximum permissible energy density at the Planck scale
is given by,
Mass = mxmh when mh = (hc/G).
Radius = xh when h = (Gh/c3).
x. Assume that the Primordial Universe (i.e. the Universe instantaneously prior to the
Big-Bang) is analogous to a SBH of Planck scale dimensions at a condition of maximum
permissible energy density, with radius r3 = xh and mass M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2:
(see: Ch. 7.3.1),
xi. Formulate generalised expressions for r2 and M2 incorporating the EGM adjusted
Planck length and mass: (see: Ch. 7.3.1),
Output:
r2(r) = Kr
(4.247)
M2(M) = KmM = KM
(4.248)
where, K = Km = [ / 2](1 / 3) 1.162447 as defined in [13].

xii. Simplify ng: (see: Ch. 7.3.1, 7.6),
Output:
For r3 = xh and M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2: ng[,MBH] = ng[_3(r3,M3),M3] = 8 / 3.
xiii. Simplify H: (see: Ch. 7.3.2),
Output:
H x. h , m x.m h
h
x
(4.249)
For brevity in future applications, let: H = h / x.

xiv. Transform HU to HU2: (see: Ch. 7.6.1),
Output:
H U2( r , M )
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
28
(4.276)
xv. Transform TU to TU2: (see: Ch. 7.5),

Output:
K W .St T .ln
T U2( H )
h
x.H
. H5
(4.275)
where, H denotes a generalised reference to Hubble constant and StT is a constant

according to.
9
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
St T
(4.274)
xvi. Transform TU2 to TU3: (see: Ch. 8.1.3),

Output:
T U3 H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
(4.318)
where, = 1 / 3 and H denotes a dimensionless range variable such that 1 H > 0.

xvii. Select values of r and M for application to r2(r), M2(M) utilising the following
measures: (see: Ch. 7.3.2):
Input:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
r = Ro denotes the mean distance from the Sun to the MW Galactic centre.
Ro = 8(kpc) as defined by the PDG [20] (kpc = kilo-parsec).
M = MG denotes the total mass (i.e. visible + dark) of the MW Galaxy.
MG 6 x1011 solar masses as defined by [21].
H0 = 71(km/s/Mpc) as defined by the PDG [22] (Mpc = Mega-parsec).
T0 = 2.725(K) as defined by the PDG. [20]
1.1.2.2.4 Rate of change dHdt

xviii. Derive a generalised expression for the rate of change of the EGM Hubble constant in the
time domain dHdt as a function of the dimensionless range variable H such that:
1 H > 0 and H H: (see: Ch. 8.3.3),
Output:
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
(4.361)
Note: dHdt is alternative notation introduced to replace the typical differential form
dH/dt, for application in the MathCad 8 Professional computational environment.
xix. For solutions where the deceleration parameter is zero, derive an expression for the
magnitude of the EGM Hubble constant |H| in the time domain6: (see: Ch. 8.3.3),
Output:
H
d
H
dt
(4.378)
This terminology is an abbreviated reference to the square-root of the magnitude of the rate of
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain, as indicated by the equation.
29
xx. Devise a numerical approximation method facilitating the graphical representation of |H|
in terms of an indicial power (see: Ch. 8.3.3) such that,
Input:
1
H .H
H H
(4.359)
(4.376)
xxi. For non-zero deceleration parameter solutions, derive the ZPF energy density threshold
UZPF (see: Ch. 7.7),
Output:
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
(4.315)
where,
ZPF
EGM
(4.313)
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
EGM
U2 R o , M G
(4.308)
xxii. Reduce the expression for the EGM Hubble constant and Cosmological temperature to
their simplest functionally dependent forms: HU5 and TU5 respectively (see: App. 4.B:
MathCad 8 Professional b. Calculation engine xi, MathCad 12 c. High precision
calculation engine iv).
Output:
H U5( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
T U5( r , M )
( 3 . )
7 . .
256
KW
c
32
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
.
.ln
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
2 .
7 .
. r
h
.
1
.H
2
7 .
mh
5 .
. r
h
M
2 .
2
26 .
(4.529)
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
(4.530)
1.1.3 Sample results

1.1.3.1 Numerical evaluation and analysis
1.1.3.1.1 Cosmological properties
Evaluating AU, RU, HU and TU yields,
9
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .yr
(4.250)
9
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 14.575885 10 .Lyr
(4.251)
H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.084304
km
.
s Mpc
T U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.724752 ( K )
30
(4.254)
(4.255)
The EGM construct error associated with HU and TU with respect to expert opinion and
physical measurement is given by,
1 .
H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
H0
1 .
T U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
1 = 5.515064 ( % )
(4.256)
.
1 = 9.08391310
T0
(%)
(4.257)
It is possible to calculate the value of HU and TU based upon the visible mass only of
the MW Galaxy by a simple substitution of values (i.e. M2 / 3 = KmMG / 3) as follows,
1
km
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 67.753267
.
3
s Mpc
(4.262)
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h = 2.739618 ( K )
3
(4.263)
Hence, the magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of HU and TU is
demonstrated to be < 1(%) when compared to the previously derived value according to,
1 = 0.987352 ( % )
1
H U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
(4.264)
1 = 0.542607 ( % )
1
T U K .R o , x. h , .K m.M G, m x.m h
3
(4.265)
A simple test verifying TU2 is demonstrated below. Since the computed value of
TU2[HU2(Ro,MG/3)] based upon visible MW Galactic mass MG/3 is exactly compliant with TU
(i.e. TU = TU2), no technical error exists. Moreover, the result TU2(H0) T0 agrees precisely
with historical expectation (i.e. prior to measurement by satellite) of T0.
1
T U2 H U2 R o , .M G
3
T U2 H 0
2.739618
2.810842
( K)
(4.277)
Note: the validation of TU = TU2 above, also verifies that HU = HU2. In addition, it is also
demonstrated and numerically verified in App. 4.B that HU2 = HU5.
The preceding results demonstrate that the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and
TU is very small. This implies that the constitution of the Universe under the EGM construct is
quite different from current thinking. The contemporary view asserted in [23] is that the constitution
of the Universe is,
i. 72(%) Dark Energy.
ii. 23(%) Dark Matter.
iii. 4.6(%) Atoms.
However, the EGM construct generalises the constitution of the Universe as being,
iv. > 94.4(%) Photons.
v. < 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
vi. 4.6(%) Atoms.
31
For solutions where the deceleration parameter is zero, may be numerically

approximated utilising the Given and Find commands within the MathCad 8 Professional
computational environment, subject to the constraint that dHdt as a function of the present value
of H [i.e. HU2(Ro,MG) / H] raised to an indicial power, is equal to the square of the present
Hubble constant as determined by the EGM construct HU2(Ro,MG)2 according to the following
algorithm,
Given
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
(4.379)
Find( )
(4.380)
Hence, = 4.595349.
1.1.3.1.2 Significant temporal ordinates
(See: Ch. 8.3.4)
Significant temporal ordinates of Cosmological evolutionary events (marked on the
proceeding graphs) are given in matrix form as follows,
1
t1
5 .
10 .
t2
. 1
H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2.206287 2.206287
4.196153 4.196153
2
3
. 1
H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5 e
10
42 .
20.932666 20.932666
8.385263 8.385263
t4
= 6.205726 6.205726
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
. 1
H
(4.384)
where, t5 denotes the temporal ordinate of the local minima of the 2nd time derivative of the
Hubble constant (see: Ch. 8.3.3, 8.3.6.10).
32
1.1.3.2 Graphical evaluation and analysis

1.1.3.2.1 Average Cosmological temperature vs. age
(See: Ch. 8.2.5.1, 8.2.5.2)
Av. Cosmological Temperature vs. Age
1
H
Av. Cosmological Temperature (K)
T U3 H
t1
3 .1031
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2 .1031
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
1 .1031
1 .10
43
1 .10
42
1 .10
41
1 .10
40
1 .10
1
39
1 .10
38
1 .10
37
1 .10
36
H .H
Cosmological Age (s)
Figure 4.24,
t2t3
3 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2 .1031
2
1
10 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
2
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
1 .1031
1 .10
43
1 .10
42
1 .10
41
1 .10
40
1 .10
1
39
1 .10
38
1 .10
37
1 .10
36
H .H
Figure 4.25,
33
1.1.3.2.2 Magnitude of the Hubble constant vs. Cosmological age

(See: Ch. 8.3.6.11, 8.3.6.12)
Mag. of Hubble Cons. vs. Cosm. Age
2.5 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
1
2
5 .
2 .10
(Hz)
dH dt e
1
H
t1
42
1
1.5 .1042
1
dH dt e
42
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
1 .1042
5 .10
41
0
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
1
H .H
Figure 4.46,
2.5 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
1
2
5 .
2 .10
(Hz)
dH dt e
1
H
t4
42
1
1.5 .1042
1
dH dt e
42
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
4
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
1 .1042
5 .10
41
0
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10 1 .10
1
H .H
Figure 4.47,
34
1.1.3.2.3 Cosmological evolution process

Based upon the preceding graphical output, the Cosmological evolution process may be
categorised into two regimes, comprised of four distinct periods (i.e. three inflationary and one
expansive) as follows,
Time
Temperature
Hubble Constant
0 < t < H-1
- < TU2 < 0
+ > |H| > H
-1
0 H
- 0
+ H
H-1 t < t1
0 TU2 < TU2(t1-1)
H |H| > 0
H-1 t1
0 TU2(t1-1)
H 0
-1
t1 t < t4
TU2(t1 ) TU2 > TU2(t4-1)
0 |H| < |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
t1 t4
TU2(t1-1) TU2(t4-1)
0 |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
-1
TU2(t4 ) TU2 TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| |H| HU2
t4 t < AU
t4 AU
TU2(t4-1) TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| HU2
Description
Primordial Inflation (prior to the Big-Bang): the Universe may be described as
inverted and non-physical such that the interior of the Cosmos existed outside
the exterior boundary RBH in accordance with the Primordial Universe model
described in Ch. (7, 8) such that:
1. TU2 increases from negative infinity to zero.
2. dHdt increases from negative infinity to -H2.
3. |H| decreases from positive infinity to H.
Thermal Inflation: the period from the instant of the Big-Bang to the instant of
maximum Cosmological temperature such that:
4. TU2 increases from zero to its maximum value TU2(t1-1).
5. dHdt increases from -H2 to zero.
6. |H| decreases from H to zero.
Hubble Inflation: the period from the instant of maximum Cosmological
temperature to the instant of maximum post-primordial |H| such that:
7. TU2 decreases from its maximum value to TU2(t4-1).
8. dHdt increases from zero to its maximum physical value dHdt[(t4H)-1].
9. |H| increases from zero to its maximum physical value |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|.
Hubble Expansion: the period from the maximum post-primordial |H| to the
present day such that:
10. TU2 decreases from TU2(t4-1) to TU2(HU2).
11. dHdt decreases from its maximum physical value to HU22.
12. |H| decreases from its maximum physical value to HU2.
Symbol
Definition / Value
The EGM Hubble constant at the instant of the Big-Bang:
H
2.742004 x1042(Hz) 8.460941 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
-H2
-7.518587 x1084(Hz2) -7.158752 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
HU2
The present value of the EGM Hubble constant:
= HU2(Ro,MG) 67.084304(km/s/Mpc)
HU22
4.500304 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H0
The PDG Hubble constant: 71(km/s/Mpc)
H02
5.041 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H-1
The instant of the Big-Bang: 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1
The instant of max. Cosmological temperature: 2.206287 x10-42(s)
Physical @ {RBH rS}
Non-Physical
@ {RBH < rS}
Period
Primordial
Inflation
Thermal
Inflation
Hubble
Inflation
Hubble
Expansion
Regime
35
t4
AU
TU2(H)
TU2(t1-1)
TU2(t4-1)
TU2(HU2)
T0
dHdt[(t4H)-1]
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
RU
2
H (dHdt[(t4H)-1])-1
H(|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|)-1
The instant of maximum physical |H|: 2.093267 x10-41(s)

The EGM Cosmological age: = HU2-1 14.575885 x109(yr)
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of the Big-Bang:
= 0(K)
The Maximum EGM Cosmological temperature:
3.195518 x1031(K)
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of maximum physical
|H|: 2.059945 x1031(K)
The present EGM Cosmological temperature:
= TU3(HU2H-1) 2.724752(K)
The present experimentally measured CMBR temperature: 2.725(K)
The approximated maximum rate of change of the physical EGM
Hubble constant:
1.553518 x1084(Hz2) 1.479167 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
The approximated maximum physical |H|:
1.246402 x1042(Hz) 3.845994 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
The EGM Cosmological size: = cHU2-1 14.575885 x109(Lyr)
4.839718
2.199936
Table 4.10,
Time
0
-1
H 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1 2.206287 x10-42(s)
t4 2.093267 x10-41(s)
AU 14.575885 x109(yr)
TU2 (K)
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)2
-
-
0
-7.158752 x10123
31
0
3.195518 x10
31
2.059945 x10
1.479167 x10123
2.724752
4.500304 x103
Table 4.11,
|H|| (km/s/Mpc)
+
8.460941 x1061
0
3.845994 x1061
67.084304
1.1.4 History of the Universe according to EGM

Utilising TU2, the history of the Universe may be articulated as follows,
Epoch or Event
Time Domain
t
Primordial epoch
Grand unification epoch
Electroweak / Quark Epoch
Lepton Epoch
Boundary Temperature Value
T U2 H = 0 ( K )
< t 10
34 .
(s)
10-34 < t(s) 10-10
10-10 < t(s) 102
T U2
10
34 .
10
10 .
(s)
T U2
T U2
. 28 ( K )
= 1.92400510
. 15 ( K )
= 3.43308810
(s)
1
2.
.
= 1.01325410
( K)
9
10 ( s )
36
Photon Epoch
Universe becomes transparent
102 < t(s) 1013

1013(s) 3 x105(yr)
T U2
3 x105 < t(yr) 109
T U2
1
13 .
10
= 978.724031 ( K )
(s)
1
9.
= 11.838588 ( K )
10 ( yr )
109 < t(yr) 5 x109
First Supernovae
T U2
5 x109 < t(yr) 14.58 x109
Present Epoch
1
9.
5 .10 ( yr )
= 4.898955 ( K )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
Table 4.12,
T U2
T U2
T U2
1 .( day )
1
.
31 ( day )
T U2
T U2
T U2
1
1 .( s )
1
1 .( yr )
1
2
10 .( yr )
1
3.
1
4.
10 ( yr )
5.
10 ( yr )
1
T U2
6.
10 ( yr )
1
T U2
7.
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
T U2
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
. 7
2.52413210
521.528169
.
3.86401510
147.71262
= 1.00307810
. 6
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
.
2.29089210
3.35005
.
6.49496110
0.947724
8
10 .( yr )
4
3
( K)
10 .
10
T U2
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
( yr )
1
11 .
10
( yr )
37
(4.405)
1.1.5 Discussion
1.1.5.1 Conceptualization
1.1.5.1.1 x
A physical interpretation of x is possible utilising the Stefan-Boltzmann Law by
considering the energy flux emitted from a Black-Body and equating it to the peak average
Cosmological temperature. x is shown to be proportional to the 4th power-root of the energy
flux of the Universe at the peak average Cosmological temperature (see: App. 4.A).
1.1.5.1.2 TL
The minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL is a simple concept to embrace by
considering all matter to represent a vast store of Gravitons within, being ejected at a uniform rate
with an emission frequency of g (see: Ch. 6.7.2.2, 6.8).
1.1.5.1.3 C_J
The initial step in conceptualizing the method of solution for the derivation of the Hubble
constant and CMBR temperature presented herein is to understand the nature of EGM Flux
Intensity C_J. The EGM construct represents gravitational fields as a spectrum of conjugate
wavefunction pairs, each comprising of a population of Photons.
The spectrum is gravitationally dominated by the energy of the population of conjugate
Photon pairs at the harmonic cut-off frequency7 (see: Ch. 5.4). Subsequently, all gravitational
objects may be usefully represented by approximation as wavefunction radiators of a single
population of conjugate Photon pairs (see: Ch. 9.2.2.2, 9.2.3.2).
The EGM spectrum is derived from the application of Fourier Series Harmonics, involving
the hybridization of 2 spectra (i.e. an amplitude spectrum and a frequency spectrum). The
relationship between C_J and harmonic cut-off mode n (which also denotes the total number
of modes in the PV spectrum8) is analogous to the relationship between the amplitude and frequency
spectra inherent in Fourier Series Harmonics. Thus,
i. C_J decreases with Cosmological expansion and is analogous to the decrease in PV
spectral amplitude as the distance to the subject increases (i.e. the gravitational influence
decreases).
ii. Instantaneously after the Big-Bang, there were no Galaxies and as the Universe
expanded, energy condensed into matter and the EGM spectrum developed into its current
form such that matter radiates a spectrum of conjugate wavefunction pairs, each
comprising of a population of Photons. Therefore, a single frequency mode describing the
Primordial Universe becomes many modes when describing matter in the present state
of the Universe. Hence, n increases with Cosmological expansion as the distance to the
subject increases.
iii. EGM finds the convergent solution relating 2 spectra of opposing gradient. That is,
C_J decreases and n increases as the Universe expands.
iv. For solutions to where the Refractive Index KPV approaches unity9, it is
demonstrated that _3 (see: Ch. 5.1, 5.2), consequently C_J may be simplified
7
i.e. the high-end terminal spectral frequency.

The PV spectrum is a bandwidth of the EGM spectrum.
9
The typical representation of KPV is an isomorphic weak field approximation to General
Relativity (GR).
8
38
to C_J1 (see: Ch. 5.5.1) and a definition stated as follows: EGM Flux Intensity is a
representation of gravitational field strength (i.e. the gradient in the energy density of the
space-time manifold) expressed in Janskys (Jy).
v. The gravitational forces governing the formation of the Milky-Way Galaxy are
equivalent to the gravitational forces responsible for the current state of the Universe as a
whole. Subsequently, the average EGM Flux Intensity of the Milky-Way Galaxy is
proportional to the average value of the present Universe and the peak value of the
Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang. This means that the EGM
Flux Intensity of the Milky-Way Galaxy acts a baseline reference.
1.1.5.1.4 St
The EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles St demonstrates that the
mass-energy distribution over the space-time manifold at the elementary level, utilising the
condition of ZPF equilibria, occurs in only one manner. The significance of this is that it provokes
an obvious question with respect to Cosmology. That is: perhaps it applies on a Cosmological
scale? Simply described, the representation works by expressing the values of of two
fundamental particles10, as an integer ratio (i.e. a harmonic of the reference particle).
Subsequently, it follows that C_J may be expressed in a similar manner as it is derived
utilising . Thus, if the EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles with respect to
mass-energy distribution over the space-time manifold were universally valid, we would expect that
in order to apply it cosmologically:
i. The ratio of the presently observable Cosmological size rf, to the initial size ri of the
Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang, is proportional to the
corresponding EGM Flux Intensity {i.e. (rf / ri) [C_J1(rf) / C_J1(ri)]}.
ii. The value of C_J at the periphery of the Primordial Universe (i.e. instantaneously
prior to the Big-Bang) is substantially greater than the value at the edge of the presently
observable Universe. That is, the gradient of the energy density of the Primordial
Universe, instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang, was substantially greater than the
gradient of the energy density at the periphery of the presently observable Universe.
iii. Since the values of wavefunction amplitude in the EGM spectrum decrease inversely with
n, and n increases with radial displacement, it follows that some sort of naturally
logarithmic or exponential relationship should exist between the ratio of the sizes
described above and the associated EGM Flux Intensities.
iv. St9 represents the harmonic relationship between the values of of two
dimensionally similar particles. Hence, recognising that the frequency and time domains
are interchangeable, we may apply St9 as the ratio of TL to the present Hubble age
of the Universe by the EGM method AU. Hence, it follows that the ratio of the sizes
described above is proportional to the ratio TL : AU (see: Ch. 6.7.2.2).
1.1.5.2 Dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity
1.1.5.2.1 HU
The Primordial Universe was analogous to a spherical particle on the Planck scale with
radius r1 and homogeneous mass distribution M1, described by a single wavefunction whereas
the presently observable Universe is described by a spectrum of wavefunctions. The maximum
EGM Flux Intensity measured by an observer at the edge of the Primordial Universe is given by
C_J1(r1,M1).
10
One of them being an arbitrarily selected reference particle from which to compare all others.
39
Matter radiates Gravitons11 at a spectrum of frequencies such that the Cosmological majority
of it exists in Photonic form, resulting in an approximately homogeneous mass-energy distribution
throughout the Universe whereby any Galactic formation is dynamically, kinematically and
geometrically equivalent to a spherical particle of homogeneous mass distribution and may be
represented as a Planck scale object to be utilised as a Galactic Reference Particle (GRP).
The associated EGM Flux Intensity of the GRP is given by C_J1(r2,M2) where, r2
denotes the mean H0 measurement distance12 to the Galactic centre and M2 represents total
Galactic mass (i.e. visible + dark). The definition of r2 comes from the scientific requirement to
compare calculation or prediction to measurement. Subsequently, one should also utilise parameters
within the same frame of reference as the measurement, against which the construct is being tested.
It is not known by physical validation that H0 is measured as being the same from all
locations in the Universe. It is believed to be the case by contemporary theory; however it is not
factually known to be true. To verify it physically, one would be required to perform the H0
measurement from a significantly different location in space. Thus, to minimise potential modelling
errors, we shall confine r2 to the same frame of reference13 as the measurement of H0 (see: Ch.
7.1).
1.1.5.2.2 TU
EGM defines the Primordial Universe as a single mode wavefunction, therefore any
temperature calculation must be scaled accordingly for application to black-body radiation (i.e.
black-bodies emit a spectrum of thermal frequencies, not just one). Hence, we would expect that the
peak CMBR temperature since the Big-Bang is proportional to the average number of Gravitons
being radiated per harmonic period by the Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the BigBang (see: Ch. 7.2).
1.1.6 Concluding remarks
The CBMR temperature is a function of the Hubble constant.
The Hubble constant and CBMR temperature instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang is
calculated to be:
H = h / x 8.460941 x1061(km/s/Mpc).
TU2[H] = 0(K).
Physical Laws become real instantaneously after the Big-Bang. For example, the 2nd Law
of Thermodynamics is not violated at TU2[H > H] because TU2 > 0(K).
The magnitude of the EGM Hubble constant14 at the instant of maximum EGM
Cosmological temperature is graphically illustrated to be:
|H(t1)| = 0(km/s/Mpc).
The maximum EGM Cosmological temperature is calculated to be:
TU2(t1-1) 3.195518 x1031(K).
11
Coherent populations of conjugate Photon pairs for a minimum period of TL.

i.e. the distance relative to the Galactic centre from where a physical measurement of H0 is
performed.
13
The solar system.
14
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain.
12
40
The magnitude of the maximum physical (i.e. post Big-Bang) EGM Hubble constant
(abbreviated reference) is calculated to be:
|H(t4)| = |dHdt[(t4H)-1]| 3.845994 x1061(km/s/Mpc).
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of maximum physical EGM Hubble
constant (abbreviated reference) is calculated to be:
TU2(t4-1) 2.059945 x1031(K).
The present EGM Hubble constant and average EGM Cosmological temperature is
calculated to be:
HU2(Ro,MG) 67.084304(km/s/Mpc).
TU2[HU2(Ro,MG)] 2.724752(K).
The present CMBR temperature is measured to be:
T0 2.725 0.001(K).
The present Hubble constant is stated by the PDG15 to be:
H0 = 71, +1/-2(km/s/Mpc).
The EGM Cosmological temperature based upon the PDG Hubble constant is calculated to
be:
TU2[H0] 2.810842(K).
The Universe is composed of:
> 94.4(%) Photons.
< 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
4.6(%) Atoms.
The magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of the Hubble constant
and CMBR temperature is < 1(%).
The EGM construct exhibits characteristics satisfying the observed phenomena of
accelerated Cosmological expansion due to:
The ZPF energy density threshold value UZPF < -2.52 x10-13(Pa).
The gradient of the Hubble constant in the time domain is presently positive.
On a human scale, this translates to levels of ZPF energy according to,
i. < -252(yJ/mm3).
On an astronomical scale, this becomes,
ii. < -0.252(mJ/km3).
iii. < -7.4 x1012(YJ/pc3).
On a Cosmological scale, this becomes,
iv. < -6.6 x1041(YJ/RU3).
The deceleration parameter,
v. EGM may be utilised to obtain non-zero deceleration parameter solutions.
Note: although on the human scale the quantities of ZPF energy are extremely small, on the
astronomical or Cosmological scales, they become extremely large when approaching the
dimensions of the visible Universe according to RU RU(KRo,xh,KmMG,mxmh).
15
http://pdg.lbl.gov/2006/reviews/hubblerpp.pdf (pg. 20 - WMAP + All).

41
1.2 Fundamentals
The following statements are verbatim quotations from [24].
1.2.1 General Relativity (GR)
General Relativity (GR) is a geometrical theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein
in 1915-16. It unifies special relativity and Sir Isaac Newtons law of universal gravitation with the
insight that gravitation is not due to a force but rather is a manifestation of curved space and time,
with this curvature being produced by the mass-energy and momentum content of the space-time.
GR is distinguished from other metric theories of gravitation by its use of the Einstein field
equations to relate space-time content and space-time curvature. GR is currently the most successful
gravitational theory, being almost universally accepted and well confirmed by observations. The
first success of general relativity was in explaining the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury.
Then in 1919, Sir Arthur Eddington announced that observations of stars near the eclipsed
Sun confirmed GRs prediction that massive objects bend light. Since then, other observations and
experiments have confirmed many of the predictions of GR, including gravitational time dilation
and gravitational red-shift of light. In addition, numerous observations are interpreted as confirming
the weirdest prediction of GR, the existence of Black-Holes (BHs).
In the mathematics of GR, the Einstein field equations become a set of simultaneous
differential equations which are solved to produce metric tensors of space-time. These metric
tensors describe the shape of the space-time manifold and are used to obtain predictions. The
connections of the metric tensors specify the geodesic paths that objects follow when travelling
inertially. Important solutions of the Einstein field equations include the Schwarzschild solution (for
the space-time surrounding a spherically symmetric uncharged and non-rotating massive object),
the Reissner-Nordstrm solution (for a charged spherically symmetric massive object), and the Kerr
metric (for a rotating massive object).
In spite of its overwhelming success, there is discomfort with GR in the scientific
community due to its being incompatible with Quantum Mechanics (QM) and the reachable
singularities of BHs (at which the math of GR breaks down). Because of this, numerous other
theories have been proposed as alternatives to GR. The most successful of these was Brans-Dicke
theory, which appeared to have observational support in the 1960s. However, those observations
have since been refuted and modern measurements indicate that any Brans-Dicke type of deviation
from GR must be very small if it exists at all.
End of verbatim quotation.
Albert Einstein16,
16
http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1921/index.html
42
1.2.2 Black-Holes (BHs)

A Black-Hole (BH) is an object predicted by GR, with a gravitational field so powerful that
even ElectroMagnetic (EM) radiation (such as light) cannot escape its pull. A BH is defined to be a
region of space-time where escape to the outside Universe is impossible. The outer boundary of this
region is called the event horizon. Nothing can move from inside the event horizon to the outside,
even briefly, due to the extreme gravitational field existing within the region.
For the same reason, observers outside the event horizon cannot see any events which may
be happening within the event horizon; thus any energy being radiated or events happening within
the region are forever unable to be seen or detected from outside. Within the BH is a singularity, an
anomalous place where matter is compressed to the degree that the known laws of Physics no
longer apply to it.
Theoretically, a BH can be of any size. Astrophysicists expect to find BHs with masses
ranging between roughly the mass of the Sun (stellar-mass BHs) to many millions of times the
mass of the Sun (i.e. SuperMassive BHs). The existence of BHs in the Universe is well supported
by astronomical observation, particularly from studying X-ray emission from X-ray binaries and
active Galactic nuclei. It has also been hypothesised that BHs radiate an undetectably small amount
of energy due to QM effects called Hawking radiation.
Figure 4.1: A Feeding SuperMassive Black-Hole - credit: Gabriel Prez Daz, SMM del IAC,
43
1.2.3 Quantum Mechanics (QM)

Quantum Mechanics (QM) refers to a discrete unit that Quantum Theory assigns to certain
physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest. The discovery that waves could be
measured in particle-like small packets of energy called quanta led to the branch of Physics that
deals with atomic and subatomic systems which we today call QM. It is the underlying
mathematical framework of many fields of Physics and Chemistry.
The foundations of QM were established during the first half of the twentieth century by
Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrdinger, Max Born,
John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli and others. Some fundamental aspects of the
theory are still actively studied.
It is necessary to use QM to understand the behavior of systems at atomic length scales and
smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics governed the workings of an atom, Electrons would
rapidly travel towards and collide with the nucleus. However, in the natural world the Electrons
normally remain in an unknown orbital path around the nucleus, defying classical
ElectroMagnetism.
QM was initially developed to explain the atom, especially the spectra of light emitted by
different atomic species. The Quantum Theory of the atom developed as an explanation for an
Electron remaining in its orbital, which could not be explained by Newton's laws of motion and by
classical ElectroMagnetism.
In the formalism of QM, the state of a system at a given time is described by a complex
wave function (sometimes referred to as orbitals in the case of atomic Electrons), and more
generally, elements of a complex vector space. This abstract mathematical object allows for the
calculation of probabilities of outcomes of concrete experiments. For example, it allows one to
compute the probability of finding an Electron in a particular region around the nucleus at a
particular time.
Contrary to classical mechanics, one cannot make simultaneous predictions of conjugate
variables, such as position and momentum, with arbitrary accuracy. For instance, Electrons may be
considered to be located somewhere within a region of space, but with their exact positions being
unknown. Contours of constant probability, often referred to as clouds, may be drawn around the
nucleus of an atom to conceptualise where the Electron might be located with the most probability.
It should be stressed that the Electron itself is not spread out over such cloud regions. It is either in a
particular region of space, or it is not. Heisenbergs uncertainty principle quantifies the inability to
precisely locate the particle.
The other exemplar that led to QM was the study of EM waves such as light. When it was
found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves could be described as consisting of small
packets or quanta, Albert Einstein exploited this idea to show that an EM wave such as light could
be described by a particle called the Photon with discrete energy, dependent upon its frequency.
This led to a theory of unity between subatomic particles and EM waves called waveparticle duality in which particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain
properties of both. While QM describes the world of the very small, it also is needed to explain
certain macroscopic quantum systems such as superconductors and superfluids.
Broadly speaking, QM incorporates four classes of phenomena that classical Physics cannot
account for: (i) the quantisation (discretisation) of certain physical quantities, (ii) wave-particle
duality, (iii) the uncertainty principle and (iv), quantum entanglement.
44
1.2.4 Particle-Physics
1.2.4.1 Synopsis
Particle-Physics is a branch of Physics that studies the elementary constituents of matter and
radiation, and the interactions between them. It is also called High Energy Physics (HEP), because
many elementary particles do not occur under normal circumstances in nature, but can be created
and detected during energetic collisions of other particles, as is done in particle accelerators.
1.2.4.2 Subatomic particles
Modern Particle-Physics research is focused on subatomic particles, which have less
structure than atoms. These include atomic constituents such as Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
(Protons and Neutrons are actually composite particles, made up of Quarks), particles produced by
radiative and scattering processes such as Photons, Neutrinos and Muons, as well as a wide range of
exotic particles.
Strictly speaking, the term particle is a misnomer because the dynamics of Particle-Physics
are governed by QM. As such, they exhibit wave-particle duality, displaying particle-like behavior
under certain experimental conditions and wave-like behavior in others (more technically they are
described by state vectors in Hilbert space). Particle Physicists use the term elementary particles
to refer to objects such as Electrons and Photons, with the understanding that these particles
display wave-like properties as well.
All the particles and their interactions observed to date can be described by a Quantum Field
Theory (QFT) called the Standard Model (SM). The SM has 40 species of elementary particles (24
Fermions, 12 Vector Bosons, and 4 Scalars), which can combine to form composite particles,
accounting for the hundreds of other species of particles discovered since the 1960s.
The SM has been found to agree with almost all the experimental tests conducted to date.
However, most particle Physicists believe that it is an incomplete description of Nature, and that a
more fundamental theory awaits discovery. In recent years, measurements of Neutrino mass have
provided the first experimental deviations from the SM.
Particle-Physics has had a large impact on the philosophy of science. Some particle
Physicists adhere to reductionism, a point of view that has been criticized and defended by
philosophers and scientists.
1.2.4.3 History
The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates to at least the 6th century
BC. The philosophical doctrine of atomism was studied by ancient Greek philosophers such as
Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus. In the 19th century John Dalton, through his work on
stoichiometry, concluded that each element of nature was composed of a single, unique type of
particle.
Dalton and his contemporaries believed these were the fundamental particles of nature and
thus named them atoms, after the Greek word atomos, meaning indivisible. However, near the
end of the century, Physicists discovered that atoms were not, in-fact, the fundamental particles of
nature, but conglomerates of even smaller particles.
The early 20th century explorations of Nuclear and Quantum-Physics culminated in proofs
of Nuclear Fission in 1939 by Lise Meitner (based on experiments by Otto Hahn), and Nuclear
Fusion by Hans Bethe in the same year. These discoveries gave rise to an active industry of
generating one atom from another, even rendering possible (although not profitable) the
transmutation of lead into gold. They also led to the development of Nuclear Weapons.
45
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, a bewildering variety of particles were found in
scattering experiments. This was referred to as the particle zoo. This term was deprecated after
the formulation of the SM during the 1970s in which the large numbers of particles were explained
as combinations of a (relatively) small number of fundamental particles.
1.2.4.4 Standard Model (SM)
The current state of the classification of elementary particles in the SM describes the Strong,
Weak and ElectroMagnetic fundamental forces utilising mediating Gauge Bosons. The species of
Gauge Bosons are the Gluons, W-, W+, Z Bosons and Photons. The model also contains 24
fundamental particles which are the constituents of matter. Finally, it predicts the existence of the
Higgs Boson, which has yet to be discovered.
1.2.4.5 Experiment
The major laboratories researching Particle-Physics are (listed in alphabetical order):
i. Brookhaven National Laboratory, located on Long Island, USA. Its main facility is the
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, colliding heavy ions such as gold ions and Protons.
ii. Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics (Novosibirsk, Russia).
iii. CERN, located on the French-Swiss border near Geneva. Its main project is now the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC). Earlier facilities include LEP, the Large Electron-Positron
collider, which was stopped in 2001 and which is now dismantled to give way for LHC;
and Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS).
iv. DESY, located in Hamburg, Germany. Its main facility is HERA colliding Electrons,
Positrons and Protons.
v. Fermilab, located near Chicago, USA. Its main facility is the Tevatron, colliding Protons
and Anti-Protons.
vi. KEK the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization located in Tsukuba, Japan. It is
the home of a number of interesting experiments such as K2K (a Neutrino oscillation
experiment) and Belle (an experiment measuring the CP-Symmetry violation in the BMeson).
vii. SLAC, located near Palo Alto, USA. Its main facility is PEP-II, colliding Electrons and
Positrons.
The techniques required to do modern experimental Particle-Physics are quite varied and
complex, constituting a sub-specialty nearly completely distinct from the theoretical side
of the field.
1.2.4.6 Theory
Theoretical Particle-Physics attempts to develop the models, theoretical framework, and
mathematical tools to understand current experiments and make predictions for future experiments.
There are several major efforts in theoretical Particle-Physics today and each includes a range of
different activities and the efforts in each area are interrelated.
One of the major activities in theoretical Particle-Physics is the attempt to better understand
the SM and its tests. Extracting the parameters of the SM from experiments with less uncertainty
probes the limits of the SM and therefore expands our understanding of nature. These efforts are
made challenging by the difficult nature of calculating many quantities in Quantum
ChromoDynamics (QCD).
The second major effort is in model building where scientists develop ideas for what Physics
may lie beyond the SM (at higher energies or smaller distances). This work is often motivated by
the hierarchy problem and is constrained by existing experimental data. It may involve work on
46
supersymmetry, alternatives to the Higgs mechanism, extra spatial dimensions or other ideas.
The third major effort in theoretical Particle-Physics is String Theory (ST). String theorists
attempt to construct a unified description of QM and GR by building a theory based upon small
strings and branes rather than particles. If the theory is successful, it may be considered a Theory
of Everything (ToE). There are also other areas of work in theoretical Particle-Physics ranging
from particle Cosmology to Loop-Quantum-Gravity (LQG).
Figure 4.2: credit: USDoE, http://pdg.lbl.gov/barnett/extradim.html,
47
1.2.5 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Theory

1.2.5.1 Synopsis
1.2.5.1.1 Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE)
1.2.5.1.1.1 General
In Physics, Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE) is the lowest possible energy that a QM system may
possess, representing the energy of the ground state. The field associated with ZPE is termed the
Zero-Point-Field (ZPF). The concept of ZPE was proposed by Albert Einstein and Otto Stern in
1913, which they originally called residual energy or Nullpunktsenergie.
All QM systems are associated with ZPE. The term arises commonly in reference to the
ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator and its null oscillations. In QFT, it is a synonym
for vacuum energy, an amount of energy associated with the vacuum of empty space and is the
underlying background energy that exists in space even when devoid of matter. In Cosmology, ZPE
is taken to be the origin of the Cosmological constant.
It is widely accepted that ZPE results in the existence of most (if not all) of the fundamental
forces and the effects derived from them. They have been observed in various experiments such as
the spontaneous emission of light, gamma radiation, Van-Der Waals bonds and the Lamb shift etc.
Importantly, the ZPE of the vacuum leads directly to the Casimir effect and is directly observable in
nanoscale devices.
It is thought (but not yet demonstrated) to have consequences for the behavior of the
Universe on a Cosmological scale. Because ZPE is the lowest possible energy a system can have, it
cannot be removed. Despite the definition, the concept of ZPE has attracted the attention of amateur
inventors with the prospect of extracting free energy from the vacuum.
Numerous perpetual motion and other pseudoscientific devices, often called free energy
devices exploiting the idea, have been proposed. As a result of this activity and its intriguing
theoretical explanation, it has taken on a life of its own in popular culture, appearing in science
fiction books, games and movies.
1.2.5.1.1.2 Elementary particles
QFT, which describes interactions between elementary particles in terms of fields, allows a
contribution to ZPE (even when no particles are present) via the ZPF. An example is the Casimir
effect whereby two metal plates experience a small attractive force between them. This has been
attributed to the dependence on the ZPF and the distance between the plates. This has important
consequences on a Cosmological scale because ZPE is expected to contribute to the Cosmological
constant, which affects the expansion of the Universe.
The calculation of the ZPE in QFT, in terms of Feynman diagrams, may be considered as
accounting for virtual particles (also known as vacuum fluctuations), which are created and
destroyed out of the vacuum. Additional contributions to the ZPE come from spontaneous
symmetry breaking in QFT.
1.2.5.1.1.3 Implications
Vacuum energy has a number of consequences. For one, vacuum fluctuations are always
created as particle / antiparticle pairs. The creation of these virtual particles near the event horizon
of a Black-Hole (BH) has been hypothesised by Physicist Stephen Hawking to be a mechanism for
the eventual evaporation of BHs such that the net energy of the Universe remains zero so long as
48
the particle pairs annihilate each other within Planck time.

If one of the pair is pulled into the BH before this, then the other particle becomes real and
energy / mass is radiated into space from the BH. The loss is cumulative and could result in the
Black-Hole's disappearance over time. The time required is dependent upon the mass of the BH, but
could be in the order of 10100 years for large solar-mass BHs.
Grand Unification Theory (GUT) predicts a non-zero Cosmological constant from the
energy of vacuum fluctuations. Examining normal physical processes with knowledge of these field
phenomena leads to interesting insights into ElectroDynamics (ED).
1.2.5.1.2 History
In 1900, Max Planck derived the formula for the energy of a single radiator (i.e. a
vibrating atomic unit) as:
(W.1)
In 1913, using this formula as a basis, Albert Einstein and Otto Stern published a paper of
great significance in which they suggested for the first time the existence of energy that all
oscillators have at absolute zero. They called this residual energy and then Nullpunktsenergie
(in German), which later became translated as ZPE. They carried out an analysis of the specific heat
of Hydrogen gas at low temperature and concluded that the data is best represented if the vibration
energy is taken to have the form,
(W.2)
Thus, according to this expression - even at absolute zero, the energy of an atomic system has the
value h.
In 1934, Georges Lematre used an unusual perfect-fluid equation of state to interpret the
Cosmological constant as a result of ZPE. In 1973, Edward Tryon proposed that the Universe may
be a large scale QM vacuum fluctuation where positive mass-energy is balanced by negative
gravitational potential energy.
During the 1980s, many attempts were made to relate fields that generate vacuum energy to
specific fields that were predicted by the GUT and to use observations of the Universe to confirm it.
So far, these efforts have failed and the exact nature of the particles or fields that generate ZPE,
with a density such as that required by inflation theory, remains a mystery.
1.2.5.1.3 Foundational Physics
In classical Physics, the energy of a system is defined in relation to some given state
(often called the reference state). Typically, one might associate a motionless system with zero
energy, although doing so is purely arbitrary. However, in quantum Physics it is natural to associate
the energy with the expectation value of a certain operator - the Hamiltonian of the system.
For almost all QM systems, the lowest possible expectation value that this operator can
obtain is not zero; the lowest possible value is called the ZPE (caveat: if we add an arbitrary
constant to the Hamiltonian, we get another theory which is physically equivalent to the previous
Hamiltonian - because of this, only relative energy is observable, not the absolute energy).
The origin of non-zero minimal energy can be intuitively understood in terms of the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. This principle states that the position and momentum of a QM
particle cannot both be known arbitrarily accurately. If the particle is confined to a potential well,
then its position is at least partly known - it must be within the well.
Thus, one may deduce that within the well, the particle cannot have zero momentum
otherwise the uncertainty principle would be violated. Because the kinetic energy of a moving
49
particle is proportional to the square of its velocity, it cannot be zero either. This example however,
is not applicable to a free particle - the kinetic energy of which can be zero.
1.2.5.1.4 Varieties of ZPE
The concept of ZPE occurs in a number of situations and it is important that they be
distinguished. In ordinary QM, the ZPE is the energy associated with the ground state of the system.
The most famous example is the energy associated with the ground state of the quantum harmonic
oscillator. More precisely, the ZPE is the expectation value of the Hamiltonian of the system.
In QFT, the fabric of space is visualised as consisting of fields and every point in space and
time being a quantised simple harmonic oscillator, with neighboring oscillators interacting. In this
case, one has a contribution of energy from every point in space, resulting in infinite ZPE. The ZPE
is the expectation value of the Hamiltonian.
In Quantum Perturbation Theory (QPT), it is sometimes stated that the contribution of oneloop and multi-loop Feynman diagrams, to elementary particle propagators, are the contributions of
vacuum fluctuations (ZPE) to particle masses.
1.2.5.1.5 Experimental evidence
The simplest experimental evidence for the existence of ZPE in QFT is the Casimir effect.
This effect was proposed in 1948 by Dutch Physicist Hendrik B. G. Casimir, who considered the
quantised EM field between a pair of grounded, neutral metal plates. A small force can be measured
between the plates ascribable to a change of the ZPE of the EM field between the plates.
Although the Casimir effect at first proved difficult to measure because its manifestation can
be seen only at very small distances, it is taking on increasing importance in nanotechnology. The
Casimir effect can be accurately measured in specially designed nanoscale devices, and increasingly
needs to be taken into account in the design and manufacturing processes of small devices. It can
exert significant forces and stress on nanoscale devices, causing them to bend, twist, stick or break.
Other experimental evidence includes spontaneous emissions of light (Photons) by atoms
and nuclei, the observed Lamb shift of positions of energy levels of atoms and the anomalous value
of the Electrons gyromagnetic ratio etc.
1.2.5.1.6 Gravitation and Cosmology
In Cosmology, ZPE offers an intriguing possibility for explaining the speculative positive
values of the proposed Cosmological constant. In brief, if the energy is really there, then it should
exert a gravitational force. In General Relativity (GR), mass and energy are equivalent; either
produces a gravitational field.
One obvious difficulty with this association is that the ZPE of the vacuum is absurdly large.
Naively, it is infinite, but one must argue that new Physics takes over at the Planck scale, and so its
growth is cut off at that point. Even so, what remains is so large that it would visibly bend space,
and thus, there seems to be a contradiction.
There is no easy way out, and reconciling the seemingly huge ZPE of space with the
observed zero or small Cosmological constant has become one of the important problems in
theoretical Physics. Subsequently, it has become a criterion by which to judge a candidate Theory
of Everything (ToE).
1.2.5.1.7 Propulsion theories
Another area of research in the field of ZPE is how it could be used for propulsion. NASA
and British Aerospace both have programs running to this end, though practical technology is still a
long way off. For any success in this area, it would have to be possible to create repulsive effects in
50
the quantum vacuum, which according to theory should be possible. Experiments to produce and
measure these effects are planned for the future.
Note: Haisch, Rueda and Puthoff have proposed that an accelerated massive object interacts with
the ZPF to produce an EM drag force giving rise to the phenomenon of inertia.
1.2.5.1.8 Popular culture
The Casimir effect has established ZPE as an uncontroversial and scientifically accepted
phenomenon. However, the term ZPE has also become associated with a highly controversial area
of human endeavour i.e. so-called free energy devices, similar to perpetual motion machines of
the past. These devices purport to tap the ZPF and somehow extract energy from it, thus
providing an inexhaustible, cheap, and non-polluting energy source.
Controversy arises when such devices are promoted without scientifically acceptable proof
that they tap the energy sources claimed. Promoters of a device frequently demonstrate no
understanding of how the device might do so; they may demonstrate misunderstanding of widely
accepted scientific facts and methods, in development or communication of a theory concerning a
device; and they generally have made no attempt to investigate simpler explanations for the claimed
performance of a device.
Any of these behaviours are liable to taint the reputations of those involved with such
devices, and qualified researchers are therefore likely to be reluctant to make any attempt to verify
or even seriously examine such a device unless its promoters demonstrate enough competence to be
taken seriously.
1.2.5.2 Spectral Energy Density (SED)
An extremely important development in ZPF Theory - utilised as a foundation for the EGM
construct, is the concept of Spectral Energy Density (SED). This quantifies the spectral energy
distribution of ZPE within the ZPF and may be described in terms of the energy density per
frequency mode by,
0( )
2 .h .
c
(3.47)
where, h denotes Plancks Constant [6.6260693 x10-34(Js)] and is in (Hz).

1.2.6 The Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of gravity
The Polarizable Vacuum (PV) refers to an analogue of GR to describe gravity in optical
terms offering the following,
i. The potential to replace GR in terms of the propagation of light through an optical
medium, with a scalar theory of gravitation featuring formal analogies with Maxwell's
theory of ElectroMagnetism.
ii. The potential to unify gravitation and ElectroMagnetism in a theory of Electro-Gravity.
iii. The potential to provide a physical mechanism for how space-time gets curved in GR,
suggesting the possibility of metric engineering for spacecraft propulsion etc.
The Polarisable Vacuum (PV) model of gravity is an optical representation such that the
curvature of the space-time manifold is expressed in terms of a Refractive Index KPV. The value
of KPV of a solid spherical object with homogeneous mass-energy distribution (i.e. a weak field
isomorphic approximation to GR) is given by,
51
2.
K PV e
G .M
2
r .c
(3.55)
where,
Variable
KPV
e
G
M
r
c
Description
Units
Refractive Index of a gravitational field in the PV model
of gravity, only contributing significantly when a large
gravitational mass (i.e. a strong gravitational field) is
None
considered. For weak gravitational fields, the effect is
approximated to KPV(r,M) = 1.
Exponential function
Gravitational constant
m3kg-1s-2
Mass
kg
Magnitude of position vector from centre of mass
m
Velocity of light in a vacuum
m/s
Table 4.1,
1.2.7 Dimensional Analysis Techniques and Buckinghams (Pi) Theory

1.2.7.1 The principles
The following statement is a verbatim quotation from [24]
Dimensional Analysis is a conceptual tool often applied in Physics, Chemistry, and
engineering to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical
quantities. It is routinely used by physical scientists and engineers to check the plausibility of
derived equations. Only like dimensioned quantities may be added, subtracted, compared, or
equated.
When like or unlike dimensioned quantities are multiplied or divided, their dimensions are
likewise multiplied or divided. When dimensioned quantities are raised to a power or a power root,
the same is done to the dimensions attached to those quantities. The dimensions of a physical
quantity is associated with symbols such as M, L, T which represent mass, length and time, each
raised to rational powers. For instance, the dimension of the physical variable speed is distance /
time (L/T) and the dimension of force is mass distance / time (ML/T). In mechanics, every
dimension can be expressed in terms of distance (which Physicists often call length), time and
mass, or alternatively in terms of force, length and mass.
Depending on the problem, it may be advantageous to choose one or another set of
dimensions. In ElectroMagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of M, L, T, and
Q, where Q represents the quantity of electric charge. The units of a physical quantity are
defined by convention, related to some standard; e.g. length may have units of meters, feet, inches,
miles or micrometres; but length always has dimension L whether it is measured in meters, feet,
inches, miles or micrometres.
In the most primitive form, dimensional analysis may be used to check the correctness of
physical equations: in every physically meaningful expression, only quantities of the same
dimension can be added or subtracted. Moreover, the two sides of any equation must have the same
dimensions. For example, the mass of a rat and the mass of a flea may be added, but the mass of a
flea and the length of a rat cannot be added.
Furthermore, the arguments to exponential, trigonometric and logarithmic functions must be
dimensionless numbers. The logarithm of 3(kg) is undefined, but the logarithm of 3 is 0.477.
It should be noted that very different physical quantities may have the same dimensions: work and
torque, for example, have the same dimensions, M L2T-2.
An equation with torque on one side and energy on the other would be dimensionally
52
correct, but cannot be physically correct! However, torque multiplied by an angular twist measured
in (dimensionless) radians is work or energy. The radian is the mathematically natural measure of
an angle and is the ratio of arc of a circle swept by such an angle divided by the radius of the circle.
The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit within the
dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor. When like dimensioned quantities are added,
subtracted or compared, these dimensioned quantities must be expressed in consistent units so that
the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted. But, conceptually,
there is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units.
Buckingham (Pi) Theory (BPT) forms the basis of the central tool of Dimensional
Analysis. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving n variables
can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of n-m dimensionless parameters, where m is the
number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method
for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the
equation is still unknown.
BPT is a systematic method of Dimensional Analysis, whereby variables that are relevant to
a particular situation are formed into dimensionless groups. The number of dimensionless groups
equals the original number of variables minus the number of fundamental dimensions present in all
the variables. This analysis reduces the degrees of freedom for a physical situation and can be used
to guide experimental design programs.
Proofs of BPT often begin by considering the space of fundamental and derived physical
units as a vector space, with the fundamental units as basis vectors and with multiplication of
physical units as the vector addition operation and raising to powers as the scalar multiplication
operation. Making the physical units match across sets of physical equations can then be regarded
as imposing linear constraints in the physical unit vector space.
Two systems for which these parameters coincide are called similar; they are equivalent for
the purposes of the equation and the experimentalist whom wishes to determine the form of the
equation can choose the most convenient one. BPT uses linear algebra: the space of all possible
physical units can be seen as a vector space over rational numbers if we represent a unit as the set of
exponents needed for the fundamental units (with a power of zero if the particular fundamental unit
is not present). Multiplication of physical units is then represented by vector addition within this
vector space. The algorithm of BPT is essentially a Gauss-Jordan elimination carried out in this
vector space.
1.2.7.2 The atomic bomb
The following statement is a verbatim quotation from [24]
In 1941, Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor used Dimensional Analysis to estimate the energy released
in an atomic bomb explosion. The first atomic bomb was detonated in New Mexico on July 16,
1945. In 1947, movies of the explosion were declassified, allowing Sir Taylor to complete the
analysis and estimate the energy released in the explosion, even though the energy release was still
classified! The actual energy released was later declassified and its value was remarkably close to
Taylor's estimate.
Taylor supposed that the explosive process was adequately described by five
physical quantities, the time t since the detonation, the energy E which is released at a single
point in space at detonation, the radius R of the shock wave at time t, the ambient atmospheric
pressure p and density . There are only three fundamental physical units in this combination
(MLT) which yield Taylor's equation. Once the radius of the explosion as a function of the time was
known, the energy of the explosion was calculated.
53
1.2.7.3 The birth and foundations of Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)

Historically, Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs) and BPT has been used extensively
in the engineering field to model, predict and optimise fluid flow and heat transfer. However, in
principle, it may be applied to any system that is dynamically, kinematically and geometrically
founded such as the geometric space-time manifold. Typical examples of experimentally verified
groupings in fluid mechanics are Froude, Mach, Reynolds and Weber numbers. Thermodynamic
examples are Eckert, Grashof, Prandtl and Nusselt numbers. Moreover, the Planck Length
commonly used in theories of Quantum Gravity shares its origins with the Dimensional Analysis
Technique (the foundation of BPT).
The application of BPT is not an attempt to answer fundamental physical questions but to
apply universally accepted engineering design methodologies to real world problems. It is primarily
an experimental process. It is not possible to derive system representations without involving
experimental relationship functions. These functions incorporate all variables within the
experimental environment that influence results and behaviour including parameters that might
otherwise be neglected due to practical calculation limitations, in theoretical analysis. Once the
groupings have been formed, they may be manipulated or simplified as required to test ideas and
applied to determine experimental relationship functions. Ultimately, these functions validate the
system equations developed.
Ideally, experimental relationship functions possess values of unity relative to the distant
observer. This indicates a loss-less relationship between an Experimental Prototype (EP) and the
mathematical model utilised to describe the EP. Typically, due to viscous forces and energy loss /
transformation effects, experimental relationship functions take extreme values of magnitude (i.e.
large or small). If we consider the EP to be the ambient gravitational environment (i.e. local spacetime manifold) and the mathematical model to be the PV model of gravity, then we expect all
experimental relationship functions to approach unity. The reasons for this are:
i. The true nature of gravity is currently unknown to Physics.
ii. The mathematical descriptions used to predict gravitational behaviour are constructed
from observation of effects, not causes.
iii. A mathematical description is nothing more than just that. It is a non-physical
manifestation of human understanding. For example, GR is a Tensor based mathematical
formulation only - there is no physical evidence to validate the contention that the true
nature of space-time is physically geometric with Planck scale grid lines radiating from
Cosmological objects.
iv. There can be no physical losses between two mathematical representations of the same
thing.
BPT commences with the selection of significant parameters. There are no right or wrong
choices with respect to the selection of these parameters. Often, the experience of the researcher
exerts the greatest influence to the beginning of the process and the choice of significant parameters
is validated (or refuted) by experimentation.
When applying BPT, it is important to avoid repetition of dimensions. Subsequently, it is
often desirable to select variables that may be formulated by the manipulation of simpler variables
already chosen. The selected variables used in EGM are shown by Storti et. Al. in [1]. These
parameters were selected to facilitate experiments utilising ElectroMagnetic (EM) fields and
assume that there is a physical device to be tested, located on a laboratory test bench. The objective
is to utilise a superposition of EM fields to reduce the weight of a test-mass when placed in the
volume of space located directly above the device. Therefore, the significant parameters are those
factors that may affect the acceleration of the test-mass within this volume.
The selection of significant parameters involved the magnitude of vector quantities and
scalars. This avoids unnecessary repetition of fundamental units in accordance with the application
of BPT methodology. The significant vector magnitude parameters are acceleration, Magnetic field,
54
Electric field and position. The scalar quantities are Electric charge and frequency.
Since static charge on the device or the test-mass may also exert strong Lorentz forces and
therefore accelerations, the scalar value of static charge is included to determine its contribution. If
the device is small then the distance between the surface of the device and the test-mass suspended
in the volume above it is trivial and that the magnitude of the position vector is usefully constant.
Storti et. Al. utilise BPT to relate gravitational acceleration, EM acceleration by the
superposition of applied fields, ZPF Theory and the PV model of gravity via Einsteins equivalence
principle. Dimensionally, there is no difference between gravitational and EM acceleration. The
equivalence principle provides a well accepted vehicle for the logical application of BPT and
DATs to gravity. Much of Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics is built form the application of
BPT and DATs. BPT facilitates the ability to string together any number of variables in a way that
permits one to test ones own idea. So, it is really a mix between science and art. There is nothing
wrong with any grouping formed utilising BPT, it is simply a question of how well a grouping
tends to fit physical observation.
To derive the PV spectrum, Storti et. Al. take the standard ZPF spectral energy density
equation that describes the energy density in a region of space as a smooth cubic distribution and
combine it with a Fourier distribution. This yields the beginning and endpoint of the spectrum. In
other words, objects with mass polarise the ZPF which may be described as a Fourier distribution at
the surface of the object. The surface is the equilibrium boundary between the energy contained
within the object and the polarized state of the ZPF surrounding it.
The difference between the EGM, PV and ZPF spectra is that the EGM spectrum
commences incrementally above 0(Hz) and approaches the Planck Frequency. The PV spectrum
is mass specific and represents a bandwidth of the EGM spectrum commencing at a non-zero
fundamental frequency. The EGM and PV spectra follow a Fourier distribution. The ZPF spectrum
has the same frequency bandwidth as the EGM spectrum, but does not follow a Fourier distribution.
So, the EGM spectrum is the polarized form of the ZPF spectrum, whilst the PV spectrum is an
object specific subset of the EGM spectrum following a Fourier distribution.
Note: the EGM spectrum is a simple, but extreme, extension of the EM spectrum.
DATs and BPT bring to the research and design table, the following key elements17:
It helps to assess the reasonableness of a model and which variables it should
contain.
It reduces the number of variables and parameters to a minimum.
It reduces the number of needed experiments, on computers as well as in the
laboratory.
It provides the fundamental theory behind experiments on scale models.
It is a systematic method for the analysis of problems.
It forces you to make estimates and to understand the problem.
It helps you understand what is important and what is not.
It produces dimensionless equations with small (or large) parameters.
It facilitates a reverse engineering approach to gravity if a region of space-time on
a laboratory test bench is considered to be the Experimental Prototype (EP) for the
mathematical model produced by the application of DATs and BPT. Subsequently,
the mathematical model can be applied to the EP for scaling purposes, leading to
gravity control experiments.
Note: DATs and BPT should be applied before numerical computations are done.
17
Norwegian University of Science and Technology,

http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/kurs/matmod/1998h/
http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/
55
EGM develops a dynamic, kinematic and geometric equivalent of the ZPF, expressed in
Fourier terms, which describes gravity at the surface of the Earth as a PV. The EGM spectrum is a
simple, but extreme, extension of the EM spectrum. In the same way that radio waves, visible light,
ultra violet, x-rays and gamma rays exist, gravitational waves exist as a spectrum of frequencies.
The EGM spectrum is in fact the EM spectrum (subject to a Fourier distribution) but with an end
point approaching the Planck Frequency at conditions of maximum permissible energy density.
Typically, for the surface of the Earth for example, the vast majority of gravitational waves
exist well above the Terahertz (THz) range. It is extremely important to note that gravity does not
exist as a single wave; it exists as a spectrum of frequencies with a group propagation velocity of
zero. EGM does not differentiate between EM and gravitational spectra but does predict the
endpoint as being far above what we currently measure the EM spectrum to be.
NOTES
56
1.2.8 EGM: the natural philosophy of fundamental particles

1.2.8.1 How was it derived?
To date, great strides have been made by GR to our understanding of gravity. It is an
excellent tool that represents space-time as a geometric manifold of events, where gravitation
manifests itself as a curvature of space-time and is described by a metric tensor. However, GR does
not easily facilitate engineering solutions that may allow us to design electromechanical devices
with which to affect the space-time metric.
If mankind wishes to engineer the space-time metric, alternative tools must be developed to
compliment those already available. Subsequently, the EGM methodology was derived to achieve
this goal. EGM is defined as the modification of vacuum polarisability by applied EM fields. It
provides a theoretical description of space-time as a PV derived from the superposition of EM
fields.
The PV representation of GR is a heuristic tool and is isomorphic to GR by weak field
approximation. Utilising EGM, EM fields may be applied to affect the state of the PV and thereby
facilitate interactions with the local gravitational field. BPT is a powerful tool that has been in
existence, tried and experimentally proven for many years. It is an excellent tool that may be
applied to the task of determining a practical relationship between gravitational acceleration and
applied EM fields. The underlying principle of BPT is the preservation of dynamic, kinematic and
geometric similarity between a mathematical model and an EP.
EGM is a term describing a hypothetical harmonic relationship between Electricity, Gravity
and Magnetism. The hypothesis may be mathematically articulated by the application of DATs and
BPT, both being well established and thoroughly tested geometric engineering principles, via
Fourier harmonics. The hypothesis may be tested by the correct derivation of experimentally
verified fundamental properties not predicted within the Standard Model (SM) of Particle-Physics.
To understand the way in which EGM was derived, one requires a basic knowledge of
engineering principles. Primarily, EGM is a method of calculation (not a theory) based upon
fundamental engineering principles and techniques. It does not compete with or contradict the SM
of Particle-Physics in any manner.
The creation and development of EGM was driven by necessity. A scan of contemporary
approaches in gravitational Physics illustrates an obvious lack of mathematical tools facilitating
engineering of the space-time manifold. Or rather, engineering possibilities are obvious, but require
massive objects on a planetary, stellar or Galactic scale.
Therefore, to facilitate gravity control, a new tool is required permitting engineering of the
space-time manifold. To begin the process, we must first make some basic assumptions based upon
the availability and practicality of existing tools by which we may construct further tools. We shall
use one tool to build another. EGM is nothing more than an engineering tool constructed from other
engineering tools and should be always regarded as such.
Engineering is fundamentally a practical discipline that does not search for highly precise
numerical or exact results. Instead, it aims to achieve physically meaningful quantitative solutions.
Again, practicality and common sense must prevail and, by necessity, must commence with the
assumption that any realistic attempt at gravity control must physically fit on a laboratory test
bench. There is no benefit in developing a tool requiring non-practical scales of reality.
Einstein brought forth the concept that mass and energy are interchangeable. This is trivially
obvious by virtue of his now famous equation (E = mc2). This, combined with practical thinking,
clearly suggests that EM radiation is the mechanism of choice. Hence, we have established the basic
requirements going forward. That is, we are necessarily bounded in research and design terms by
practical benchtop EM fields.
The next step is to find a tool that facilitates the construction of relationships tying EM
fields to acceleration. For an experienced engineer, the answer is obvious. In situations where little
has been established previously, DAT's and BPT are solid first steps. In addition to being able to
57
connect seemingly unrelated parameters, it also serves to minimise the number of experiments
required to investigate physical behaviour.
Mainstream understanding of gravity is based upon GR - a geometric approach. Assuming
Einstein was correct and the enormous collective scientific effort since 1905 has not been a poor
investment, it follows that any geometrically based engineering tool is an excellent starting point.
Being geometric in nature makes it ideally suited to gravitational problems in keeping with BPT.
However, a strict GR approach is unwieldy and a simpler description would be highly
advantageous. Subsequently, Storti et. Al. utilise the PV model of gravity as a substitute to GR,
which is isomorphic in the weak field, is conducive to engineering approaches and facilitates the
development of the EGM construct.
Thus far, we have established several of the baseline elements forming a skeletal EGM
structure. To add flesh, we require a way to relate the geometric output of BPT to the PV model of
gravity. The relationship between the two may be bridged by assuming the equivalence principle
applies cross discipline.
Considering the need for an EM mechanism, we shall assume that the PV model of gravity
denotes a polarized state of the ZPF representing a sinusoidal manifestation of the space-time
manifold by virtual particles, Photons or wavefunctions. Consequently, it follows that the
representation of gravity at a mathematical point by Fourier Harmonics is a useful tool by which to
represent the ZPF.
Therefore, we may relate the logic of the preceding arguments in a solution algorithm
constituting the EGM construct by five simple steps as follows,
i. Apply DAT's, BPT and similarity principles to combine Electricity, Magnetism and
resultant EM acceleration in the form of groupings.
ii. Apply the equivalence principle to the groupings formed in (i).
iii. Apply Fourier Harmonics to the equivalence principle.
iv. Apply ZPF Theory to Fourier Harmonics.
v. Apply the PV model of gravity to the ZPF.
Hence, the complete EGM derivation process flow was constructed by Storti et. Al. in [1-19]
as follows,
Dimensional Analysis Techniques
Buckingham Theory
General Modelling Equations
Amplitude and Frequency Spectra
General Similarity Equations
Harmonic Similarity Equations
Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations
nd
2 Reduction of Harmonic Similarity Equations
(Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations)
Spectral Similarity Equations
Fundamental Particle Properties, the Hydrogen Atom

Spectrum and the Casimir Force
Table 4.2,
58
It was shown that a theoretical representation of constant acceleration at a mathematical

point in a gravitational field may be defined by a summation of trigonometric terms utilising
modified complex Fourier series in exponential form, according to the harmonic distribution nPV =
-N, 2 - N ... N, where N is an odd number harmonic. Hence, the magnitude of the gravitational
acceleration vector g (via the equivalence principle) may be usefully represented by Eq. (3.63) as
|nPV| ,
g( r , M )
G. M .
2
n PV
2 . i . .n PV .
e
. n PV
..
PV ( 1 , r , M ) t i
(3.63)
such that, the frequency spectrum of the harmonic gravitational field PV is given by Eq. (3.67),
PV n PV, r , M
n PV 3 2 . c . G. M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
(3.67)
where,
Variable
PV(1,r,M)
KPV
nPV
r
M
G
Description
Units
Fundamental spectral frequency
Hz
Refractive Index of a gravitational field in the Polarisable Vacuum
(PV) model of gravity, only contributing significantly when a large
gravitational mass (i.e. a strong gravitational field) is considered. For
None
all applications herein, the effect is approximated to KPV(r,M) = 1.
Harmonic modes of the gravitational field
Magnitude of position vector from centre of mass
m
Mass
kg
Gravitational constant
m3kg-1s-2
Table 4.3,
Subsequently, the harmonic (Fourier) representation of the magnitude of the gravitational

acceleration vector (in the time domain) at the surface of the Earth up to N = 21 is graphically
shown to be,
Gravitational Acceleration
Time
Figure 4.3: harmonic representation of gravitational acceleration,

As N , the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector becomes measurably constant.
Hence, Eq. (3.63, 3.67) illustrate that the Newtonian representation of g is easily harmonised over
the Fourier domain, from geometrically based methods (i.e. DATs and BPT). Therefore, unifying
(in principle) Newtonian, geometric (relativistic) and quantum (harmonised) models of gravity.
Storti et. Al. showed that the spectrum defined by Eq. (3.67) is discrete and finite. The lower
boundary value is given by PV(1,r,M), whilst the upper boundary value (also termed the
harmonic cut-off frequency) is given by Eq. (3.73),
( r , M ) n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
59
(3.73)
supported by the following equation set,

n ( r, M )
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
(3.71)
( r, M )
108.
U m( r , M )
12. 768 81.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
3 .M .c
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
(3.72)
4 . .r
(3.70)
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
(3.69)
where,
Variable
n
Um
U
h
Description
Units
None
Harmonic cut-off mode [mode number at ]
Harmonic cut-off function
Mass-energy density of a solid spherical gravitational object
Pa
Energy density of mass induced gravitational field scaled to
the fundamental spectral frequency
Plancks Constant [6.6260693 x10-34]
Js
Table 4.4,
Since the relationship between trigonometric terms, at each amplitude and corresponding
frequency, is mathematically defined by the nature of Fourier series, the derivation of Eq. (3.71,
3.72) is based on the compression of energy density to one change in odd harmonic mode whilst
preserving dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity in accordance with BPT.
The preservation of similarity across one change in odd mode is due to the mathematical
properties of constant functions utilising Fourier series as discussed in [4]. The subsequent
application of these results to Eq. (3.63) acts to decompress the energy density over the Fourier
domain yielding a highly precise reciprocal harmonic representation of g whilst preserving
dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity to Newtonian gravity, identified by the compression
technique stated above.
Key gravitational characteristics for the Earth18 in the displacement domain may be
graphically represented as follows,
Fundamental Frequency
RE
PV 1 , r , M E
PV 1 , R E , M E
r
Radial Distance
Figure19 3.7,
18
19
RE and ME denote the radius and mass of the Earth respectively.

Fundamental frequency (|nPV| = 1) as a function of planetary radial displacement.
60
RE
n R E, M E
n r, M E
r, M E
R E, M E
r
Radial Distance
Cutoff Mode
Cutoff Frequency
Figure20 3.8,
1.2.8.2 Poynting Vector S
It was demonstrated by Haisch, Puthoff and Rueda in [25-28] that inertia may have
ElectroMagnetic (EM) origins due to the ZPF of Quantum-Electro-Dynamics (QED), manifested by
the Poynting Vector, via the equivalence principle. Hence, it follows that gravitational acceleration
may also be EM in nature and the Polarizable Vacuum (PV) model of gravity is an EM polarized
state of the ZPF with a Fourier distribution, assigning physical meaning to Eq. (3.63).
Subsequently, it follows that the energy density of a mass induced gravitational field may be
scaled to changes in odd harmonic mode numbers satisfying the mathematical properties of any
constant function described in terms of Fourier series utilising Eq. (3.69) - such that,
U n PV, r , M
U ( r , M ) .
n PV
n PV
(3.68)
Therefore, the Poynting Vector21 of the polarized Zero-Point (ZP) gravitational field S
surrounding a solid spherical object with homogeneous mass-energy distribution is given by,
S n PV, r , M
c .U n PV, r , M
(3.74)
ZPF Poynting Vector
and may be graphically represented as follows,
S n PV , R E , M E
n PV
Harmonic
Figure 3.9,
Fig. (3.9) illustrates that the Poynting Vector of the ZP gravitational field increases with
nPV. Further work by Storti et. Al. showed that >>99.99(%) of the effect in a gravitational field
20
21
Harmonic cut-off mode n and frequency as a function of planetary radial displacement.

Per change in odd harmonic mode number.
61
exists well above the THz range. Hence, it becomes apparent that n and are important
characteristics of gravitational fields and were used to quasi-unify Particle-Physics in harmonic
form.
1.2.8.3 The size of the Proton, Neutron and Electron (radii: r, r, r)
In 2005, Storti et. Al. derived the mass-energy threshold of the Photon utilising n and the
classical Electron radius as shown in [8], to within 4.3(%) of the Particle Data Group (PDG)
value22 stated in [29], then proceeded to derive the mass-energies and radii of the Photon and
Graviton in [10] by the consistent utilisation of n.
The method developed in [8] was re-applied in [9] to derive the sizes23 of the Electron,
Proton and Neutron. The motivation for this was to test the hypothesis presented in Ch. 1.2.8.1 by
direct comparison of the computed size values to experimentally measured fact. They believe that
highly precise computational predictions, agreeing with experimental evidence beyond the abilities
of the SM to do so, is conclusive evidence of the validity of the harmonic method developed.
To date, highly precise measurements have been made of the Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
charge radius of the Proton by [30] and the Mean-Square (MS) charge radius of the Neutron as
demonstrated in [31]. However, the calculations presented in [9] are considerably more accurate
than the physical measurements articulated in [30,31], lending support for the harmonic
representation of the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector stated in Eq. (3.63).
The basic approach utilised in [9] was to determine the equilibrium position between the
polarized state of the ZPF and the mass-energy of the fundamental particle inducing space-time
curvature as would appear in General Relativity (GR). In other words, one may consider the
curvature of the space-time manifold surrounding an object to be a virtual fluid in equilibrium
with the object itself24.
This concept is graphically represented in Fig. (4.4). A free fundamental particle with
classical form factor is depicted in equilibrium with the surrounding space-time manifold. The ZPF
is polarized by the presence of the particle in accordance with the PV model of gravity, which is (at
least) isomorphic to GR in the weak field.
Figure 4.4: free fundamental particle with classical form factor,

In the case of the Proton, the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with the RMS charge radius
r [Eq. (3.199)] producing the experimentally verified result rp by the SELEX Collaboration as
stated in [30]25,
22
Consistent with experimental evidence and interpretation of data.

From first principles and from a single paradigm.
24
The intention is not to suggest that the space-time manifold is actually a fluid, it is merely to
present a method by which to solve a problem.
25
r = 0.8306(fm), rp = 0.8307 0.012(fm).
23
62
h .m e
. . m
. 27 h c . e
2
3
4 . .G m p
16.c . .m p
(3.199)
where, me and mp denote Electron and Proton rest-mass respectively.

In the case of the Neutron, the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with the radial position of
zero charge density r [Eq. (3.200)] with respect to the Neutron charge distribution as illustrated
in Fig. (4.5). It is shown in [14] that r relates to the MS charge radius KS by a simple formula
[Eq. (3.396)] producing the experimentally verified result KX as presented in [31]26,
h .m e
. . m
. 27 h c . e
r
2
3
4 . .G m n
16.c . .m n
(3.200)
where, mn denotes Neutron rest-mass.

Neutron Charge Distribution
Charge Density
r dr
ch( r )
ch r 0
r dr
5.
3
ch r dr
r
Radius
Charge Density
Maximum Charge Density
Minimum Charge Density
Figure 4.5: Neutron charge distribution,

KS
3. .r
8
. (1
x) . x
x x
(3.396)
27
where, x is solved numerically within the MathCad environment by the following algorithm,
Given
2
ln( x) .
2
x
x
(3.398)
1 3
(3.399)
Find ( x)
Utilising KS, KX may be converted to determine an experimental zero charge density radial
position value rX according to Eq. (3.418),
26
27
r = 0.8269(fm), KS = -0.1133(fm2), KX = -0.113 0.005(fm2).

x = 0.6829, rX = 0.8256 0.018(fm).
63
rX
KS
. K .K
S X
(3.418)
In the case of the Electron (as with the Proton), the ZPF equilibrium radius coincides with
the RMS charge radius r [Eq. (3.203)] producing an experimentally implied result28 as stated in
[32],
9
r r e.
1.
2
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(3.203)
where, re and [33] denote the classical Electron radius and Euler-Mascheroni constant
respectively.
1.2.8.4 The harmonic representation of fundamental particles
1.2.8.4.1 Establishing the foundations
Motivated by the physical validation of Eq. (3.199, 3.200), Storti et. Al. conducted thought
experiments in [9] to investigate harmonic and trigonometric relationships by analysing various
forms of radii combinations for the Electron, Proton and Neutron consistent with the DATs and
BPT derivations in [1-8] yielding the following useful approximations,
r , m e
r , m e
r , m p
r ,mn
r
r
(4.1)
(3.214)
2
.e
(3.204)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
and e denote the fine structure constant and exponential function respectively.
Eq. (4.1) error:
(a) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2 is 8.876 x10-3(%)
(b) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mn) = 2 is 0.266(%).
Eq. (3.214) error is 2.823(%).
Eq. (3.204) error is 0.042(%).
1.2.8.4.2 Improving accuracy

Since the experimental value of the RMS charge radius of the Proton is considered by the
scientific community to be precisely known29, the accuracy of Eq. (3.214, 3.204) may be improved
by re-computing the value of r and r. This action further strengthens the validity of Eq. (4.1)
by verifying trivial deviation utilising the re-computed values.
Hence, it follows that numerical solutions for r and r, constrained by exact
mathematical statements [Eq. (3.203, 3.204, 3.214, 4.1)], suggests that the gravitational relationship
between the Electron and Proton, as inferred by the result (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2, is harmonic.
28
29
r 0.0118(fm), = 0.577215664901533.
To a degree of accuracy significantly greater than the Electron or Neutron.
64
The computational algorithm supporting this contention may be stated as follows,

Given
r r , m e
r e r , m p
r
r
r
r
r
r
.e
1.
2
ln 2 .n r e , m e
Find r , r
(4.2)
(4.3)
yields,
r
0.826838
0.011802
.( fm)
(4.4)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
Eq. (4.1) error:

(a) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mp) = 2 is 4.493 x10-7(%).
(b) Associated with (r,me)/(r,mn) = 2 is 0.282(%).
Eq. (3.214) error is 1.11 x10-13(%).
Eq. (3.204) error is 0.026(%).
1.2.8.4.3 Formulating an hypothesis

In the preceding calculations utilising known particle mass and radii as a reference, it was
found that the harmonic cut-off frequency ratio of an Electron to a Proton was precisely 2. This
provokes the hypothesis that a simple harmonic pattern may exist describing the relationship of all
fundamental particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen base particle according to,
r 1, M 1
r 2, M 2
St
(3.230i)
Performing the appropriate substitutions utilising Eq.(3.69 3.73), Eq. (3.230i) may be simplified
to,
M1
M2
r2
r1
St
(3.230ii)
where, St represents the ratio of two particle spectra. Subsequently, r may be simply
calculated according to,
5
1 . me
r r .
9
2 mp
(3.231)
1.2.8.5 Identifying a mathematical pattern

Utilising Eq. (3.230ii), Storti et. Al. identify mathematical patterns in [11-13] showing that
St may be represented in terms of the Proton, Electron and Quark harmonic cut-off frequencies
derived from the respective particle. Potentially, three new Leptons (L2, L3, L5 and associated
Neutrinos: 2, 3, 5) and two new Quark / Bosons (QB5 and QB6) are predicted, beyond the SM
as shown in table (4.5).
65
The EGM Harmonic Representation of Fundamental Particles (i.e. table (4.5)) is applicable
to the size relationship between the Proton and Neutron (i.e. to calculate r from r and viceversa utilising St = 1) as an approximation only. For precise calculations based upon similar
forms, the reader should refer to Eq. (3.199, 3.200).
Note: although the newly predicted Leptons are within the kinetic range30 and therefore should
have been experimentally detected, there are substantial explanations discussed in the proceeding
sections.
Proton
Electron
Quark
Harmonics Harmonics Harmonics
Proton (p), Neutron (n)
St = 1
St = 1/2
St = 1/14
2
1
1/7
Electron (e), Electron Neutrino (
e)
4
2
2/7
L2, 2 (Theoretical Lepton, Neutrino)
6
3
3/7
8
4
4/7
Muon (
), Muon Neutrino (
)
10
5
5/7
12
6
6/7
Tau (), Tau Neutrino (
)
Up Quark (uq), Down Quark (dq)
14
7
1
Strange Quark (sq)
28
14
2
Charm Quark (cq)
42
21
3
Bottom Quark (bq)
56
28
4
QB5 (Theoretical Quark or Boson)
70
35
5
QB6 (Theoretical Quark or Boson)
84
42
6
W Boson
98
49
7
Z Boson
112
56
8
Higgs Boson (H) (Theoretical)
126
63
9
Top Quark (tq)
140
70
10
Table 4.5: harmonic representation of fundamental particles,
Existing and Theoretical Particles
1.2.8.6 Results
1.2.8.6.1 Harmonic evidence of unification
Exploiting the mathematical pattern articulated in table (4.5), EGM predicts the RMS charge
radius and mass-energy of less accurately known particles, comparing them to expert opinion. The
values of St shown in table (4.5), predict possible particle mass and radii for all Leptons,
Neutrinos, Quarks and Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVBs), in complete agreement with the SM,
PDG estimates and studies by Hirsch et. Al in [34] as shown in table (4.6),
Particle
Proton (p)
Neutron (n)
Electron (e)
Muon (
)
Tau ()
Electron Neutrino (
e)
Muon Neutrino (
)
30
EGM Radii
x10-16(cm)
r = 830.5957
r = 826.8379
r = 11.8055
r = 8.2165
r = 12.2415
ren 0.0954
rn 0.6556
EGM Mass-Energy
(computed or utilised)
PDG Mass-Energy Range

(2005 Values)
Mass-Energy precisely known,

See: National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) [35]
Note: m = 10-100
men(eV) 3 - m
mn(MeV) 0.19 - m
men(eV) < 3
mn(MeV) < 0.19
A region extensively explored in Particle-Physics experiments.

66
Tau Neutrino (
)
rn 1.9588
mn(MeV) 18.2 - m mn(MeV) < 18.2
Up Quark (uq)
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 4
ruq 0.7682
muq(MeV) 3.5060
Down Quark (dq)
3 < mdq(MeV) < 8
rdq 1.0136
mdq(MeV) 7.0121
Strange Quark (sq)
80 < msq(MeV) < 130
rsq 0.8879
msq(MeV) 113.9460
1.15 < mcq(GeV) < 1.35
Charm Quark (cq)
mcq(GeV) 1.1833
rcq 1.0913
Bottom Quark (bq)
4.1 < mbq(GeV) < 4.4
rbq 1.071
mbq(GeV) 4.1196
Top Quark (tq)
169.2 < mtq(GeV) < 179.4
rtq 0.9294
mtq(GeV) 178.4979
W Boson
80.387 < mW(GeV) < 80.463
rW 1.2839
mW(GeV) 80.425
Z Boson
91.1855 < mZ(GeV) < 91.1897
rZ 1.0616
mZ(GeV) 91.1876
Higgs Boson (H)
mH(GeV) 114.4 + m mH(GeV) > 114.4
rH 0.9403
Photon ()
r = Kh
m 3.2 x10-45(eV)
m < 6 x10-17(eV)
No definitive commitment
Graviton (g)
rgg = 2(2/5)r
mgg = 2m
L2 (Lepton)
mL(2) 9(MeV)
rL 10.7518 mL(3) 57(MeV)
L3 (Lepton)
L5 (Lepton)
mL(5) 566(MeV)
2 (L2 Neutrino)
r2,3,5
m2 men
Not predicted or considered
3 (L3 Neutrino)
m3 mn
ren,n,n
5 (L5 Neutrino)
m5 mn
QB5 (Quark or Boson) rQB 1.0052 mQB(5) 10(GeV)
QB6 (Quark or Boson)
mQB(6) 22(GeV)
Table 4.6: RMS charge radii and mass-energies of fundamental particles,
where,
i.
K denotes a Planck scaling factor, determined to be (/2)1/3 in [13].
ii.
h denotes Planck Length [4.05131993288926 x10-35(m)].
iii.
rL and rQB denote the average radii of SM Leptons and Quark / Bosons
(respectively) utilised to calculate the mass-energy of the proposed new particles.
Note:
iv.
A formalism for the approximation of 2, 3 and 5 mass-energy is shown in [15].
v.
It is shown in [8,10,13] that the RMS charge diameters of a Photon and Graviton are
h and 1.5h respectively, in agreement with Quantum Mechanical (QM) models.
1.2.8.6.2 Recent developments
1.2.8.6.2.1 PDG mass-energy ranges
The EGM construct was finalized by Storti et. Al. in 2004 and tested against published PDG
data of the day [i.e. the 2005 values shown in table (4.6)]. Annually, as part of their continuous
improvement cycle, the PDG reconciles its published values of particle properties against the latest
experimental and theoretical evidence. The 2006 changes in PDG mass-energy range values not
impacting EGM are as follows:
i.
Strange Quark = 70 < msq(MeV) < 120.
ii.
Charm Quark = 1.16 < mcq(GeV) < 1.34.
iii.
W Boson = 80.374 < mW(GeV) < 80.432.
iv.
Z Boson = 91.1855 < mZ(GeV) < 91.1897.
Therefore, we may conclude that the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified
results within the SM to high computational precision.
67
1.2.8.6.2.2 Electron Neutrino and Up / Down / Bottom Quark mass

Particle-Physics research is a highly dynamic field supporting a landscape of constantly
changing hues. The EGM construct relates mass to size in harmonic terms. If one applies Eq.
(3.230ii) and utilizes the Proton as the reference particle in accordance with table (4.5), one obtains
a single expression with two unknowns, as implied by Eq. (3.231).
Since contemporary Physics is currently incapable of specifying the mass and size of most
fundamental particles precisely and concurrently, EGM is required to approximate values of either
mass or radius to predict one or the other (i.e. mass or size). Subsequently, the EGM predictions
articulated in table (4.6) denote values based upon estimates of either mass or radius.
Hence, some of the results in table (4.6) are approximations and subject to revision as new
experimental evidence regarding particle properties (particularly mass), come to light. The 2006
changes in PDG mass-energy values affecting table (4.6) are shown below. In this data set, the
EGM radii are displayed as a range relating to its mass-energy influence.
Note: the average value of EGM Up + Down Quark mass from table (4.6) [i.e. 5.2574(MeV)]
remains within the 2006 average mass range specified by the PDG [i.e. 2.5 to 5.5(MeV)].
EGM Radii x10-16(cm)
PDG Mass-Energy
Range (2006 Values)
men(eV) < 2
Electron Neutrino (
e) ren < 0.0811
PDG Mass-Energy
Up Quark (uq)
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 3
0.5469 < ruq < 0.7217
Range
(2006
Values)
Down Quark (dq)
3 < mdq(MeV) < 7
0.7217 < rdq < 1.0128
Bottom Quark (bq)
1.0719 > rbq > 1.0863
4.13 < mbq(GeV) < 4.27
Table 4.7: RMS charge radii and mass-energies of fundamental particles,
Particle
EGM Mass-Energy
(utilised)
The predicted radii ranges above demonstrate that no significant deviation from table (4.6)
values exists. This emphasizes that the EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles is a
robust formulation and is insensitive to minor fluctuations in particle mass, particularly in the
absence of experimentally determined RMS charge radii.
Therefore, we may conclude that the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified
results within the SM to high computational precision.
1.2.8.6.2.3 Top Quark mass
1.2.8.6.2.3.1 The dilemma
The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) and D-ZERO (D0) Collaborations have recently
revised their world average value of Top Quark mass from 178.0(GeV/c2) in 2004 [36] to,
172.0 in 2005 [37], 172.5 in early 2006, then 171.4 in July 2006. [38]
Note: since the precise value of mtq is subject to frequent revision, we shall utilize the 2005 value
in the resolution of the dilemma as it sits between the 2006 values.
1.2.8.6.2.3.2 The resolution
The EGM method utilizes fundamental particle RMS charge radius to determine mass.
Currently, Quark radii are not precisely known and approximations were applied in the formulation
of mtq displayed in table (4.6). However, if one utilizes the revised experimental value of mtq =
172.0(GeV/c2) to calculate the RMS charge radius of the Top Quark rtq, based on Proton
68
harmonics, it is immediately evident that a decrease in rtq of < 1.508(%) produces the new
world average value precisely. The relevant calculations may be performed simply as follows,
The revised Top Quark radius based upon the new world average Top Quark mass,
5
GeV
172.
2
1 .
c
r .
9
mp
140
= 0.9156 10
16 .
cm
(4.5)
The decrease in Top Quark RMS charge radius [relative to the table (4.6) value] based upon the
new world average Top Quark mass becomes,
r tq
1 = 1.5076 ( % )
GeV
172.
2
1 .
c
r .
9
mp
140
(4.6)
where, rtq denotes the RMS charge radius of the Top Quark from table (4.6).
Therefore, since the change in rtq is so small and its experimental value is not precisely known,
we may conclude the EGM construct continues to predict experimentally verified results within the
SM to high computational precision.
Note: the 2006 value for revised mtq modifies the error defined by Eq. (4.6) to < 1.65(%).
1.2.8.7 Discussion
1.2.8.7.1 Experimental evidence of unification
Table (4.5, 4.6, 4.7) display mathematical facts demonstrating that all fundamental particles
may be represented as harmonics of an arbitrarily selected reference particle, in complete agreement
with the SM. Considering that the EGM method is so radically different and quantifies the physical
world beyond contemporary solutions, one becomes tempted to disregard table (4.5, 4.6, 4.7) in
favour of concluding these to be coincidental.
However, it is inconceivable that such precision from a single paradigm spanning the entire
family of fundamental particles could be coincidental. The derivation of the Top Quark massenergy is in itself, an astonishing result which the SM is currently incapable of producing.
Moreover, the derivation of (a), EM radii characteristics of the Proton and Neutron (rE, rM
and rM) (b), the classical RMS charge radius of the Proton (c), the 1st term of the Hydrogen atom
spectrum A and (d), the Bohr radius rx: all from the same paradigm, strengthens the harmonic
case.
Additionally, Storti et. Al. demonstrate in Quinta Essentia, A Practical Guide to SpaceTime Engineering, Part 3: pg. 54 (see: Ref.) that the probability of coincidence is << 10-38
based upon the results shown in table (4.8),
Particle / Atom EGM Prediction
Proton (p)
r = 830.5957 x10-16(cm) [9]
rE = 848.5274 x10-16(cm) [14]
rM = 849.9334 x10-16(cm) [14]
rp = 874.5944 x10-16(cm) [14]
Neutron (n)
r = 826.8379 x10-16(cm) [9]
69
Experimental Measurement
r = 830.6624 x10-16(cm) [30]
rE = 848 x10-16(cm) [39,40]
rM = 857 x10-16(cm) [39,40]
rp = 875.0 x10-16(cm) [35]
rX 825.6174 x10-16(cm) [14]
(%) Error
< 0.008
< 0.062
< 0.825
< 0.046
< 0.148
Neutron (n)
Top Quark (tq)
Hydrogen (H)
where,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
KS = -0.1133 x10-26(cm2) [14] KX = -0.113 x10-26(cm2) [31]

rM = 878.9719 x10-16(cm) [14] rM = 879 x10-16(cm) [39,40]
mtq(GeV) 172.0 [37]
mtq(GeV) 178.4979 [12,17]
A = 657.3290(nm) [16]
B = 656.4696(nm) [41]
rx = 0.0527(nm) [16]
rBohr = 0.0529(nm) [35]
Table 4.8: experimentally verified EGM predictions,
< 0.296
< 0.003
< 3.64
< 0.131
< 0.353
rE and rM denote the Electric and Magnetic radii of the Proton respectively.
rM denotes the Magnetic radius of the Neutron.
A and B denote the first term of the Hydrogen atom spectrum (Balmer series).
rp = 875.0 x10-16(cm) and rBohr = 0.0529(nm) are not experimental values, they
denote the classical RMS charge radius of the Proton and the Bohr radius, i.e. the official
values listed by NIST.
Note: numerical simulations generating all values in table (4.5, 4.6, 4.8) can be found in [17-19].
1.2.8.7.2 The answers to some important questions
1.2.8.7.2.1 What causes harmonic patterns to form?
1.2.8.7.2.1.1 ZPF equilibrium
A free fundamental particle is regarded by EGM as a bubble of energy equivalent mass.
Nature always seeks the lowest energy state: so surely, the lowest state for a free fundamental
particle should be to diffuse itself to non-existence in the absence of something acting to
keep it contained?
This provokes the suggestion that a free fundamental particle is kept contained by the
surrounding space-time manifold. In other words, free fundamental particles are analogous to
neutrally buoyant bubbles floating in a locally static fluid (the space-time manifold). EGM is an
approximation method, developed by the application of standard engineering tools, which finds the
ZPF equilibrium point between the mass-energy equivalence of the particle and the space-time
manifold (the ZPF) surrounding it - as depicted by Fig. (4.4).
1.2.8.7.2.1.2 Inherent quantum characteristics
If one assumes that the basic nature of the Universe is built upon quantum states of
existence, it follows that ZPF equilibrium is a common and convenient feature amongst free
fundamental particles by which to test this assumption. Relativity tells us that no absolute frames of
reference exist, so a logical course of action is to define a datum as EGM is derived from a
gravitational base. In our case, it is an arbitrary choice of fundamental particle.
To be representative of the quantum realm, it follows that ZPF equilibrium between free
fundamental particles should also be analogous to quantum and fractional quantum numbers as
one finds with the Quantum Hall Effect. Subsequently, the harmonic patterns of table (4.5) form
because the determination of ZPF equilibrium is applied to inherently quantum characteristic
objects i.e. fundamental particles.
Hence, it should be no surprise to the reader that comparing a set of inherently quantum
characterised objects to each other, each of which may be described by a single wavefunction at its
harmonic cut-off frequency, results in a globally harmonic description. That is, the EGM harmonic
representation of fundamental particles is a quantum statement of ZPF equilibrium as one would
expect. In-fact, it would be alarming if table (4.5), or a suitable variation thereof, could not be
formulated.
Therefore, harmonic patterns form due to inherent quantum characteristics and ZPF equilibrium.
70
1.2.8.7.2.2 Why havent the new particles been experimentally detected?

EGM approaches the question of particle existence, not just by mass as in the SM, but by
harmonic cut-off frequency (i.e. by mass and ZPF equilibrium). Storti et. Al. showed in [5]
that the bulk of the PV spectral energy31 at the surface of the Earth exists well above the THz
range. Hence, generalizing this result to any mass implies that the harmonic cut-off period32 T
defines the minimum detection interval to confirm (or refute) the existence of the proposed L2, L3,
L5 Leptons and associated 2, 3, 5 Neutrinos. In other words, a particle exists for at least the
period specified by T i.e. its minimum lifetime.
Quantum Field Theory (QFT) approaches this question from a highly useful, but extremely
limited perspective compared to the EGM construct. QFT utilizes particle mass to determine the
minimum detection period (in terms of eV) to be designed into experiments. To date, this approach
has been highly successful, but results in the conclusion that no new Leptons exist beyond the SM
in the mass-energy range specified by the proposed Leptons. Whilst QFT is a highly useful
yardstick, it is by no means a definitive benchmark to warrant termination of exploratory
investigations for additional particles.
Typically in the SM, short lived particles are seen as resonances in cross sections of data
sets and many Hadrons in the data tables are revealed in this manner. Hence, the SM asserts that the
more unstable particles are, the stronger the interaction and the greater the likelihood of detection.
The EGM construct regards the existing Leptons of the SM as long-lived particles. It also
asserts that the SM does not adequately address the existence or stability of the extremely shortlived Leptons proposed. This assertion is supported by the fact that detection of these particles is
substantially beyond current capabilities due to:
i.
The minimum detection interval (with negligible experimental error) being < 10-29(s).
ii.
The possibility that the proposed Leptons are transient (intermediate) states of particle
production processes which decay before detection. For example, perhaps an Electron
passes through an L2 phase prior to stabilization to Electronic form (for an appropriate
production process). Subsequently, this would be not be detected if the transition process
is very rapid and the accelerator energies are too low.
iii.
The possibility of statistically low production events.
Hence:
iv.
The proposed Leptons are too short-lived to appear as resonances in cross-sections.
v.
The SM assertion that the more unstable particles are, the stronger the interaction and
the greater the likelihood of detection is invalid for the proposed Leptons.
Therefore, contemporary particle experiments are incapable of detecting the proposed Leptons at
the minimum accelerator energy levels required to refute the EGM construct.
1.2.8.7.2.3 Why can all fundamental particles be described in harmonic terms?
Because of the precise experimental and mathematical evidence presented in table (4.5, 4.6,
4.8). These results were achieved by construction of a model based upon a single gravitational
paradigm. Moreover, Storti et. Al. also derives the Casmir force in [7] from [1-6] utilising Eq. (3.63,
3.67, 3.73).
31
32
>> 99.99(%).
The inverse of .
71
1.2.8.7.2.4 Why is EGM a method and not a theory?

EGM is a method and not a theory because: (i) it is an engineering approximation and (ii),
the mass and size of most subatomic particles are not precisely known. It harmonizes all
fundamental particles relative to an arbitrarily chosen reference particle by parameterising ZPF
equilibrium in terms of harmonic cut-off frequency .
The formulation of table (4.5) is a robust approximation based upon PDG data. Other
interpretations are possible, depending on the values utilised. For example, if one re-applies the
method presented in [12] based upon other data; the values of St in table (4.5) might differ.
However, in the absence of exact experimentally measured mass and size information, there is little
motivation to postulate alternative harmonic sequences, particularly since the current formulation
fits the available experimental evidence extremely well.
If all mass and size values were exactly known by experimental measurement, the main
sequence formulated in [12] (or a suitable variation thereof) will produce a precise harmonic
representation of fundamental particles, invariant to interpretation. Table (4.5) values cannot be
dismissed due to potential multiplicity before reconciling how:
i. , which is the basis of the table (4.5) construct, produces Eq. (3.199, 3.200) as
derived in [9]. These generate radii values substantially more accurate than any other
contemporary method. In-fact, it is a noteworthy result that EGM is capable of
producing the Neutron MS charge radius as a positive quantity. Conventional techniques
favour the non-intuitive form of a negative squared quantity.
ii. is capable of producing a Top Quark mass value the SM cannot.
iii. EGM produces the results defined in table (4.8).
iv. Extremely short-lived Leptons [i.e. with lifetimes of < 10-29(s)] cannot exist, or do not
exist for a plausible harmonic interpretation.
v. Any other harmonic interpretation, in the absence of exact mass and size values
determined experimentally, denote a superior formulation.
Therefore, EGM is a method facilitating the harmonic representation of fundamental particles.
1.2.8.7.2.5 What would one need to do, in order to disprove EGM?
Explain how experimental measurements of charge radii and mass-energy by international
collaborations such as CDF, D0, L3, SELEX and ZEUS in [30,36-38,42-45], do not correlate to
EGM calculations.
1.2.8.7.2.6 Why does EGM produce current and not constituent Quark masses?
The EGM method is capable of producing current and constituent Quark masses, only
current Quark masses are presented herein. This manuscript is limited to current Quark masses
because it is the simplest example of ZPF equilibrium applicable whereby a particle is treated as a
system and the equilibrium radius is calculated.
Determination of the constituent Quark mass is a more complicated process, but the method
of solution remains basically the same. For example, Storti et. Al. calculate an experimentally
implicit value of the Bohr radius in [16] by treating the atom as a system in equilibrium with the
polarized ZPF.
72
1.2.8.7.2.7 Why does EGM yield only the three observed families?
This occurs because it treats all objects with mass as a system (e.g. the Bohr atom) in
equilibrium with the polarized ZPF (the objects own gravitational field). Therefore, since
fundamental particles with classical form factor denote fundamental states (or systems: Quarks in
the Proton and Neutron) of polarized ZPF equilibrium, it follows that only the three families will be
predicted.
1.2.8.8 What may the periodic table of elementary particles look like under EGM?
Assuming QB5,6 to be Intermediate Vector Bosons (IVB's), we shall conjecture that the
periodic table of elementary particles may be constructed as follows,
Types of Matter
Group II
Group III
Up
14 Charm
42 Top
140
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
+2/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
uq
cq
tq
1.5 < muq(MeV) < 3
1.1833(GeV)
172.0(GeV)
28 Bottom
Down
14 Strange
56
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
-1/3,1/2,[R,G,B]
dq
sq
bq
(GeV)
< 4.27
3 < mdq(MeV) < 7
4.13
<
m
113.9460(MeV)
bq
Electron
2 Muon
8 Tau
12
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
e
= 0.5110(MeV)
= 105.7(MeV)
= 1.777(GeV)
8 Tau Neutrino
12
Electron Neutrino
2 Muon Neutrino
0,1/2
0,1/2
0,1/2
e
< 2(eV)
< 0.19(MeV)
< 18.2(MeV)
L2
4 L3
6 L5
10
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
-1,1/2
L2
L3
L5
9(MeV)
57(MeV)
566(MeV)
L2 Neutrino
4 L3 Neutrino
6 L5 Neutrino
10
0,1/2
0,1/2
0,1/2
2
3
5
men
mn
mn
Standard Model and EGM Bosons
Photon
N/A Gluon
? QB6
84 Z Boson
112
1,Colour,1
1,Weak Charge,10-6
1,Weak Charge,10-6
1,Charge,
gl
Q B6
Z
-45
< 10(MeV)
22(GeV)
91.1875(GeV)
3.2 x10 (eV)
Graviton
N/A QB5
70 W Boson
98 Higgs Boson
126
2,Energy,10-39
1,Weak Charge,10-6
1,Weak Charge,10-6
0,Higgs Field,?
QB 5
W
H
g
10(GeV)
80.27(GeV)
> 114.4(GeV)
= 2m
Table 4.9: predicted periodic table of elementary particles,
E GM
Leptons
Standard
Model
Leptons
Quarks
Group I
73
Legend
Leptons
Quarks
Bosons
St Name
St Name
St
Charge(e),Spin,Colour
Charge(e),Spin
Spin,Source,*SC
Symbol
Symbol
Symbol
Mass-Energy
Mass-Energy
Mass-Energy
(i) *Where, SC denotes coupling strength at 1(GeV). [46]
(ii) The values of St in table (4.9) utilize the Proton as the reference particle. This is due to its RMS
charge radius and mass-energy being precisely known by physical measurement.
Name
Table 4.9: particle legend,

1.2.8.9 What are the most important results determined by the EGM construct?
The most important results determined by the EGM construct may be categorised into five
main areas as follows:
i. Polarisable Vacuum and Zero-Point-Field.
ii. Photons, Gravitons and Euler's Constant.
iii. All other particles.
iv. The Casimir Force.
v. The Planck scale and the Bohr radius.
1.2.8.9.1 PV and ZPF
1.2.8.9.1.1 Gravitational amplitude spectrum CPV
G.M .
C PV n PV, r , M
2
.
n PV
(3.64)
1.2.8.9.1.2 Gravitational frequency spectrum PV

n PV 3 2 . c . G. M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
PV n PV, r , M
(3.67)
1.2.8.9.1.3 Harmonic cut-off frequency

( r , M ) n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
(3.73)
1.2.8.9.2 Photons, Gravitons and Euler's Constant

Note: Euler's Constant may be calculated by: (i) physical measurement of m and (ii), the
assumption that 2 x r is precisely equal to the experimentally implicit value of the Planck
Length characterised by K x h.
1.2.8.9.2.1 The mass-energy of a Graviton mgg
mgg = 2m
(3.216)
1.2.8.9.2.2 The mass-energy of a Photon m

3
h .
re
.r e
2 .c .G.m e
512.G.m e
2
c .
74
n r e, m e
ln 2 .n r e , m e
(3.220)
1.2.8.9.2.3 The radius of a Photon r

5
r r e .
m e .c
(3.225)
G.h . r
r K .
(3.274)
1.2.8.9.2.4 The radius of a Graviton rgg

r gg
4 .r
(3.227)
1.2.8.9.3 All Other Particles

1.2.8.9.3.1 The Fine Structure Constant
.e
(3.204)
r
.e
(3.236)
1.2.8.9.3.2 Harmonic cut-off frequency ratio (the ratio of two particle spectra) St
2
r 1, M 1
M1
r 2, M 2
M2
r2
r1
St
(3.230)
1.2.8.9.3.3 Neutron Magnetic Radius rM

r dr
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r
(3.420)
1.2.8.9.3.4 Proton Electric Radius rE

r dr
r . ch r E
ch ( r ) d r
r
(3.423)
1.2.8.9.3.5 Proton Magnetic Radius rM
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r dr
r
75
(3.426)
1.2.8.9.3.6 Classical Proton Root Mean Square Charge Radius rp

r P r E
1.
2
r M
(3.429)
1.2.8.9.3.7 The first term of the Hydrogen Spectrum (Balmer Series) A
By EGM: utilising the Bohr radius rBohr and the fundamental PV wavelength PV
A
PV 1 , K .r Bohr , m p
2 .n K .r Bohr , m p
(3.457)
1.2.8.10 Graphical representation of fundamental particles under EGM

Illustrational (only) wavefunction [Eq. (3.458)] based on Proton harmonics,
sin St .2 . . r , m p .t
St , t
(3.458)
1.
T r ,m p
2
( 1, t )
( 2, t )
( 4, t )
5 .10
29
1 .10
28
1.5 .10
28
2 .10
28
2.5 .10
28
3 .10
28
3.5 .10
28
( 6, t )
Proton, Neutron
Electron, Electron Neutrino
L2, v2
L3, v3
Figure 3.44,
76
1 .
T r ,m p
16
( 8,t)
( 10 , t )
( 12 , t )
5 .10
30
1 .10
29
1.5 .10
29
2 .10
29
2.5 .10
29
3 .10
29
3.5 .10
29
4 .10
29
4.5 .10
29
( 14 , t )
Muon, Muon Neutrino

L5, v5
Tau, Tau Neutrino
Up and Down Quark
Figure 3.45,
1 .
T r ,m p
56
( 28 , t )
( 42 , t )
( 56 , t )
1 .10
30
2 .10
30
3 .10
30
4 .10
30
5 .10
30
6 .10
30
30
7 .10
8 .10
30
9 .10
30
1 .10
29
1.1 .10
29
1.2 .10
29
1.3 .10
29
( 70 , t )
Strange Quark
Charm Quark
Bottom Quark
QB5
Figure 3.46,
77
1 .
T r ,m p
168
( 84 , t )
( 98 , t )
( 112 , t )
( 126 , t )
5 .10
31
1 .10
30
1.5 .10
30
2 .10
30
2.5 .10
30
3 .10
30
3.5 .10
30
4 .10
30
4.5 .10
30
( 140 , t )
QB6
W Boson
Z Boson
Higgs Boson
Top Quark
Figure 3.47,
1.2.8.11 Concluding remarks about EGM
A concise mathematical relationship, based upon homogeneity concepts inherent in BPT,
augmented with Fourier series, has been used to combine gravitational acceleration and
ElectroMagnetism into a method producing fundamental particle properties to extraordinary
precision. This also results in the representation of fundamental particles as harmonic forms of each
other. Additionally, the representation predicts the existence of new fundamental particles not found
within the Standard Model suggesting the following:
i.
An exciting avenue for community exploration, beyond the Standard Model.
ii.
The potential for new Physics at higher accelerator energies.
iii.
The potential for unification of fundamental particles.
iv.
Physical limitations on the value of two extremely important mathematical constants [i.e.
and ] at the QM level subject to uncertainty principles.
NOTES
78
1.2.9 The Hubble Constant H0

1.2.9.1 Description
Hubbles Law is the statement in physical Cosmology that the red-shift in light coming from
distant Galaxies is proportional to their distance. The law was first formulated by Edwin Hubble
and Milton Humason in 1929 after nearly a decade of observations. It is considered the first
observational basis for the expanding space paradigm and today serves as one of the most often
cited pieces of evidence in support of the Big-Bang. The most recent calculation of the constant,
using the satellite WMAP began in 2003, yielding a value of 71 4(km/s/Mpc). As of August
2006, the figure had been refined using data from NASA's orbital Chandra X-ray Observatory to
77(km/s/Mpc) with an uncertainty of 15(%).
1.2.9.2 Discovery
In the decade before Hubble made his observations, a number of Physicists and
Mathematicians had established a consistent theory of the relationship between space and time by
using Einstein's field equations of GR. Applying the most general principles to the question of the
nature of the Universe yielded a dynamic solution that conflicted with the then prevailing notion of
a static Universe.
In 1922, Alexander Friedmann derived his famous equations from GR, showing that the
Universe might expand at a calculable rate. The parameter used by Friedman is known today as the
scale factor which can be considered as a scale invariant form of the proportionality constant of
Hubble's Law. Georges Lematre independently found a similar solution in 1927. From the
Friedmann equations, the Friedmann-Lematre-Robertson-Walker metric was derived for a fluid
with a given density and pressure. This idea of expanding space-time would eventually lead to the
Big-Bang theory of Cosmology.
Before the advent of modern Cosmology, there was considerable talk as to the size and
shape of the Universe. In 1920, a famous debate took place between Harlow Shapley and Heber D.
Curtis over this very issue with Shapley arguing for a small Universe the size of our Milky-Way
Galaxy and Curtis arguing that the Universe was much larger. The issue would be resolved in the
coming decade with Hubble's improved observations.
Edwin Hubble did most of his professional astronomical
observation work at Mount Wilson observatory, the world's most
powerful telescope at the time. His observations of Cepheid variable
stars in spiral nebulae enabled him to calculate the distances to these
objects. Surprisingly, these objects were discovered to be at distances
which placed them well outside the Milky-Way. The nebulae were
first described as island Universes, and it was only later that the
term Galaxy would be applied to them.
Combining his measurements of Galactic distances with Vesto
Slipher's measurements of the red-shifts, Hubble discovered a rough
proportionality of the objects distances with their red-shifts. Though
there was considerable scatter (now known to be due to peculiar
velocities), Hubble was able to plot a trend line from the 46 Galaxies
he studied and obtained a value for the Hubble constant of 500(km/s/Mpc), which is much higher
than the currently accepted value due to errors in his distance calibrations - a frequent problem even
for modern astronomers.
79
In 1958, the first good estimate of H0, 75(km/s/Mpc), was published by Allan Sandage.
But it would be decades before a consensus was achieved. After Hubbles discovery was published,
Albert Einstein abandoned his work on the Cosmological constant which he had designed to allow
for a static solution to his equations. He would later term this work his greatest blunder since the
belief in a static Universe was what prevented him from predicting the expanding Universe.
Einstein would make a famous trip to Mount Wilson in 1931 to thank Hubble for providing the
observational basis for modern Cosmology.
1.2.9.3 Interpretation
The discovery of the linear relationship between recessional velocity and distance yields a
straightforward mathematical expression for Hubbles Law as v = H0D where, v is the
recessional velocity due to red-shift, typically expressed in km/s. H0 is Hubble's constant and
corresponds to the value of H (often termed the Hubble parameter which is time dependent) in the
Friedmann equations taken at the moment of observation denoted by the subscript 0.
This value is the same throughout the Universe for a given conformal time. D is the
proper distance that the light had traveled from the Galaxy in the rest frame of the observer,
measured in MegaParsecs (Mpc). For relatively nearby Galaxies, the velocity v can be
estimated from the Galaxys red-shift z using the formula v = zc where, c is the speed of
light. For far away Galaxies, v can be determined from z by using the relativistic Doppler
Effect.
However, the best way to calculate the recessional velocity and its associated expansion rate
of space-time is by considering the conformal time associated with the Photon travelling from the
distant Galaxy. In very distant objects, v can be larger than c. This is not a violation of the
special relativity however because a metric expansion is not associated with any physical objects
velocity.
In using Hubble's law to determine distances, only the velocity due to the expansion of the
Universe can be used. Since gravitationally interacting Galaxies move relative to each other,
independent of the expansion of the Universe, these relative velocities, called peculiar velocities,
need to be considered when applying Hubble's law.
The Finger of God Effect is one result of this phenomenon discovered in 1938 by Benjamin
Kenneally. In systems that are gravitationally bound, such as Galaxies or our planetary system, the
expansion of space is (more than) annihilated by the attractive force of gravity.
The mathematical derivation of an idealised Hubbles Law for a uniformly expanding
Universe is a fairly elementary theorem of geometry in 3-dimensional Cartesian / Newtonian
coordinate space, which considered as a metric space, is entirely homogeneous and isotropic
(properties do not vary with location or direction).
Simply stated the theorem is
this: Any two points which are
moving away from the origin, each
along straight lines and with speed
proportional to distance from the
origin, will be moving away from
each other with a speed proportional
to their distance apart.
The ultimate fate and age of
the Universe can both be
determined by measuring the
Hubble
constant
today
and
extrapolating with the observed
value of the deceleration parameter,
uniquely characterised by values of total density parameter (, 0).
80
A so-called closed Universe (, 0 > 1) comes to an end in a Big-Crunch and is

considerably younger than its Hubble age. An open or flat Universe (, 0 1) expands forever
and has an age that is closer its Hubble age. For the accelerating Universe that we inhabit, the age of
the Universe is coincidentally very close to the Hubble age.
Figure 4.6,
The value of Hubble parameter changes over time either increasing or decreasing depending
on the sign of the deceleration parameter q which is defined by,
(W.3)
In a Universe with a deceleration parameter equal to zero, it follows that H = 1 / t, where t is
the time since the Big-Bang. A non-zero, time-dependent value of q simply requires integration
of the Friedmann equations backwards from the present time to the time when the comoving
horizon size was zero.
It was long thought that q was positive, indicating that the expansion is slowing down due
to gravitational attraction. This would imply an age of the Universe less than 1 / H, for instance, a
value for q = (one theoretical possibility) would give the age of the Universe as 2/3H-1. The
discovery in 1998 that q is apparently negative means that the Universe could actually be older
than 1 / H. In-fact, independent estimates of the age of the Universe come out fairly close to
1/H.
Note: we may define the Hubble age (also known as the Hubble time or Hubble period) of
the Universe as 1 / H.
1.2.9.4 Olbers paradox
The expansion of space summarised by the Big-Bang interpretation of Hubbles Law is
relevant to the old conundrum known as Olbers' paradox: if the Universe were infinite, static, and
filled with a uniform distribution of stars (notice that this also requires an infinite number of stars),
then every line of sight in the sky would end on a star, and the sky would be as bright as the surface
of a star. However, the night sky is largely dark. Since the 1600s, astronomers and other thinkers
have proposed many possible ways to resolve this paradox, but the currently accepted resolution
81
depends in part upon the Big-Bang theory and in part upon the Hubble expansion.
In a Universe that exists for a finite amount of time, only the light of finitely many stars has
had a chance to reach us yet, and the paradox is resolved. Additionally, in an expanding Universe
distant objects recede from us, causing the light emanating from them to be red-shifted and
diminished in brightness. Both effects contribute (the red-shift being the more important of the two;
remember the original paradox was couched in terms of a static Universe) to the darkness of the
night sky, providing a kind of confirmation for the Hubble expansion of the Universe.
1.2.9.5 Measuring the Hubble constant
For most of the second half of the 20th century the value of H0 was estimated to be 5090(km/s/Mpc). The value of the Hubble constant was the topic of a long and rather bitter
controversy between Grard de Vaucouleurs who claimed the value was 80 and Allan Sandage who
claimed the value was 40. In 1996, a debate moderated by John Bahcall between Gustav Tammann
and Sidney van den Bergh was held in similar fashion to the earlier Shapley-Curtis debate over
these two competing values.
This difference was partially resolved with the introduction of the Lambda-CDM model of
the Universe in the late 1990s. With these model observations of high-red-shift clusters at X-ray
and microwave wavelengths using the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect, measurements of anisotropies in
the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), and optical surveys all gave a value of
around 70 for the constant.
In particular the Hubble Key Project (led by Dr. Wendy L. Freedman, Carnegie
Observatories) gave the most accurate optical determination in May 2001 with its final estimate of
72 8(km/s/Mpc), consistent with a measurement of H0 based upon Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect
observations of many Galaxy clusters having similar accuracy. The highest accuracy CMBR
determinations were 71 4(km/s/Mpc) by WMAP in 2003, and 70 +2.4/-3.2(km/s/Mpc) for
measurements up to 2006.
The consistency of the measurements from all three methods lends support to both the
measured value of H0 and the Lambda-CDM model. A value for q measured from standard
candle observations of Type Ia supernovae, which was determined in 1998 to be negative,
surprised many astronomers with the implication that the expansion of the Universe is currently
accelerating (although the Hubble factor is still decreasing with time).
In August 2006, using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, a team from NASA's Marshall
Space Flight Center (MSFC) found the Hubble constant to be 77(km/s/Mpc), with an uncertainty
of about 15(%).
Note: the Particle Data Group (PDG) estimate H0 to be 71(km/s/Mpc).
82
1.2.10 CMBR temperature
Figure 4.7: credit: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/,

83

1.2.10.1 Description
In Cosmology, the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), also referred as
relic radiation, is a form of ElectroMagnetic radiation discovered in 1965 that fills the entire
Universe. It has a thermal 2.725(K) Black-Body spectrum which peaks in the microwave range at
a frequency of 160.4(GHz), corresponding to a wavelength of 1.9(mm). Most cosmologists
consider this radiation to be the best evidence for the hot Big-Bang model of the Universe.
1.2.10.2 Features
The Cosmic Microwave Background is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the RootMean-Square (RMS) variations are only 18(K). The Far-Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer
(FIRAS) instrument on the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite has carefully
measured the spectrum of the CMBR. FIRAS compared the CMBR with a reference Black-Body
and no difference could be seen in their spectra.
Any deviations from the Black-Body form that might still remain undetected in the
CMBR spectrum over the wavelength range from 0.5 - 5(mm) must have a weighted RMS value
of (at most) 50 parts per million [0.005(%)] of the CMBR peak brightness. This made the CMBR
spectrum the most precisely measured Black-Body spectrum in nature.
The CMBR is a prediction of Big-Bang theory such that the early Universe was made up
of hot plasma of Photons, Electrons and Baryons. The Photons were constantly interacting with the
plasma through Thomson scattering. As the Universe expanded, adiabatic cooling (of which the
Cosmological red-shift is an on-going symptom) caused the plasma to cool until it became
favourable for Electrons to combine with Protons and form Hydrogen atoms.
This happened at around 3,000(K) or when the Universe was approximately 380,000 years
old. At this point, the Photons did not scatter off the neutral atoms and began to travel freely
through space. This process is called recombination or decoupling (referring to Electrons combining
with nuclei and to the decoupling of matter and radiation respectively).
The Photons have continued cooling ever since; they have now reached 2.725(K) and their
temperature will continue to drop as long as the Universe continues expanding. Accordingly, the
radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface, called the surface of last
scattering, from which the Photons that decoupled from interaction with matter in the early
Universe, 13.7 Billion years ago, are just now reaching observers on Earth.
The Big-Bang suggests that the CMBR fills all of observable space, and that most of the
radiation energy in the Universe is in the Cosmic Microwave Background, which only makes up a
small fraction of the total density of the Universe.
Two of the greatest successes of the Big-Bang theory are its prediction of its almost
perfect Big-Bang spectrum and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic
microwave background. The recent Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) has
precisely measured these anisotropies over the whole sky down to angular scales of 0.2.
These can be used to estimate the parameters of the standard Lambda-CDM model of the
Big-Bang. Some information, such as the shape of the Universe, can be obtained
straightforwardly from the CMBR, while others, such as the Hubble constant, are not constrained
and must be inferred from other measurements.
84
1.2.10.3 Relationship to the Big-Bang

1.2.10.3.1 General
The standard hot Big-Bang model of the Universe requires that the initial conditions for
the Universe are a Gaussian random field with a nearly scale invariant or Harrison-Zel'dovich
spectrum. This is, for example, a prediction of the cosmic inflation model. This means that the
initial state of the Universe is random, but in a clearly specified way such that meaningful
statements about the in-homogeneities in the Universe need to be statistical in nature. This leads to
cosmic variance in which the uncertainties in the variance of the largest scale fluctuations observed
in the Universe are difficult to accurately compare to theory.
1.2.10.3.2 Temperature
The CMBR and the Cosmological red-shift are together regarded as the best available
evidence for the Big-Bang theory. The discovery of the CMBR in the mid-1960s curtailed interest
in alternatives such as the steady state theory. The CMBR gives a snapshot of the Universe when,
according to standard Cosmology, the temperature dropped enough to allow Electrons and Protons
to form Hydrogen atoms, thus making the Universe transparent to radiation.
When it originated some 400,000 years after the Big-Bang this time period is generally
known as the time of last scattering or the period of recombination or decoupling the
temperature of the Universe was about 3,000(K). This corresponds to energy of about 0.25(eV),
which is much less than the 13.6(eV) ionization energy of Hydrogen. Since then, the temperature
of the radiation has dropped by a factor of roughly 1100 due to the expansion of the Universe.

Note: as the Universe expands, the CMBR Photons are red-shifted, making the CMBR temperature
inversely proportional to the Universes scale length.
85
1.2.10.3.3 Primary anisotropy

The anisotropy of the CMBR is divided into two sorts: primary anisotropy which is due to
effects which occur at the last scattering surface and before and secondary anisotropy which is
due to effects such as interactions with hot gas or gravitational potentials, between the last
scattering surface and the observer.
The structure of the CMBR anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic
oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collision-less damping or Silk damping). The
acoustic oscillations arise because of a competition in the Photon-Baryon plasma in the early
Universe. The pressure of the Photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational
attraction of the Baryons, moving at speeds << c, makes them tend to collapse to form dense
haloes. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations which give the microwave
background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which
the Photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude.
Figure 4.9: credit: http://pdg.lbl.gov/,

The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak
determines the curvature of the Universe (but not the topology of the Universe). The second peak
truly the ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks determines the reduced Baryon density. The
third peak can be used to extract information about the dark matter density.
The location of the peaks also gives important information about the nature of the primordial
density perturbations. There are two fundamental types of density perturbations called adiabatic
and isocurvature. A general density perturbation is a mixture of these two types and different
theories that purport to explain the primordial density perturbation spectrum predict different
mixtures.
For adiabatic density perturbations, the fractional over-density in each matter component
(Baryons, Photons etc.) is the same. That is, if there is 1(%) more energy in Baryons than average
in one location, then with pure adiabatic density perturbations there is also 1(%) more energy in
Photons and Neutrinos, than average. Cosmic inflation predicts that the primordial perturbations are
adiabatic.
86
With isocurvature density perturbations, the sum of the fractional over-densities is zero.
That is, a perturbation with 1(%) more energy in Baryons and Photons than average, and 2(%)
lower energy in Neutrinos than average, would be a pure isocurvature perturbation. Cosmic strings
would produce mostly isocurvature primordial perturbations.
The CMBR spectrum is able to distinguish between these two types of perturbations because
they produce different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations produce a series of peaks
whose angular scales are roughly in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 ..., while adiabatic density perturbations
produce peaks whose locations are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 .... Observations are consistent with the
primordial density perturbations being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and
ruling out many models of structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings.
Collision-less damping is caused by two effects when the treatment of the primordial plasma
as a fluid begins to break down:
i. The increasing mean free path of the Photons as the primordial plasma becomes
increasingly rarefied in an expanding Universe.
ii. The finite thickness of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path
to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still
occurring.
Note: these effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies on small scales, and
give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale
anisotropies.
The thickness of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the Photons and Baryons
does not happen instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of the
Universe up to that era. One method to quantify exactly how long this process took uses the Photon
Visibility Function (PVF). This function is defined so that, denoting the PVF by P(t), the
probability that a CMBR Photon last scattered between time t and t + dt is given by P(t)dt.
The maximum of the PVF (the time where it is most likely that a given CMBR Photon last
scattered) is known quite precisely. The first-year WMAP results put the time at which P(t) is
maximum as 372 +/- 14(kyr). This is often taken as the time at which the CMBR formed.
However, to figure out how long it took the Photons and Baryons to decouple, we need a measure
of the width of the PVF.
The WMAP team found that the PVF is greater than half of its maximum value (the full
width at half maximum, or FWHM) over an interval of 115 +/- 5(kyr). By this measure,
decoupling took place over roughly 115,000 years and when it was complete, the Universe was
roughly 487,000 years old.
1.2.10.3.4 Late time anisotropy
Since the Big-Bang, the CMBR was modified by several physical processes collectively
referred to as late-time anisotropy or secondary anisotropy. After the establishment of the CMBR,
ordinary matter in the Universe was mostly in the form of neutral Hydrogen and Helium atoms, but
from observations of Galaxies it seems that most of the volume of the Inter-Galactic Medium
(IGM) today consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to Hydrogen
atoms). This implies a period of reionization in which the material of the Universe breaks down into
Hydrogen ions.
The CMBR Photons scatter off free charges such as Electrons that are not bound in atoms.
In an ionized Universe, such Electrons have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing
(ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the
volume of the Universe that they do not measurably affect the CMBR. However, if the IGM was
ionized at very early times when the Universe was denser, then there are two main effects on the
CMBR:
87
i. Small scale anisotropies are erased (just as when looking at an object through fog, details
of the object appear fuzzy).
ii. The Physics of how Photons scatter off free Electrons (Thomson scattering) induces
polarisation anisotropies on large angular scales. This large angle polarisation is correlated
with the large angle temperature perturbation.
Note: both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP satellite, providing evidence that the
Universe was ionized at very early times.
Other effects that occur between reionization and our observation of the Cosmic Microwave
Background which cause anisotropies include the Sunyaev-Zeldovich Effect, such that a cloud of
high energy Electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some energy to the CMBR Photons and the
Sachs-Wolfe effect, thus causing Photons from the Cosmic Microwave Background to be
gravitationally red-shifted or blue-shifted due to changing gravitational fields.
1.2.10.3.5 Polarisation
The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few K. There are two
types of polarisation, called E-modes and B-modes. This is in analogy to Electrostatics in which the
Electric Field (E-field) has a vanishing curl and the Magnetic Field (B-field) has a vanishing
divergence. The E-modes arise naturally from Thomson scattering in in-homogeneous plasma. The
B-modes, which have not been measured and are thought to have an amplitude of (at most)
0.1(K), are not produced from the plasma Physics alone. They are a signal from cosmic inflation
and are determined by the density of primordial gravitational waves. Detecting the B-modes will be
extremely difficult, particularly given that the degree of foreground contamination is unknown and
weak gravitational lensing signal mixes the relatively strong E-mode signal with the B-mode signal.
1.2.10.4 Microwave background observations
Subsequent to the discovery of the CMBR, hundreds of Cosmic Microwave Background
experiments have been conducted to measure and characterise the signatures of the radiation. The
most famous experiment is probably the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite that
orbited in 19891996, which detected and quantified the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its
detection capabilities.
Inspired by the initial COBE results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous
background, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments quantified CMBR anisotropies on
smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments was to measure
the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have sufficient resolution.
These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic structure
formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory.
During the 1990s, the first peak was measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000, the
BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest power fluctuations occur at scales of
approximately 1. Together with other Cosmological data, these results implied that the geometry
of the Universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers provided measurements of the
fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the Very Small Array, Degree
Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI).
In June 2001, NASA launched a second CMBR space mission (WMAP) to make much
more precise measurements of the large scale anisotropies over the full sky. The first results from
this mission, disclosed in 2003, were detailed measurements of the angular power spectrum to
below degree scales, tightly constraining various Cosmological parameters. The results are broadly
consistent with those expected from cosmic inflation as well as various other competing theories,
and are available in detail at NASA's data center for CMBR.
88
Although WMAP provided very accurate measurements of the large angular-scale

fluctuations in the CMBR (structures about as large in the sky as the moon), it did not have the
angular resolution to measure the smaller scale fluctuations which had been observed using
previous ground-based interferometers.
Figure 4.10: WMAP - credit: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/,
Figure 4.11: CMBR history - credit: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/,

89
90
91
NOTES
92
2 Definition of Terms
2.1
Numbering conventions
2.2
References of the form 3.* refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3.

References of the form 4.* refer to Quinta Essentia Part 4.
Quinta Essentia Part 3
2.2.1 Alpha Forms x

An inversely proportional description of how energy density may result in acceleration.
2.2.2 Amplitude Spectrum
A family of wavefunction amplitudes.
The amplitudes associated with a frequency spectrum.
See: Frequency Spectrum.
2.2.3 Background Field
Reference to the background (ambient) gravitational field.
Reference to the local gravitational field at the surface of the Earth.
2.2.4 Bandwidth Ratio R
The ratio of the bandwidth of the ZPF spectrum to the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
2.2.5 Beta Forms x
A directly proportional description of how energy density may result in acceleration.
2.2.6 Buckingham Theory (BPT)
Arrangement of variables determined by DAT's into groupings. These groupings
represent sub-systems of dimensional similarity for scale relationships.
Minimises the number of experiments required to investigate phenomena.
See: DAT's.
2.2.7 Casimir Force FPP
Attractive (non-gravitational) force between two parallel and neutrally charged mirrored
plates of equal area.
2.2.8 Change in the Number of Modes nS
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off mode and the Mode Number at the Critical
Boundary as a function of the Critical Ratio.
See: Mode Number n.
See: Critical Ratio KR.
2.2.9 Compton Frequency Cx
The generalised definition of Compton frequency applied globally herein is:
Cx = mxc2 / h-bar = 2m
2 xc2/ h = 2c
2 2/ Cx.
This is the only equation in which the h-bar form of Planck's constant is used.
93
2.2.10 Cosmological Constant

A constant introduced into the equations of GR to facilitate a steady state Cosmological
solution.
See: General Relativity.
2.2.11 Critical Boundary
Represents the lower boundary (commencing at the ZPF beat cut-off frequency) of the
ZPF spectrum yielding a specific proportional similarity value.
See: Zero-Point-Field Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
2.2.12 Critical Factor KC
A proportional measure of the applied EM field intensity (or magnitude of Poynting
Vectors) within an experimental test volume.
The ratio of two experimentally determined relationship functions.
2.2.13 Critical Field Strengths EC and BC
RMS strength values of applied Electric and Magnetic fields for complete dynamic,
kinematic and geometric similarity with the background gravitational field.
See: Background Field.
2.2.14 Critical Frequency C
The minimum frequency for the application of Maxwell's Equations within an
experimental context.
2.2.15 Critical Harmonic Operator KR H
A representation of the Critical Ratio at ideal dynamic, kinematic and geometric
similarity utilising a unit amplitude spectrum.
2.2.16 Critical Mode NC
The ratio of the critical frequency to the fundamental harmonic frequency of the PV.
See: Critical Frequency C.
See: Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M)
2.2.17 Critical Phase Variance C
The difference in phase between applied Electric and Magnetic fields for complete
dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity with the background gravitational field.
2.2.18 Critical Ratio KR
A proportional indication of anticipated experimental configurations by any suitable
measure. Typically, this is the magnitude of the ratio of the applied EM experimental
fields to the ambient background gravitational field.
2.2.19 Curl
The limiting value of circulation per unit area.
2.2.20 DC-Offsets
A proportional value of applied RMS Electric and / or Magnetic fields acting to offset
the applied function/s.
94
2.2.21 Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DAT's)

Formal experimentally based research methods facilitating the derivation, from first
principles, of any number or combination of parameters considered important by an
experimentalist.
See: BPT.
2.2.22 Divergence
The rate at which density exits a given region of space.
2.2.23 Dominant Bandwidth
The bandwidth of the EGM spectrum which dominates gravitational effects.
See: Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum.
2.2.24 Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)
A method of calculation (not a theory) based upon energy density.
Being a calculation method, it does not favour or bias any particular theory in the
Standard Model of particle physics.
Developed as a tool for engineers to modify gravity.
The modification of vacuum polarisability based upon the superposition of EM fields.
2.2.25 Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM) Spectrum
A simple but extreme extension of the EM spectrum (including gravitational effects)
based upon a Fourier distribution.
2.2.26 Energy Density (General)
Energy per unit volume.
2.2.27 Engineered Metric
A metric tensor line element utilising the Engineered Refractive Index.
2.2.28 Engineered Refractive Index KEGM
An EM based engineered representation of the Refractive Index.
2.2.29 Engineered Relationship Function K0(,X)
A change in the Experimental Relationship Function resulting from a modification in the
local value of the magnitude of acceleration by similarity of applied EM fields to the
background gravitational field.
2.2.30 Experimental Prototype (EP)
Reference to the gravitational acceleration through a practical benchtop volume of
space-time in a laboratory at the surface of the Earth.
2.2.31 Experimental Relationship Function K0(,X)
A proportional scaling factor relating an experimental prototype (typically herein, it is
the local gravitational field or ambient physical conditions) to a mathematical model.
2.2.32 Fourier Spectrum
Two spectra combined into one (an amplitude spectrum and a frequency spectrum)
obeying a Fourier Series.
See: Amplitude Spectrum.
See: Frequency Spectrum.
95
2.2.33 Frequency Bandwidth PV

The bandwidth of the Fourier spectrum describing the PV.
See: Fourier Spectrum.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV).
2.2.34 Frequency Spectrum
A family of wavefunction frequencies.
The frequencies associated with an amplitude spectrum.
See: Amplitude Spectrum.
2.2.35 Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M)
The change in fundamental harmonic frequency of the PV across an elemental
displacement.
See: Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M).
2.2.36 Fundamental Harmonic Frequency PV(1,r,M)
The lowest frequency in the PV spectrum utilising Fourier harmonics.
2.2.37 General Modelling Equations (GMEx)
Proportional solutions to the Poisson and Lagrange equations resulting in acceleration.
2.2.38 General Relativity (GR)
The representation of space-time as a geometric manifold of events where gravitation
manifests itself as a curvature of space-time and is described by a metric tensor.
2.2.39 General Similarity Equations (GSEx)
Combines General Modelling Equations with the Critical Ratio by utilisation of the
Engineered Relationship Function.
2.2.40 Gravitons g
Conjugate Photon pairs responsible for gravitation. This is an inherent mathematical
conclusion arising from similarity modelling utilising a Fourier distribution in Complex
form and the PV model of gravity considerate of ZPF Theory (due to harmonic
symmetry about the 0th mode).
2.2.41 Graviton Mass-Energy Threshold mg
The upper boundary value of the mass-energy of a Graviton as defined by the Particle
Data Group.
2.2.42 Group Velocity
The velocity with which energy propagates.
2.2.43 Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency
The terminating frequency of the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
96
2.2.44 Harmonic Cut-Off Function

A mathematical function associated with the harmonic cut-off mode and frequency.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency .
2.2.45 Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n
The terminating mode of the Fourier spectrum of the PV.
2.2.46 Harmonic Inflection Mode NX
The mode at which the phase variance between the Electric and Magnetic wavefunctions
describing the PV in a classical Casimir experiment begins to alter dramatically.
A conjectured resonant mode of the PV in a classical Casimir experiment.
See: Casimir Force FPP.
2.2.47 Harmonic Inflection Frequency X
The frequency associated with the harmonic inflection mode.
See: Harmonic Inflection Mode NX.
2.2.48 Harmonic Inflection Wavelength X
The wavelength associated with the harmonic inflection frequency.
2.2.49 Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx)
A harmonic representation of General Similarity Equations utilising the Critical
Harmonic Operator.
A family of equations defined by relating the experimental prototype to a mathematical
model (General Similarity Equations).
See: Critical Harmonic Operator KR H.
See: General Similarity Equations (GSEx).
2.2.50 IFF
If and only if.
2.2.51 Impedance Function
A measure of the ratio of the permeability to the permittivity of a vacuum.
Resistance to energy transfer through a vacuum.
2.2.52 Kinetic Spectrum
Another term for the ZPF spectrum.
See: ZPF Spectrum.
2.2.53 Mode Bandwidth
The modes associated with a frequency bandwidth.
2.2.54 Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) n
The ratio of the Critical Boundary frequency to the fundamental frequency of the PV.
The harmonic mode associated with the Critical Boundary frequency.
97
2.2.55 Number of Permissible Modes Nr

The number of modes permitted for the application of Maxwell's Equations within an
experimental context, based upon the harmonic cut-off frequency.
2.2.56 Phenomena of Beats
The interference between two waves of slightly different frequencies.
2.2.57 Photon Mass-Energy Threshold m
The upper boundary value of the mass-energy of a Photon as defined by the Particle
Data Group.
2.2.58 Polarisable Vacuum (PV)
The polarized state of the Zero-Point-Field due to mass influence.
Characterised by a Refractive Index.
Obeys a Fourier distribution.
A bandwidth of the EGM Spectrum.
See: Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM).
2.2.59 Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth
The change in harmonic cut-off frequency across an elemental displacement.
See: Phenomena of Beats.
2.2.60 Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum
Another term for the Fourier spectrum applied by EGM to describe the PV harmonically.
A bandwidth of the EGM Spectrum.
See. Fourier Spectrum.
2.2.61 Potential Spectrum
Another term for the PV spectrum.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Spectrum.
2.2.62 Poynting Vector
Describes the direction and magnitude of EM energy flow.
The cross product of the Electric and Magnetic field.
2.2.63 Precipitations
Results driven by the application of limits.
2.2.64 Primary Precipitant
The frequency domain precipitation.
See: Precipitations.
98
2.2.65 Radii Calculations by Electro-Gravi-Magnetics (EGM)

Radii calculations by EGM represent the radial position of energetic equilibrium
between the energy density of a homogeneous spherical mass with the ZPF.
The radii predictions calculated by EGM coincide with the RMS charge radii of all
charged fundamental particles.
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF).
2.2.66 Range Factor St
The product of the change in energy density and the Impedance Function.
An at-a-glance tool indicating the boundaries of the applied energy requirements for
complete dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity with the background field.
See: Energy Density.
See: Impedance Function.
2.2.67 Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)
See: 2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations.
2.2.68 Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSEx R)
A simplification of the Harmonic Similarity Equations by substitution of RMS
expressions for the time varying representations of applied Electric and Magnetic field
harmonics.
A simplification of the Harmonic Similarity Equations facilitating the investigation of
the effects of phase variance [on a modal (per mode) basis].
2.2.69 Refractive Index KPV
Characterisation value of the PV.
2.2.70 Representation Error RError
Error associated with the mathematical representation of a physical system.
2.2.71 RMS Charge Radii (General)
The RMS charge radius refers to the RMS value of the charge distribution curve.
2.2.72 RMS Charge Radius of the Neutron r
The RMS charge radius of a Neutron r is so termed by analogy to the Neutron Mean
Square charge radius KX which is typically represented as a squared length quantity
fm2. Therefore, the dimensional square root of KX represents r by analogy.
r represents the cross-over radius (the node) on the Neutron charge distribution curve.
2.2.73 Similarity Bandwidth S
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off frequency and the critical boundary
frequency.
A measure of similarity between the background gravitational field spectrum and the
applied field frequencies (commencing at the ZPF beat cut-off frequency).
See: Critical Boundary .
See: Zero-Point-Field Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
99
2.2.74 Spectral Energy Density 0()

Energy density per frequency mode.
2.2.75 Spectral Similarity Equations (SSEx)
A representation of the complete spectrum of the PV utilising the 2nd Reduction of the
Harmonic Similarity Equations by application of similarity principles.
2.2.76 Subordinate Bandwidth
The EM spectrum.
See: Dominant Bandwidth.
2.2.77 Unit Amplitude Spectrum
A harmonic representation of unity (the number one) utilising the amplitude spectrum of
a Fourier distribution.
2.2.78 Zero-Point-Energy (ZPE)
The lowest possible energy of the space-time manifold described in quantum terms.
2.2.79 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF)
The field associated with ZPE.
2.2.80 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Spectrum
The spectrum of amplitudes and frequencies associated with the ZPF.
2.2.81 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF
The difference between the ZPF beat cut-off frequency and the fundamental beat
frequency.
See: Fundamental Beat Frequency r(1,r,r,M).
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF.
2.2.82 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Frequency ZPF
The terminating frequency of the ZPF spectrum across an elemental displacement.
2.2.83 Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Cut-Off Mode n ZPF
The terminating mode of the ZPF spectrum across an elemental displacement.
2.2.84 1st Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the ZPF beat bandwidth to the Compton frequency of an
Electron.
See: Compton Frequency Cx.
See: Zero-Point-Field (ZPF) Beat Bandwidth ZPF.
2.2.85 2nd Reduction of the Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R)
A time averaged simplification of the Reduced Harmonic Similarity Equations.
2.2.86 2nd Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the PV beat bandwidth to the Compton frequency of an
Electron.
See: Polarisable Vacuum (PV) Beat Bandwidth .
100
2.2.87 3rd Sense Check St

A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off mode across an elemental
displacement.
See: Harmonic Cut-Off Mode n.
2.2.88 4th Sense Check St
A common sense test relating the representation error across an elemental displacement.
See: Representation Error RError.
A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off frequency of a Proton to the
Compton frequency of a Proton.
A common sense test relating the harmonic cut-off frequency of a Neutron to the
Compton frequency of a Neutron.
2.2.91 Physical Constants
Symbol
c
G
0
0
h
h-bar
Ce
CP
CN
C
C
me
mp
mn
m
m
re
rp
h
mh
th
h
eV
Description
Fine Structure Constant
Universal Gravitation Constant
Permittivity of a vacuum
Permeability of a vacuum
Planck's Constant
Planck's Constant (2 form)
Electron Compton Wavelength
Proton Compton Wavelength
Neutron Compton Wavelength
Muon Compton Wavelength
Tau Compton Wavelength
Electron rest mass
Proton rest mass
Neutron rest mass
Muon rest mass
Tau rest mass
Classical Electron radius
Classical Proton RMS charge radius
Planck Length
Planck Mass
Planck Time
Planck Frequency
Electron Volt
101
NIST value utilised by EGM

7.297352568 x10-3
299792458
6.6742 x10-11
8.854187817 x10-12
4 x10-7
6.6260693 x10-34
1.05457168 x10-34
Units
None
m/s
m3kg-1s-2
F/m
N/A2
Js
= h / (me,p,n,, c)
9.1093826 x10-31
1.67262171 x10-27
1.67492728 x10-27
1.88353140 x10-28
3.16777 x10-27
2.817940325 x10-15
0.8750 x10-15
= (Gh/c3)
= (hc/G)
= (Gh/c5)
= 1/th
1.60217653 x10-19
kg
kg
s
Hz
J
2.2.92 Mathematical Constants and Symbols

Euler-Mascheroni Constant (Euler's Constant) [33] = 0.5772156649015328
Refers to an intersection.
Refers to a union.
Or refers to a process: leads to.
2.2.93 Solar System Statistics
Symbol
MM
ME
MJ
MS
RM
RE
RJ
RS
Description
Mass of the Moon
Mass of the Earth
Mass of Jupiter
Mass of the Sun
Mean Radius of the Moon
Mean Radius of the Earth
Mean Radius of Jupiter
Mean Radius of the Sun
Value utilised by EGM Units

kg
7.35 x1022
5.977 x1024
1898.8 x1024
1.989 x1030
m
1.738 x106
6.37718 x106
7.1492 x107
6.96 x108
NOTES
102
2.3
2.3.1 Big-Bang
The moment of Cosmological creation.
The explosion of space-time at the moment of Cosmological creation.
2.3.2 Black-Hole BH
A massive gravitational body such that light cannot escape.
See: Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH.
2.3.3 Broadband Propagation
The propagation of the EGM wavefunctions in the PV spectrum, at a group velocity of zero.
2.3.4 Buoyancy Point
The point of gravitational acceleration balance (neutrality) between the Earth and the Moon.
2.3.5 CMBR Temperature T0
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature.
See: EGM-CMBR Temperature TU.
2.3.6 EGM-CMBR Temperature TU
Derivation of the CMBR temperature by the EGM method.
See: CMBR Temperature T0.
2.3.7 EGM Flux Intensity C_J
The flux intensity of gravitational energy expressed in Jansky's.
Formulated by considering celestial objects as point radiation sources of a high frequency
EGM wavefunction.
2.3.8 EGM Hubble constant HU
Derivation of the Hubble constant by the EGM method.
See: Hubble Constant H0.
2.3.9
Event Horizon RBH

Refers to RBH of a SBH.
The radial displacement from the centre of a SBH from which light cannot escape.
See: Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH.
2.3.10 Galactic Reference Particle GRP

The total mass / energy of any Galactic formation represented as a particle with dimensions
approaching the Planck scale.
2.3.11 Gravitational Interference
The formation of interference patterns from either broadband or narrowband EGM
wavefunction propagation between two or more gravitational fields.
2.3.12 Gravitational Propagation
See: Broadband Propagation.
See: Narrowband Propagation.
103
2.3.13 Hubble Constant H0

A measure of the rate of Cosmological expansion.
See: EGM Hubble constant HU.
2.3.14 Narrowband Propagation
An approximation of Broadband characteristics.
See: Broadband Propagation.
2.3.15
Non-Physical
Situations where n is less than unity.
See: n, Quinta Essentia Part 3.
See: Physical.
2.3.16
Physical
Situations where n is greater than or equal to unity.
See: Non-Physical.
2.3.17 Primordial Universe

The Universe prior to the Big-Bang.
The Universe at the instant prior to the Big-Bang.
2.3.18 Schwarzschild-Black-Hole SBH
A static Black-Hole.
The simplest form of Black-Hole.
2.3.19 Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole SPBH
A SBH of maximum permissible energy density existing at the Planck scale such that the
singularity and event horizon radii coincide.
The value of harmonic cut-off mode n at the periphery is unity.
The minimum physical radius is xh.
The minimum physical mass is mxmh.
2.3.20 Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle
Generalised reference to a SPBH.
2.3.21 Singularity
The maximum permissible energy density at the centre of a SBH, represented as a particle.
The particle representation (or mathematical point) at the centre of a SBH for which
physical laws are unknown to apply.
2.3.22 Singularity Radius rS
The radius of the singularity at the centre of a SBH.
2.3.23 Solar Mass
The mass of the Sun.
104
2.3.24 Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH

A BH of greater than 109 solar masses.
See: Black-Hole BH.
2.3.25 Total Mass-Energy
Refers to visible + dark.
2.3.26 Astronomical / Cosmological statistics
Symbol
DE2M
H0
MG
MG/3
MNS
RNS
Ro
T0
Description
Mean Earth-Moon distance
Hubble constant (present value)
Total Galactic mass
Visible Galactic mass
Mass of Neutron Star
Mean Radius of a Neutron Star
Mean distance to Galactic centre
CMBR temperature (present value)
Value utilised by EGM

3.844 x108
71
6 x1011MS
2 x1011MS
MS
20
8
2.725
Units
m
km/s/Mpc
kg
km
kpc
K
NOTES
105
NOTES
106
3 Glossary of Terms
3.1
3.1.1 Acronyms
BNL
BPT
CCFR
CERN
CHARM-II
D0C
DAT
DELPHI
DONUT
E734
EGM
EM
EP
ERF
FNAL
FS
GME1
GME2
GMEx
GPE
GR
GSE1
GSE2
GSE3
GSE4
GSE5
GSEx
HERA
HSE1
HSE2
HSE3
HSE4
HSE5
HSEx
IFF
IHEP
INFN
LANL
LEP
LHS
MCYT
Brookhaven National Laboratory

Buckingham Theory
Chicago Columbia Fermi-Lab Rochester
European Organisation for Nuclear Research
Experiment: study of Neutrino-Electron scattering at CERN
D-Zero Collaboration: an international research effort of leading scientists utilising
facilities at FNAL in Illinois, USA
Dimensional Analysis Techniques
Detector with Lepton, Photon and Hadron Identification
Experiment: a search for direct evidence of the Tau Neutrino at Fermi-Lab
Experiment: a measurement of the elastic scattering of Neutrino's from Electrons and
Protons (at BNL)
Electro-Gravi-Magnetics: a mathematical method based upon the modification of the
vacuum polarisability by the superposition of EM fields
ElectroMagnetic
Experimental Prototype
Experimental Relationship Function
Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FERMI-LAB)
Fourier Series
General Modelling Equation One
General Modelling Equation Two
Generalised reference to GME1 and GME2
Gravitational Potential Energy
General Relativity
General Similarity Equation One
General Similarity Equation Two
General Similarity Equation Three
General Similarity Equation Four
General Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to GSE1, GSE2, GSE3, GSE4 or GSE5
Hadron Electron Ring Accelerator in Hamburg, Germany
Harmonic Similarity Equation One
Harmonic Similarity Equation Two
Harmonic Similarity Equation Three
Harmonic Similarity Equation Four
Harmonic Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to HSE1, HSE2, HSE3, HSE4 or HSE5
If and only if
Institute of High Energy Physics
National Institute of Nuclear Physics (Italy)
Los Alamos National Laboratories
Large Electron-Positron storage ring
Left hand side
Ministry of Science and Technology (Spain)
107
MEXT
MS
NIST
NuTeV
PDG
PV
RFBR
RHS
RMS
SK
SLAC
SNO
SSE1
SSE2
SSE3
SSE4
SSE5
SSEx
TRISTAN
US NSF
USDoE
ZC
ZPF
Ministry of Science (Japan)

Mean Square
National Institute of Standards & Technology
Neutrino's at the Tevatron
Particle Data Group: an international research effort of leading scientists
Polarisable Vacuum
Russian Foundation for Basic Research
Right hand side
Root Mean Square
Super-Kamiokande Collaboration
Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory
Spectral Similarity Equation One
Spectral Similarity Equation Two
Spectral Similarity Equation Three
Spectral Similarity Equation Four
Spectral Similarity Equation Five
Generalised reference to SSE1, SSE2, SSE3, SSE4 or SSE5
Particle collider at the Japanese High Energy Physics Laboratory (KEK)
United States National Science Foundation
United States Department of Energy
ZEUS Collaboration: an international research effort of leading scientists utilising
facilities at HERA
Zero-Point-Field
NOTES
108
3.1.2 Symbols in alphabetical order

Symbol
A
a
a1
a2
APP
ax(t)
a
Description
1st Harmonic term
Magnitude of acceleration vector
Acceleration with respect to General Modelling Equation One
Acceleration with respect to General Modelling Equation Two
Parallel plate area of a Classical Casimir Experiment
Arbitrary acceleration in the time domain
Mean magnitude of acceleration over the fundamental period in a FS
representation in EGM
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector
B
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity:
Ch. 3.2
Amplitude of applied Magnetic field: Ch. 3.6
B0
Magnitude of Magnetic field vector (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of applied Magnetic field vector
BA
Critical Magnetic field strength
BC
Magnitude
of PV Magnetic field vector
BPV
Bottom Quark: elementary particle in the SM
bq
Root Mean Square of BA
Brms
c
Velocity of light in a vacuum (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.1
Velocity of light (locally) in the PV model of gravity
c0
Amplitude of fundamental frequency of PV (nPV = 1)
CPV(1,r,M)
CPV(nPV,r,M) Amplitude spectrum of PV
Charm Quark: elementary particle in the SM
cq
Common difference
D
Experimental configuration factor: a specific value relating all design
criteria; this includes, but not limited to, field harmonics, field orientation,
physical dimensions, wave vector, spectral frequency mode and
instrumentation or measurement accuracy
Offset function
DC
Down Quark: elementary particle in the SM
dq
Energy: Ch. 3.3
E
Magnitude of Electric field vector
Magnitude of Electric field vector (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity:
Ch. 3.2
Electronic energy level
Charge
e, e
Electron: subatomic / elementary particle in the SM
Exponential function: mathematics
Amplitude of applied Electric field: Ch. 3.6
E0
Energy (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of Electric field vector (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Magnitude of applied Electric field vector
EA
Critical Electric field strength
EC
Magnitude
of PV Electric field vector
EPV
Root Mean Square of EA
Erms
F(k,n,t) Complex FS representation of EGM
109
Units
m/s2
m2
m/s2
T
m/s
m/s2
%
J
V/m
J
C
V/m
J
V/m
m/s2
Magnitude of the ambient gravitational acceleration represented in the time

m/s2
domain
Amplitude spectrum / distribution of F(k,n,t)
F0(k)
The Casimir Force by classical representation
N
FPP
The Casimir Force by EGM
FPV
Gluon: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
g
Magnitude of gravitational acceleration vector
m/s2
Universal Gravitation Constant
m3kg-1s-2
G
Tensor element
g00
Tensor element
g11
Tensor element
g22
Tensor element
g33
Height: Ch. 3.4
m
h
Higgs Boson: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
H
Hydrogen
Magnetic field strength
Oe
Plancks Constant (plain h form)
Js
h
h-bar
Plancks Constant (2 form)
HSE4A R Time average form of HSE4 R
HSE5A R Time average form of HSE5 R
Generalised reference to the reduced form of HSEx
HSEx R
Complex number
i
Initial condition
Macroscopic intensity of Photons within a test volume
W/m2
In,P
Vector current density
A/m2
J
Wave vector
1/m
k
K0(r,X) ERF by displacement domain precipitation
Generalised ERF
K0(X)
K0(
,r,E,B,X) ERF by wavefunction precipitation
K0(
,X) ERF by frequency domain precipitation
K0(
PV,r,EPV,BPV,X) ERF equivalent to K0(,r,E,B,X)
ERF formed by re-interpretation of the primary precipitant
(V/m)2
K1
ERF formed by re-interpretation of the primary precipitant
T-2
K2
Harmonic wave vector of applied field
1/m
kA
Critical
Factor
KC
Pa
Engineered Refractive Index
KEGM
Harmonic form of KEGM
KEGM H
Experimentally implicit Planck Mass scaling factor
Km
The intensity of the background PV field at specific frequency modes
W/m2
Kn,P
A refinement of a constant in FPP
KP
Harmonic wave vector of PV
1/m
kPV
Refractive Index of PV
KPV
Harmonic form of KPV
KPV H
Critical Ratio
KR
Critical harmonic operator (based upon the unit amplitude spectrum)
KR H
Neutron MS charge radius by EGM
m2
KS
Neutron MS charge radius (determined experimentally) in the SM
KX
Experimentally implicit Planck Length scaling factor
K
Experimentally implicit Planck Frequency scaling factor
K
Length
m
L
f(t)
110
L0
L2
L3
L5
M
m0
M0
mAMC
mbq
mcq
mdq
me
ME
men
mgg
mH
mh
MJ
mL(2)
mL(3)
mL(5)
MM
mn
mp
mQB(5)
mQB(6)
MS
msq
mtq
muq
mW
mx
mZ
m
m
mg
m
m
mn
m
mn
n
n, N
nA
nB
NC
nE
nPV
nq
NT
Length (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM

Theoretical elementary particle (Lepton) by EGM
Mass
Mass (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Zero mass (energy) condition of free space
Atomic Mass Constant
Bottom Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Charm Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Down Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Electron rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Mass of the Earth
Electron Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Graviton rest mass (energy) by EGM
Higgs Boson rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Planck Mass
Mass of Jupiter
Rest mass (energy) of the L2 particle by EGM
Mass of the Moon
Neutron rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Proton rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Rest mass (energy) of the QB5 particle by EGM
Rest mass (energy) of the QB6 particle by EGM
Mass of the Sun
Strange Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
Top Quark rest mass (energy) according (energy) to PDG
Up Quark rest mass (energy) by EGM
W Boson rest mass according (energy) to PDG
Imaginary particle mass
Z Boson rest mass according (energy) to PDG
Electron rest mass (energy) in high energy scattering experiments
Photon rest mass (energy) threshold according to PDG
Graviton rest mass (energy) threshold according to PDG
Photon rest mass (energy) by EGM
Muon rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Muon Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Tau rest mass (energy) according to NIST
Tau Neutrino rest mass (energy) according to PDG
Neutron: subatomic particle in the SM
Field harmonic (harmonic frequency mode)
Harmonic frequency modes of applied field
Harmonic mode number of the ZPF with respect to BA
Critical mode
Harmonic mode number of the ZPF with respect to EA
Harmonic frequency modes of PV
Quantum number
Number of terms
111
kg or eV
NTR
NX
Nr
n
n ZPF
n
P
p
Q, Qe
QB5
QB6
r
r0
rBohr
rBoson
rbq
rc
rcq
rdq
re
RE
ren
RError
rgg
rH
RJ
rL
RM
rp
rQB
RS
rsq
rtq
ru
ruq
rW
rx
rxq
rZ
r
r
r
rn
r
The ratio of the number of terms

Harmonic inflection mode
Permissible mode bandwidth of applied experimental fields
Harmonic cut-off mode of PV
ZPF beat cut-off mode
Mode Number (Critical Boundary Mode) of
Polarisation vector
Proton: subatomic particle in the SM
Magnitude of Electric charge
Theoretical elementary particle (Quark or Boson) by EGM
Theoretical elementary particle (Quark or Boson) by EGM
Arbitrary radius with homogeneous mass (energy) distribution
Generalised notation for length (e.g. r /2): Ch. 3.1
Generalised notation for length (locally) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.1
Magnitude of position vector from centre of spherical object with
homogeneous mass (energy) distribution
Reciprocal of the wave number: Ch. 3.1
Length (locally) in the PV model of gravity
Classical Bohr radius
Generalised RMS charge radius of a Boson by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Bottom Quark by EGM
Transformed value of generalised length (locally) in the PV model of gravity
RMS charge radius of the Charm Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Down Quark by EGM
Classical Electron radius in the SM
Mean radius of the Earth
RMS charge radius of the Electron Neutrino by EGM
Representation Error
RMS charge radius of the Graviton by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Higgs Boson utilising ru
Mean radius of Jupiter
Average RMS charge radii of the r, r and r particles
Mean radius of the Moon
Classical RMS charge radius of the Proton in the SM
Average RMS charge radius of the QB5 / QB6 particles by EGM utilising ru
Mean radius of the Sun
RMS charge radius of the Strange Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Top Quark by EGM
Heisenberg uncertainty range
RMS charge radius of the Up Quark by EGM
RMS charge radius of the W Boson utilising ru
Bohr radius by EGM
Generalised RMS charge radius of all Quarks as determined by the ZC
within the SM
RMS charge radius of the Z Boson by utilising ru
RMS charge radius of the Electron by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Photon by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Muon by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Muon Neutrino by EGM
Neutron RMS charge radius (by analogy to KS)
112
C/m2
C
%
m
RMS charge radius of the 2 particle by EGM

Neutron Magnetic radius by EGM
Generalised reference to r2, r3 and r5
RMS charge radius of the Proton by EGM
Proton Electric radius by EGM
Proton Magnetic radius by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Tau by EGM
RMS charge radius of the Tau Neutrino by EGM
Rydberg Constant
Poynting Vector
Strange Quark: elementary particle in the SM
nth Harmonic term
Range factor
1st Sense check
3rd Sense check
4th Sense check
2nd Sense check
5th Sense check
6th Sense check
A positive integer value representing the harmonic cut-off frequency ratio
between two proportionally similar mass (energy) systems
Poynting Vector of PV
S
Time
t
Top Quark: elementary particle in the SM
tq
Initial state GPE per unit mass described by any appropriate method
Ug
Harmonic form of Ug
Ug H
Rest mass-energy density
Um
Up Quark: elementary particle in the SM
uq
Field energy density of PV
U
Local value of the velocity of light in a vacuum
vc
W Boson: elementary particle in the SM
W
All variables within the experimental environment that influence results and
X
behaviour including parameters that might otherwise be neglected due to
practical calculation limitations, in theoretical analysis
Impedance function
Z
Z Boson: elementary particle in the SM
Change in electronic energy level
Change in the magnitude of the local PV acceleration vector

aPV
Change in magnitude of the local gravitational acceleration vector
g
GME1 Change in GME1
GME2 Change in GME2
GMEx Generalised reference to changes in GME1 and GME2
Harmonic form of K0
K0 H
K0(
,X) Engineered Relationship Function by EGM
Change in K1 by EGM
K1
Change in K2 by EGM
K2
Change in Critical Factor by EGM
KC
r2
r3
r5
rM
rx
r
rE
rM
r
rn
R
S
sq
StN
St
St
St
St
St
St
St
St
113
J
W/m2
Pa
W/m2
s
(m/s)2
Pa
Pa
m/s
J
m/s2
(V/m)2
T-2
Pa
nS
r
t
t0
Ug
UPV
v
vr
PV
r
PV
R
S
ZPF
H
HR
1
x
1
x
0
C
gg
Ce
CN
CP
h
Change in the number of ZPF modes

Plate separation of a Classical Casimir Experiment
Practical changes in benchtop displacement values
Change in time (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Change in time (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Change in Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) per unit mass induced by
any suitable source
Change in energy density of gravitational field
Change in rest mass-energy density
Terminating group velocity of PV
Group velocity of PV
Change in the local value of the Cosmological Constant by EGM
Change in harmonic cut-off wavelength of PV
Change in harmonic wavelength of PV
Frequency bandwidth of PV
Bandwidth ratio
Similarity bandwidth
ZPF beat bandwidth
Beat bandwidth of PV
Beat frequency of PV
Dimensional grouping derived by application of BPT
The sum of terms
The ratio of the sum of terms
Harmonic cut-off function of PV
An inversely proportional description of how energy density may result in an
acceleration: Ch. 3.2
Fine Structure Constant
The subset formed, as N , by the method of incorporation
Generalised reference to 1 and 2
A directly proportional description of how energy density may result in an
acceleration
The subset formed, as N , by the method of incorporation
Generalised reference to 1 and 2
Permittivity of a vacuum
Relative phase variance between EA and BA
Critical phase variance
RMS charge diameter of the Graviton by EGM
RMS charge diameter of the Photon by EGM
Mathematical Constant: Euler-Mascheroni (Eulers) Constant
Photon: elementary particle in the SM
Graviton: theoretical elementary particle in the SM
Wavelength
1st term of the Balmer Series by EGM
Classical Balmer Series wavelength
Electron Compton Wavelength
Neutron Compton Wavelength
Proton Compton Wavelength
Planck Length
114
m
s
(m/s)2
Pa
m/s
Hz2
m
Hz
Hz
m/s2
m/s2
F/m
c
m
PV
,
0
2
3
5
e
0
,
Wavelength of PV
Muon: elementary particle in the SM
Reduced mass of Hydrogen
Permeability of a vacuum
Theoretical elementary Neutrino of the L2 particle by EGM
Electron Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Muon Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Tau Neutrino: elementary particle in the SM
Charge density
Spectral energy density
Tau: elementary particle in the SM
Field frequency
Field frequency (at infinity) in the PV model of gravity: Ch. 3.2
Field frequency (locally) in the PV model of gravity
0
Field frequency (locally) in the PV model of gravity by EGM
Harmonic frequency of the ZPF with respect to BA
B
Critical frequency
C
Harmonic
frequency of the ZPF with respect to EA
E
Electron Compton Frequency
Ce
Neutron Compton Frequency
CN
Proton Compton Frequency
CP
Planck Frequency
h
Generalised reference to PV(nPV,r,M)
PV
Fundamental frequency of PV (nPV = 1)
PV(1,r,M)
Frequency
spectrum of PV
PV(nPV,r,M)
Harmonic inflection frequency
X
Harmonic cut-off frequency of PV
ZPF
beat cut-off frequency
ZPF
Critical boundary
mQuark Average mass (energy) of all Quarks according to PDG

Average mass (energy) of all Quarks by EGM
Average RMS charge radius of all Bosons in the SM utilising ru
rBoson
Average RMS charge radius of all Quarks by EGM
rQuark
Average RMS charge radius of all Quarks and Bosons by EGM utilising ru
r
m
kg or eV
N/A2
C/m3
Pa/Hz
Hz
kg or eV
m
NOTES
115
3.2
3.2.1 Acronyms
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Acronyms where appropriate.
BH
CMBR
DAT
ED
EFT
EP
GA
GRP
GUT
HEP
LFT
MW
NASA
QED
QFT
QM
RF
SBH
SED
SM
SMBH
SPBH
ST
ToE
VP
ZP
ZPE
Black-Hole
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
Dimensional Analysis Technique
Electro-Dynamics
Effective Field Theory
Experimental Prototype
Gravitational Astronomy
Galactic Reference Particle
Grand Unified Theory
High Energy Physics
Lattice Field Theory
Milky-Way
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Quantum Electro Dynamics
Quantum Field Theory
Quantum Mechanics
Radio Frequency
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole
Spectral Energy Density
Standard Model of Particle-Physics or Cosmology
Super-Massive-Black-Hole
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole
String Theory
Theory of Everything
Virtual Photon
Zero-Point
Zero-Point-Energy
NOTES
116
3.2.2 Symbols by chapter
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Symbols in alphabetical order where appropriate.
Symbol
aEGM_
C_J
C_J1
n_1
Stg
StG
StJ
S
1
_1
_2
_3
Chapter 5: Characterisation of the Gravitational Spectrum

Description
Gravitational acceleration utilising _2
EGM Flux Intensity
Non-refractive form of C_J
Non-refractive form of n
1st EGM gravitational constant: Stg = 1.828935 x10245
2nd EGM gravitational constant: StG = 8.146982 x10224
3rd EGM gravitational constant: StJ9 = 1.093567 x10-146(kg4m26/s18)
Approximated / simplified Poynting Vector
Non-refractive form of
Gravitational acceleration form of _1
Transformed representation of _1
Units
m/s2
Jy (Jansky)
m-1s-5
m5kg-2s-9
(kg4m26/s18)(1/9)
W/m2
Hz
Chapter 6: Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole Characteristics

Symbol Description
Units
Propagation energy of a Graviton
J
Eg
Ex
Proportional relationship between Eg and E
Propagation energy of a Photon
J
E
Hz
H0
Refractive Index of PV by Depp
KDepp
Planck scale experimental relationship function
Kh
Generalised mass
kg
M1
Generalised mass
M2
Mass of a SBH
MBH
2nd SPBH constant
mx
nBH
Harmonic cut-off mode ratio (n_5 : n_4)
ng
Average number of Gravitons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
Population of Gravitons within starving matter
ngg
Transformed representation of n_1
n_2
The form n_2 takes as a function of x
n_3
n_1 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
n_4
n_1 at the event horizon of a SBH
n_5
Average number of Photons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
n
Population of Photons within starving matter
n
Hubble size (present value)
m
r0
Generalised radial displacement
r1
r2
Radius of the event horizon of a SBH
RBH
Range variable for SBHs
Rbh
Singularity radius
rS
ZPF equilibrium radius
rZPF
Distance from the centre of mass of a celestial object to the Earth
r
Average emission period per Graviton
s
Tg
117
TL
T_3
T_4
V
KPV
r
VL
x
X-RAY
m
S
BH
g
PV_1
X-RAY
_4
_5
_6
_7
Minimum gravitational lifetime of matter

1 / _3
1 / _4
Volume
Change in Refractive Index of PV
Change in displacement within the event horizon of a SBH
Wavelength of visible light
1st SPBH constant
Wavelength of X-Rays
Mass density
Mass density of a SPBH
Harmonic cut-off frequency ratio (_5 : _4)
Average Graviton emission frequency (1 / Tg)
Fundamental harmonic frequency ratio (_6 : _7)
Frequency of X-Rays
_3 at the event horizon of a SBH
_3 at the periphery of a SBH singularity
PV(1,r,MBH) at the periphery of a SBH singularity: r = rS(MBH)
PV(1,r,MBH) at the event horizon of a SBH: r = RBH(MBH)
m3
m
m
kg/m3
Hz
Hz
Chapter 7: Fundamental Cosmology

Symbol
AU
H
HU
HU2
H
KT
KU
KW
M3
Mf
MG
mg1
mg2
mg3
mg4
mg5
Mi
MU
r3
rf
ri
Ro
RU
rx1
rx2
rx3
rx4
Description
EGM Cosmological age (present value)
Generalised reference to the Hubble constant
EGM Hubble constant
Transformed representation of HU
Primordial Hubble constant
Expansive scaling factor
rf / ri
Wien displacement constant: 2.8977685 x10-3 [35]
Generalised mass or mxmh
Total Cosmological mass (present value)
Total mass of the Milky-Way Galaxy
Computational pre-factor
Total Cosmological mass (initial value)
Total EGM Cosmological mass
Generalised radial displacement or xh
Cosmological size (present value)
Cosmological size (initial value)
Distance from the Sun to the Galactic centre
EGM Cosmological size (present value)
118
Units
s
Hz
mK
kg
kg
m
pc (parsec)
m
rx5
T0
TU
TU2
TW
UZPF
Ro
T0
EGM
m
PDG
ZPF
y
_3
c
U
U2
CMBR temperature by the EGM method
Transformed representation of TU
Thermodynamic scaling factor
ZPF energy density threshold
Experimental tolerance of Ro
Experimental tolerance of T0
Community reference to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the EGM method
Visible mass contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the PDG
ZPE contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Dark energy contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Photon contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Neutrino contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Generalised representation of x
c / _3
Community reference to Cosmological mass-density
Critical Cosmological mass-density
EGM Cosmological mass-density
Transformed representation of U
Pa
pc
K
m
kg/m3
Chapter 8: Advanced Cosmology

Symbol
C_J
dH2dt2
dHdt
dT2dt2
dT3dt3
dTdt
H
H2
H
MEGM
ML
REGM
rL
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
t7
tEGM
Description
Equal to C_J
2nd time derivative of H
1st time derivative of H
2nd time derivative of TU4
3rd time derivative of TU4
1st time derivative of TU4
Dimensionless range variable
Convenient form of MU
EGM Cosmological mass limit
Convenient form of RU
EGM Cosmological size limit
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the CMBR temperature
The instant of maximum Cosmological temperature
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 1st time derivative of the
CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 2nd time derivative of the
CMBR temperature
Temporal ordinate (local maxima) of the 1st time derivative of H
The instant of maximum physical EGM Hubble constant
Temporal ordinate (local minima) of the 2nd time derivative of H
Equal to t1
Convenient form of AU
119
Units
Jy
Hz3
Hz2
K/s2
K/s3
K/s
kg
m
s
tL
TU3
TU4
EGM Cosmological age limit

Transformed representation of TU2
Computed index
Indicial constant ( = 1 / 3)
s
K
Symbol
ag
aPV
DE2M
gav
r4
r5
Chapter 9: Gravitational Cosmology

Description
High frequency harmonic acceleration
Gravitational acceleration harmonic
Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon
Average high frequency harmonic acceleration
Distance from the centre of mass of the Earth to the buoyancy point
Distance from the centre of mass of the Moon to the buoyancy point
Units
m/s2
m
m/s2
m
Chapter 10: Particle Cosmology

Symbol
mgg2
m2
N
Q
Q_PDG
Q
Q2
rgg2
r2
Description
Graviton mass-energy lower limit
Photon mass-energy lower limit
Photon population at Q
Photon RMS charge threshold by EGM
Photon RMS charge threshold by PDG
Photon RMS charge upper limit by EGM
Photon RMS charge lower limit by EGM
Graviton RMS charge radius lower limit
Photon RMS charge radius lower limit
Units
eV
Appendix 4.A
Symbol
TBH
Th
TSPBH
Description
BH temperature
Planck temperature
SPBH temperature
Energy flux emitted from a Black-Body at temperature T
Boltzmanns constant: 1.3806505 x10-23 [35]
Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.670400 x10-8 [35]
Units
K
W/m2
J/K
Wm-2K-4
NOTES
120
3.2.3 Symbols in alphabetical order
Refer to Quinta Essentia Part 3: Symbols in alphabetical order where appropriate.
Symbol
aEGM_
ag
aPV
AU
C_J
C_J1
C_J
DE2M
dH2dt2
dHdt
dT2dt2
dT3dt3
dTdt
Eg
Ex
E
gav
H
H0
HU
HU2
H
H
H2
H
KDepp
Kh
KT
KU
KW
M1
M2
M3
MBH
MEGM
Mf
MG
mg1
mg2
mg3
mg4
mg5
mgg2
Mi
ML
Description
EGM Flux Intensity
Equal to C_J
Mean distance from the Earth to the Moon
Propagation energy of a Graviton
Proportional relationship between Eg and E
Propagation energy of a Photon
EGM Hubble constant
Planck scale experimental relationship function
rf / ri
Generalised mass
Generalised mass
Generalised mass or mxmh
Mass of a SBH
Total Cosmological mass (present value)
Total mass of the Milky-Way Galaxy
Total Cosmological mass (initial value)
121
Units
m/s2
s
Jy (Jansky)
m
Hz3
Hz2
K/s2
K/s3
K/s
J
J
m/s2
Hz
mK
kg
eV
kg
MU
mx
m2
nBH
ng
ngg
n_1
n_2
n_3
n_4
n_5
n
N
n
Q
Q_PDG
Q
Q2
r0
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
RBH
Rbh
REGM
rf
rgg2
ri
rL
Ro
rS
RU
rx1
rx2
rx3
rx4
rx5
rZPF
r2
r
Stg
StG
StJ
S
T0
t1

2nd SPBH constant
Non-refractive form of n
The form n_2 takes as a function of x
Average number of Photons radiated by a SBH per T_4 period
Population of Photons within starving matter
Photon RMS charge threshold by PDG
Hubble size (present value)
Generalised radial displacement or xh
Distance from the centre of mass of the Earth to the buoyancy point
Distance from the centre of mass of the Moon to the buoyancy point
Range variable for SBHs
Cosmological size (present value)
Cosmological size (initial value)
Singularity radius
ZPF equilibrium radius
2nd EGM gravitational constant: StG = 8.146982 x10224
Approximated / simplified Poynting Vector
122
kg
eV
pc (parsec)
m
m-1s-5
m5kg-2s-9
(kg4m26/s18)(1/9)
W/m2
K
s
t2
t3
t4
t5
t7
TBH
tEGM
Tg
Th
TL
tL
TSPBH
TU
TU2
TU3
TU4
TW
T_3
T_4
UZPF
V
KPV
r
Ro
T0
1
EGM
m
PDG
ZPF
VL
x
X-RAY
y
_3
c
m

CMBR temperature
CMBR temperature
Equal to t1
BH temperature
Average emission period per Graviton
Planck temperature
SPBH temperature
1 / _3
1 / _4
Volume
Change in Refractive Index of PV
Change in displacement within the event horizon of a SBH
Experimental tolerance of Ro
Experimental tolerance of T0
Energy flux emitted from a Black-Body at temperature T
Community reference to the net Cosmological density parameter
Visible mass contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Net Cosmological density parameter as defined by the PDG
Dark energy contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Photon contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Neutrino contribution to the net Cosmological density parameter
Computed index
Boltzmanns constant: 1.3806505 x10-23 [35]
Wavelength of visible light
1st SPBH constant
Wavelength of X-Rays
c / _3
Community reference to Cosmological mass-density
Critical Cosmological mass-density
Mass density
123
K
s
K
s
K
s
Pa
m3
m
pc
K
W/m2
J/K
m
m
m
kg/m3
S
U
U2
BH
g
PV_1
X-RAY
_1
_2
_3
_4
_5
_6
_7

Stefan-Boltzmann constant: 5.670400 x10-8 [35]
Frequency of X-Rays
kg/m3
Wm-2K-4
Hz
Hz
NOTES
124
4 Derivation Processes
4.1
Main sequence
4.1.1 Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum

The Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) equations, utilised to describe fundamental particles in
harmonic terms St, are simplified for values of Refractive Index approaching unity KPV 1.
This facilitates the representation of gravitational acceleration g utilising the Polarisable Vacuum
(PV) harmonic cut-off frequency , leading to the formulation of a generalised cubic frequency
expression g PV3. It is demonstrated that the PV spectrum is dominated by such that the
magnitude of the associated gravitational Poynting Vector S is usefully approximated by the
total energy density S cUm, resulting in an expression for EGM Flux Intensity C_J. The
derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
1. Simplification of the EGM equations.
2. Derivation of gravitational acceleration in terms of .
3. Formulation of a generalised cubic frequency expression in terms of g: g PV3.
4. Determination of the gravitationally dominant EGM frequency: S cUm.
5. Derivation of EGM Flux Intensity C_J.
4.1.2 Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole characteristics
The minimum physical dimensions of Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius is
derived, leading to the determination of the value of KPV at the event horizon of a
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole (SPBH). Consequently, the magnitude of the harmonic cut-off
frequency at the event horizon RBH of a Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) is presented,
yielding the singularity radius rS and harmonic cut-off profiles (n and as r RBH).
The minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL is also advanced such that the value of
generalised average emission frequency per Graviton g may be calculated. These determinations
assist in the supplemental EGM interpretation with respect to the visibility of Black-Holes
(BHs). The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
6. Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius.
7. Derivation of the value of the KPV at the event horizon of a Schwarzschild-PlanckBlack-Hole (SPBH).
8. Derivation of at the event horizon of a SPBH.
9. Derivation of at the event horizon of a SBH.
10. Derivation of rS.
11. n and profiles (as r RBH) of SBHs.
12. Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL.
13. Derivation of the average emission frequency per Graviton g.
14. Why can't we observe BHs?
4.1.3 Fundamental Cosmology
The primordial and present values of the Hubble constant are derived (H and HU
respectively), leading to the determination of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR) temperature TU. This facilitates the determination of the impact of Dark Matter /
Energy on HU and TU such that a generalised expression for TU in terms of HU is
formulated. An experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF is
also presented. The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
125
15. Derivation of the primordial and present Hubble constants H, HU.

16. Derivation of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature TU.
17. Numerical solutions for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and TU.
18. Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and TU.
19. TU as a function of a generalised Hubble constant TU TU2.
20. Derivation of Ro, MG, HU2 and U2 from TU2.
21. Experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF.
4.1.4 Advanced Cosmology
A time dependent derivation of TU is performed, including its rate of change and
relationship to HU. This facilitates the articulation of the Cosmological evolution process into four
distinct periods dealing with the inflationary and early expansive phases. Subsequently, the history
of the Universe33 is developed and compared to the Standard Model (SM) of Cosmology. This
assists in determining the Cosmological limitations of the EGM construct. The question of the
practicality of utilising conventional radio telescopes for gravitational astronomy is also addressed.
The derivation sequence proceeds as follows,
22. Time dependent CMBR temperature TU2 TU3.
23. Rates of change of CMBR temperature TU3 TU4 d1,2,3TU4/dt1,2,3.
24. Rates of change of the Hubble constant d1,2H/dt1,2.
25. Cosmological evolution process.
26. History of the Universe.
27. EGM Cosmological construct limitations.
28. Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for gravitational astronomy?
4.1.5 Gravitational Cosmology
An engineering model is developed to explain how gravitational effects are transmitted
through space-time in terms of EGM wavefunction propagation and interference. The derivation
sequence proceeds as follows,
29. Gravitational propagation: the mechanism for interaction.
30. Gravitational interference: the mechanism of interaction.
4.1.6 Particle Cosmology
The following characteristics are derived utilising EGM principles:
31. The Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.
32. The Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii lower limit.
33. The Photon charge threshold.
34. The Photon charge upper limit.
35. The Photon charge lower limit.
33
As defined by the EGM construct.

126
4.2
The Hubble sequence
Note: refer to Glossary of Terms where required.

4.2.1 Preconditions
i. Derivation of EGM Flux Intensity C_J.
ii. Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius.
iii. Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL.
4.2.2 Assumptions
i. At an instant prior to the Big-Bang, the Universe (termed the Primordial Universe)
was analogous to a homogeneous Planck scale particle at the maximum permissible
energy density limit (i.e. with the physical proportions defined by precondition ii).
ii. The Milky-Way is analogous to a Planck scale particle of equivalent total Galactic
mass-energy (i.e. visible + dark) such that dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity
exists between the Primordial Universe and the Milky-Way Planck scale particles34.
Hence, for Earth based observations, the average EGM Flux Intensity of the Milky-Way
Galaxy is proportional to the average value of the present Universe and the peak value of
the Primordial Universe at the instant of the Big-Bang.
iii. Matter is dispersed throughout the Universe in accordance with the EGM harmonic
representation of fundamental particles, i.e. Eq. (3.230) applies to Cosmology.
4.2.3 Simplified sequence
The Hubble constant by the EGM method HU, may be derived from first principles in
agreement with physical measurement, by the following sequence,
i. Express the EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles in Cosmological form.
ii. Formulate a relationship between the size of the Planck scale particles and EGM Flux
Intensity.
iii. Formulate a generalised relationship between the dimensions of a Schwarzschild-PlanckParticle and harmonic frequency mode.
iv. Formulate a generalised expression for HU utilising the output from the three previous
steps and evaluate appropriately,
NOTES
34
The analogous Planck scale particle for the Milky-Way performs the function of a Galactic
Reference Particle (GRP) in relation to the Primordial Universe.
127
4.3
The CMBR temperature sequence
Note: refer to Glossary of Terms where required.

4.3.1 Preconditions
i. HU has been derived correctly.
ii. The total mass-energy of the present Universe is dynamically, kinematically and
geometrically similar to a particle at the Planck scale limit, consistent with the formulation
of HU.
4.3.2 Assumptions
i. EGM considers the Primordial Universe as a single mode wavefunction, therefore any
temperature calculation must be scaled accordingly for application to black-body radiation
(i.e. black-bodies emit a spectrum of thermal frequencies, not just one).
ii. The CMBR temperature is proportional to the average number of Gravitons radiated per
harmonic period by the Primordial Universe at the instant prior to the Big-Bang.
4.3.3 Simplified sequence
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature by the EGM method
TU, may be derived from first principles in precise agreement with physical measurement, by the
following sequence,
i. Formulate an expansive scaling factor relating the average number of Gravitons radiated
per harmonic period by the Primordial Universe at the instant prior to the Big-Bang,
the value of the Hubble constant at the same instant (termed the primordial Hubble
constant H) and HU.
ii. Formulate a thermodynamic scaling factor relating Wiens Displacement Law and EGM
wavelength.
iii. Multiply the expansive and thermodynamic scaling factors to compute TU.
NOTES
128
5 Characterisation of the Gravitational Spectrum
Abstract
The Electro-Gravi-Magnetic (EGM) equations, utilised to describe fundamental particles in
harmonic terms St, are simplified for values of Refractive Index approaching unity KPV 1.
This facilitates the representation of gravitational acceleration g utilising the Polarisable Vacuum
(PV) harmonic cut-off frequency , leading to the formulation of a generalised cubic frequency
expression g PV3. It is demonstrated that the PV spectrum is dominated by such that the
magnitude of the associated gravitational Poynting Vector S is usefully approximated by the
total energy density S cUm, resulting in an expression for EGM Flux Intensity C_J.
129
5.1
Simplification of the EGM equations
5.1.1 1, n n_1 and _1

Considering celestial objects as point masses radiating a spectrum of gravitational
wavefunctions, dominated by in accordance with [5], the EGM Particle-Physics equations
applied to Cosmology produce signature characteristics of the gravitational spectrum resulting in
highly precise simplified representations (with negligible error) such that:
i. (r,M) 1(r,M)
ii. n(r,M) n_1(r,M)
iii. (r,M) _1(r,M)
Utilising Eq. (3.69, 3.70) yields,
3 .M .c
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
For solutions where 81.
U m( r , M )
3
4 . .r
3 .M .c
4
3
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .r .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
(4.7)
U ( r , M )
3
1( r , M )
108.
>> 768: Eq. (3.72) Eq. (4.8) [i.e. 1] as follows,

U m( r , M )
108.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
216.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
(4.8)
Substituting Eq. (4.7) into Eq. (4.8) yields,

1( r , M )
6 .c
r . PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
(4.9)
For solutions where (r,M) >> 1: Eq. (3.71) Eq. (4.10) by substitution of Eq. (4.9) [i.e.
n n_1] as follows,
3
n _1( r , M )
2
1( r , M ) 1 U m( r , M )
c
3 .M .c
.
.
12
2 U ( r , M ) 2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
(4.10)
Hence: Eq. (3.73) Eq. (4.11) [i.e. _1] as follows,

3
_1( r , M ) n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
(4.11)
5.1.2 Computing errors

_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
R M, M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
1=
_1 R NS , M NS
R NS , M NS
130
.
6.66133810
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
(4.12)
1 = 0 (%)
(4.13)
5.2
Derivation of gravitational acceleration in terms of
5.2.1 Transformation: _1 _2
5.2.1.1 Simplification
The cubic form of Eq. (4.11) yields,
_1( r , M )
3
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
(4.14)
For solutions where KPV(r,M) = 1, PV(1,r,M) may be usefully approximated and utilised such
that _19 _29 according to,
3
_2( r , M )
9
2
1
c . 3 .M .c .
.
.
.
3
2r
2h
PV( 1 , r , M )
9
2
c . 3 .M .c
2 .r
2 . .h
3 14
2
3 .c .M
1
.
1 . 2 c .G.M
3
.r
r
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
(4.15)
Recognising,
th
G.h
c
(4.19)
c
G.h
mh
h .c
G
(4.17)
(4.18)
1
th
(4.16)
G.h
c
c
G.h
G
h
(4.20)
c
2
(4.21)
Yields,
3 14
2
3 .c .M
4
3 2
2
3 .G .M . h .c
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
2
13 5 2
2 .r . . h
5
3
3 . h
.
. GM
13
5
2 . h .r
5
3
3 . h .G.M G.M
.
2 3
13
2 . h . .r
6
3
3 . h
.
. GM
2
13 2
2 . .r .c r
(4.22)
Let,
6
3
3 . h
St g
13 2
2 . .c
(4.23)
G.M
g( r , M )
(4.24)
Hence,
_2( r , M )
St g
.g ( r , M ) 2
(4.25)
Let aEGM_(r,M) denote the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration vector such that:
a EGM_( r , M )
131
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
(4.26)
5.2.1.2 Computing errors

5.2.1.2.1 _1 _2
The error associated with Eq. (4.25) in relation to the refractive inclusive simplified form of
harmonic cut-off frequency (i.e. _1) may be articulated as follows,
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
_2 R NS , M NS
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
.
1.04678510
.
2.32001510
.
6.57443310
.
7.07196310
(%)
(4.27)
1 = 2.491576 ( % )
(4.28)
5.2.1.2.2 g
The error associated with Eq. (4.26) in relation to g may be articulated as follows,
a EGM_ R M , M M
a EGM_ R E, M E
g R M,M M
g R E, M E
a EGM_ R J , M J
a EGM_ R S , M S
g R J, M J
g R S, M S
a EGM_ R NS, M NS
g R NS, M NS
1=
.
1.49880110
.
1.5432110
12
12
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.57651710
12
(%)
(4.29)
.
1 = 1.65423210
12
( %)
(4.30)
5.2.1.3 Error analysis

The difference in error between Eq. (4.28, 4.30) indicates that the historical weak field
representation of KPV is limited in applicability to celestial objects with mass approximately less
than Neutron Stars. However, Eq. (4.30) demonstrates that the simplified EGM representation is not
effected by this constraint.
This is due to the manner in which KPV is defined. It has two definitions according to
Puthoff et. Al.: these are (i), it has a value of unity at infinity [i.e. Eq. (3.55)] and (ii), it has a
value of KPV = c / vc where, c is the velocity of light in a vacuum and vc denotes the velocity
of light in a vacuum affected by a gravitational field as perceived by an observer at infinity.
Since c is a definition and vc is measured, the application of the PV model of gravity in
terms of KPV is exact when the measurement is made from infinity: however, g is a local value.
Consequently, when comparing g to aEGM_, the contribution of KPV must be either (iii),
removed from aEGM_ or (iv), merged with the classical representation of g for strong
gravitational fields when utilising the weak field approximation specified by Eq. (3.55).
Subsequently, two subtle yet important characteristics must be observed when comparing
the PV model of gravity to its classical equivalent: these are (v), KPV increases from unity at
infinity to the local observer and (vi) g decreases to zero at infinity from the local observer.
132
5.2.2 Transformation: _1 _3
5.2.2.1 Simplification
Utilising Eq. (4.10, 4.11), an alternative expression for harmonic cut-off frequency may be
formulated as follows,
3
_1( r , M )
1
1 . U m( r , M ) .
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
2 U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
.
2c
. ( 1 , r , M )
PV
(4.31)
Taking the cubic form yields,

_1( r , M )
3
1 . 2 .c . U m( r , M )
8 h PV( 1 , r , M )
(4.32)
For solutions where KPV(r,M) = 1, PV(1,r,M) may be usefully approximated and utilised such
that _19 _39 according to,
3 .M .c
_3( r , M )
3
c . U m( r , M )
4 .h PV( 1 , r , M )
c
4 .h
2 3
. .3
. 4r
2 .c .G.M
14
27 . c . M
8192 h 3 2 .r5 .G
27 . c . c . M
8192 G.h h 2 2 .r5
3 . 2.c . M
h
13
2
2
2
h .r5
.r
(4.33)
Hence,
9
_3( r , M )
c.
3.
3 . h
4 . .h
. M
(4.34)
Let,
St G
3.
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
(4.35)
Therefore,
9
_3( r , M )
M
St G.
5
r
(4.36)
where,
G
St G
St g
(4.37)
5.2.2.2 Computing errors

_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
1 . St G
G
1=
.
1.11022310
13
. 13
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
13
(%)
(4.38)
.
1 = 6.66133810
.
1 = 3.33066910
St g
. 14
8.88178410
14
(%)
(4.39)
14
( %)
(4.40)
133
5.3
Formulation of a generalised cubic frequency expression in terms of g: g PV3
Applying the methodology utilised to derive _2 and _3, a generalised cubic

frequency expression in terms of gravitational acceleration at an arbitrary value of nPV may be
formulated directly from Eq. (3.67, 4.24). For solutions where KPV(r,M) = 1, PV(nPV,r,M)3
may be usefully approximated as follows,
2 .c .n PV
PV n PV, r , M
5.4
.r
.g ( r , M )
(4.41)
Determination of the gravitationally dominant EGM frequency: S cUm
Storti et. Al. demonstrated in [5] that >> 99.99(%) of gravitational energy exists well
above the THz range at the surface of the Earth. Moreover, it was also shown in [5] that, in
accordance with DATs and BPT, the PV model of gravity may be usefully approximated by a
unique wavefunction at a specific frequency. This section advances these conclusions by
demonstrating that the gravitational spectrum of PV frequencies may be usefully approximated by a
single valued Poynting Vector wavefunction S.
Considering the harmonic element on the Right-Hand-Side (RHS) of Eq. (3.68) and
simplifying yields,
n PV
n PV
(RHS: 3.68)
Let nPV = n - 2, nPV > 0:

n
substitute , n
8 .n
simplify
24.n
32.n
16
(4.42)
For solutions where n >> 1,

8 .n
24.n
8 .n . n
32.n factor
3 .n factor
8 .n . n
2
8 .n . n
3 .n
(4.43)
8 .n 3
(4.44)
Hence, S(r,M), in terms of n(r,M), is usefully approximated as S(r,M) according to:

S ( r , M )
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
2 .c
n ( r, M )
n ( r, M )
h .
4
3
PV( 1 , r , M ) .8 .n ( r , M )
2
2 .c
(4.45)
Assuming n n_1 yields,

3
2
4 .h .
4
4
c
3 .M .c
3 4 .h .
.
S ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .n ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
2
2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
c
c
(4.46)
3
2
3
4 .h .c . PV( 1 , r , M ) .
3 .M .c
3 .M .c
S ( r , M )
2 3
3 . . .
3
8 .c .r PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 h PV( 1 , r , M ) 4 . .r
Therefore,
S ( r , M ) c .U m( r , M )
(4.47)
(4.48)
This result demonstrates that S(r,M) for any solid spherical object with homogeneous
mass-energy distribution may be characterised by a single wavefunction at (r,M). In other
words, all other frequencies [i.e. for PV(nPV,r,M) < (r,M)] within the PV spectrum of the
gravitational field generated by the object, may be usefully neglected.
134
5.5
Derivation of EGM Flux Intensity C_J
5.5.1 Simplification
By considering each celestial object as a point mass / source radiating a high frequency
EGM wavefunction (i.e. in accordance with the conclusion stated in the preceding section), the
intensity of gravitational energy (EGM Flux expressed in Jansky's) may be derived as follows:
Let,
2 d
( r , M ) . U m( r , M )
dr
C _J ( r , M )
(4.49)
Note: C_J contains KPV because c / .

Assuming c / _3 yields C_J C_J1 (i.e. the refractive exclusive form) as
follows,
2
C _J1( r , M )
c
9
M
St G.
5
r
. .
. d 3M c
d r 4 . .r3
. r
St G
1
2
5
. . 2 . 4
. 9 M c 9 c .St 9 . M
G
4
26
4 .
4 . .r
r
(4.50)
Let,
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
2
9
(4.51)
Hence,
C _J1( r , M )
St J
2
. M
(4.52)

C _J1 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 R S , M M
C _J 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 100.( km) , M E
C _J 100.( km) , M E
C _J1 100.( km) , M J
C _J 100.( km) , M J
C _J1 100.( km) , M S
C _J 100.( km) , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M NS
C _J 100.( km) , M NS
C _J R S , M M
1=
.
3.63875410
.
2.95903310
.
9.40034410
C _J1 R S , M E
C _J R S , M E
C _J1 R S , M J
( %)
C _J R S , M J
0.979587
C _J1 R S , M S
0.979587
C _J R S , M S
1=
.
3.86357610
12
.
4.23450210
10
.
1.3506210
.
1.41439110
.
1.41439110
( %)
C _J1 R S , M NS
C _J R S , M NS
(4.53)
5.5.3 Error analysis

The preceding equation set indicates that for practical astronomical applications [i.e. r >>
100(km)],
i. C_J = C_J1.
ii. The historical definition of KPV [i.e. the weak field approximation shown in Eq. (3.55)]
does not significantly modify the value of C_J.
135
NOTES
136
6 Derivation of Planck-Particle and SchwarzschildBlack-Hole Characteristics
Abstract
The minimum physical dimensions of Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius is
derived, leading to the determination of the value of KPV at the event horizon of a
Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole (SPBH). Consequently, the magnitude of the harmonic cut-off
frequency at the event horizon RBH of a Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) is presented,
yielding the singularity radius rS and harmonic cut-off profiles (n and as r RBH).
The minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL is also advanced such that the value of
generalised average emission frequency per Graviton g may be calculated. These determinations
assist in the supplemental EGM interpretation with respect to the visibility of Black-Holes
(BHs).
137
6.1
Derivation of the minimum physical Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle mass and radius
6.1.1 What does physical mean?

6.1.1.1 Conceptualisation
The definition and conceptualisation of the term physical has been disputed and discussed
for millennia. It remains one of the greatest questions in philosophy, dating back to ancient Greek
civilization. A standard dictionary definition is of or pertaining to that which is material. To many
people, this is an adequate and useful definition. The next obvious task is to define what material
means. Of course, this process can be repeated indefinitely such that no universally acceptable
definition is ever reached.
Everyday life and experience is extremely forgiving in a communication sense. More
often than not, one is not required to articulate in unambiguous terms, the key elements in a chance
discussion. It is often sufficient, in many casual settings, to communicate thoughts and ideas in the
most generalised terms available as brief human encounters can be quite dynamic.
However, this luxury does not exist in the realm of Physics where precise definitions are vital
for clear communication and understanding. Fortunately, the EGM construct is able to provide a
useful mathematical definition facilitating the computation of common Planck-Particle and
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (SBH) characteristics.
Storti. et. Al. demonstrated in [5] that by considering a solid spherical object with
homogeneous mass-energy distribution to be a point source spectral wavefunction radiator with
ZPF equilibrium radius rZPF, the following properties are mathematically observed,
i. As |Um(rZPF,M)| increases at any arbitrarily fixed value of radial displacement35 r:
i. |n(r,M)| decreases.
ii. |(r,M)| increases.
iii. |PV(1,r,M)| increases.
iv. |(r,M)| - |PV(1,r,M)| decreases.
v. The PV spectrum is converging.
ii. For any arbitrarily fixed value of |Um(rZPF,M)|, as r increases:
i. |n(r,M)| increases.
ii. |(r,M)| decreases.
iii. |PV(1,r,M)| decreases.
iv. |(r,M)| - |PV(1,r,M)| increases.
v. The PV spectrum is diverging.
6.1.1.2 Assumptions
A Cosmological physical limit exists for maximum permissible energy density such that
|Um(rZPF,M)| the physical limit. Hence, a consistent interpretation of the results above within
the framework of contemporary Quantum Mechanical (QM) expectation provokes the following
hypotheses when r > rZPF such that r rZPF:
i. |n(r,M)| 1.
ii. |(r,M)| |PV(1,r,M)|.
iii. [|(r,M)| - |PV(1,r,M)|] 0.
iv. The PV spectrum is convergent.
35
Where, r > rZPF.

138
6.1.1.3 Definitions
6.1.1.3.1 Matter
Based upon the preceding hypotheses, we are able to state an EGM definition of a specific
class of physical matter (i.e. spherical), in addition to contemporary interpretations. Matter with
spherical geometry and homogeneous mass-energy distribution is said to be physical if:
i. The magnitude of the energy density of the object at rest, bounded by the ZPF equilibrium
radius, is less than or equal to the Cosmological physical limit for maximum permissible
energy density (i.e. |Um(rZPF,M)| the physical limit).
ii. The number of harmonic frequency modes is greater than or equal to unity at the ZPF
equilibrium radius (i.e. |n(rZPF,M)| 1).
6.1.1.3.2 Energy density
As specified in the proceeding construct, the limit for maximum permissible physical
energy density is defined as |Um(xh,mxmh)|.
Note: this condition implies a state of maximum permissible space-time manifold curvature.
6.1.1.3.3 Planck scale properties
The historical derivation and classical definitions of Planck Frequency h, Length h
and Mass mh were not performed in accordance with formalised DATs. Alternatively, one could
argue that the classical definitions were derived correctly, but the experimental relationship function
Kh, associated with the formalised DAT derivation process of Planck scale properties, was
assumed to be unity [i.e. Kh(h,h,mh) = 1].
Storti et. Al. derive experimentally implicit values of h, h and mh in [13], based
upon the determination of three Experimental Relationship Functions (ERFs) [i.e. Kh(h) = K =
(2/)1/3 and Kh(h) = K = Kh(mh) = Km = (/2)1/3]. Hence, the experimentally implicit (also
termed EGM adjusted) values of Planck Frequency, Length and Mass are given by K h,
Kh and Kmmh respectively, such that when h = 6.626069 x10-34(Js):
i. Kh = 6.365769 x1042(Hz).
ii. Kh = 4.709446 x10-35(m).
iii. Kmmh = 6.341792 x10-8(kg).
A derivation of the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge diameter (i.e. the ZPF equilibrium
diameter) of a Photon (i.e. twice the RMS charge radius r) is performed in [10]
demonstrating that = 2r h [to within 15.3(%)]. Subsequently, utilising the EGM adjusted
Planck Length, it may be demonstrated that Kh = to within 0.83(%). [13]
Since is extremely close to QM expectation and all EGM adjusted Planck properties
were derived in the same manner, it follows that the individual (not combined) physical Planck
scale properties of frequency , length and mass m may be defined as:
iv. Kh.
v. Kh.
vi. m Kmmh.
Note: in the proceeding construct,
vii. x > K.
viii. mx > Km.
139
6.1.2 What is a Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle?

6.1.2.1 Conceptualisation
Contemporary Physics believes the maximum permissible energy density of a Black-Hole
(BH) is governed by classical Planck scale dimensions. Hence, a proportional representation of this
belief by an EGM based method is a natural evolutionary step. Subsequently, one would expect that
a SBH with Planck-Particle energy density represents the natural physical energy density limit
[i.e. Um(xh,mxmh)] as the number of harmonic frequency modes approaches unity [i.e.
n(xh,mxmh) = 1].
For a SBH or Planck-Particle in a vacuum, one would intuitively expect that KPV
Undefined at (or beyond) the event horizon, relative to a non-local observer without. However, if
we consider ourselves to be local observers within the event horizon, the space-time manifold is
maximally curved and no variation exists with respect to the PV model of gravity in terms of KPV,
from point to point.
Therefore, by logical induction, we shall assign a value of KPV = 1 within the event
horizon of a SBH due to the dimensional consistency of the space-time manifold within being
analogous (only) to a totally flat space-time manifold without [i.e. KPV(r) = 0]. In other words,
one cannot geometrically curve the space-time manifold, within the event horizon, more than
completely (i.e. beyond the maximum permissible curvature limit).
Note: conceptualising a local observer within the event horizon negates potential modelling
difficulties of a non-local observer beyond the event horizon36.
6.1.2.2 Assumptions
In addition to the assumptions specified in the preceding section (i.e. serving as a
derivational base), we shall also apply the following,
i. Complete dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity exists, in accordance with DATs
and BPT principles, between a SBH and a mass-energy equivalent particle on the Planck
scale (i.e. a Planck-Particle).
ii. The relationship between a SBH and Planck-Particle may be described by the EGM
harmonic representation of fundamental particles [i.e. Eq. (3.230ii)].
iii. The energy density limit also denotes a condition of maximum permissible space-time
manifold curvature such that KPV = 1 is a valid assignment within the even horizon of a
SBH.
6.1.2.3 Definition
A Schwarzschild-Planck-Particle is a SBH with Planck-Particle energy density
satisfying the condition St(xh,mxmh) = 1 and n(xh,mxmh) = 1 such that the event horizon
RBH and ZPF equilibrium radii rZPF coincide at xh:
i.e. RBH = rZPF = xh.
Note: a SBH with Planck-Particle energy density is also termed a Schwarzschild-Planck-BlackHole (SPBH).
36
Due to the historical definition of KPV being a weak field approximation only.
140
6.1.3 Construct
If we equate the energy density of a Planck-Particle of mass mxmh and radius xh to
a SBH, we may determine the minimum radius of a SBH with Planck-Particle energy density.
This is termed a Schwarzschild-Planck-Black-Hole and its minimum radius and mass may be
determined.
Taking the cubic form of Eq. (4.10) yields,
n _1( r , M )
1 . U m( r , M ) 1 . 3 .M .c .
2 .c
8 U ( r , M ) 8 4 . .r3 h . ( 1 , r , M ) 4
PV
2
(4.54)
For solutions where KPV(r,M) = 1, PV(1,r,M) may be usefully approximated according to,
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3 h .
2 .c
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
2 .c
PV( 1 , r , M )
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
3
4
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
(4.55)
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
(4.56)
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3. c . . 2
cr
1 . 4 h .G
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M 8
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
2 .c .G.M
.r
(4.57)
Substituting Eq. (4.20) into Eq. (4.57) produces,

3 .c . r
n _1( r , M )
Therefore, n_1
n_19
2 .c .G.M
.r
(4.58)
2 3
1. 4
8
according to,
3 .c . r
n _1( r , M )
1. 4
r . .c . 3
.
16
2
2 GM h
7
2 .c .G.M
.r
7
r . .m h . 3
16
2
2 M h h
(4.59)
Hence, let:
9
n _2( r , M )
.
3
3 . m h . r
16 M
h
2
(4.60)
such that n_2 n_3 as r xh and M mxmh according to,

9
n _3 x. h , m x.m h
x. h
16
m
. . h. 3
m x.m h h 2
h
141
3
3
3 . . x 1 . 3 . . x
16 m
2
x 2 mx 2
(4.61)
Assuming n_3(xh,mxmh) = 1 (i.e. for the maximum energy density condition), the value of
mx satisfying this limit may stated as,
3
3 . . 7
x
16
2
mx
(4.62)
The value of x may be derived by application of the EGM harmonic representation of

fundamental particles [i.e. relating Eq. (4.62) to Eq. (3.230ii)]. Within the boundaries of
contemporary Physics, the dimensions of the smallest permissible SBH exist on the Planck scale.
Subsequently, if r1 = RBH, M1 = MBH, r2 = xh and M2 = mxmh then Eq. (3.230ii) may be
applied as follows,
x. h
m x.m h
M BH
R BH
2
c .R BH
2 .G
x. h
m x.m h
R BH
(4.63)
where, the radius to the event horizon RBH is related to mass MBH by,
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
R BH
(4.64)

2
2
c .R BH
2 .G
x. h
m x.m h
R BH
5
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
1.
m x.m h
5
1.
. c
3 G
4 .
x h
2
x. h .c
m x.m h
. c
3 G
m x.m h
2 2
4 .
x h
2 2
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
(4.65)
5
m x.m h
2
x. h .c
2
2 .G.m x.m h
(4.66)
(4.67)
St x. h , m x.m h
2 .G.m x.m h
(4.68)
Assuming ideal similarity between a SBH and a Planck-Particle satisfying

St(xh,mxmh) = 1 at n_3(xh,mxmh) = 1, the value of x and mx may be determined as
follows,
Recognising that Eq. (4.69) may be substituted into Eq. (4.68) yields,
c
mh
G h
(4.69)
2
x. h .c
1. x
2 .G.m x.m h 2 m x
(4.70)
such that:
142
mx
x
2
(4.71)

x
4 . 2
3
(4.72)
Evaluating produces,
x
mx
2.698709
1.349354
(4.73)
x. h = 1.093333 10
10 .
.
m x.m h = 7.36147410
ym
(4.74)
( kg )
(4.75)
where, ym = yoctometre = 10-24(m).
Mass and energy density characteristics of a SPBH may also be easily derived based upon
the preceding results according to,
V( r )
4. . 3
r
3
(4.76)
where, V and m denote volume and mass-density respectively. Hence,

m( r , M )
M
V( r )
(4.77i)
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
(4.78)
The ratio of the mass-density of a SPBH to the Sun is given by,

m x. h , m x.m h
m R S, M S
.
= 9.55041510
90
(4.79)
Substituting Eq. (4.74, 4.75) into Eq. (3.70) produces the SPBH energy-density result,
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
(4.80)
24
where, YPa = yottaPascals = 10 (Pa).

The 1st of two simple checks to ensure no algebraic errors were made in relation to the
baseline assumption that St(xh,mxmh) = 1 at n_3(xh,mxmh) = 1, is to substitute Eq. (4.71)
into Eq. (4.61) producing the result,
3
9
n _3 x
.
2
3.
(4.81)
Comparing n_2 to n_3 confirms a lack of algebraic errors,

n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _3 x
143
.
1 = 2.22044610
14
(%)
(4.82)
The 2nd check substitutes mx = x / 2 into Eq. (4.68). Upon simplification one concludes that
St(xh,mxmh) = 1, confirming a lack of algebraic errors.
6.1.5 Convergent and divergent spectra
Substituting various values into Eq. (4.81) yields a sequence demonstrating the preservation
of EGM characteristics and exhibiting PV spectral convergence / divergence behaviour as follows,
n _3
n _3
1
3
0.248017
0.324994
n _3( 1 )
0.515897
0.818935
n _3( 2 )
n _3 x
1.073108
n _3( 3 )
(4.83)
Therefore, for solutions where KPV = 1 such that n n_3, the following statements may be
articulated:
i.
Values of n(r,M) < 1 indicate a divergent PV spectrum where (r,M) < PV(1,r,M)
and are non-physical.
ii.
Values of n(r,M) 1 indicate a convergent PV spectrum where (r,M) PV(1,r,M)
and are physical.
6.1.6 Honourable mention
It should not escape attention that mx is very close to the square of the experimentally
implicit definition of EGM adjusted Planck mass ERF derived in [13] (see below). However, no
specific conclusion may be inferred from this result.
mx
1 = 0.14278 ( % )
Km
(4.84)

6.1.7.1 Characteristics of a physical SPBH
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
It has coinciding singularity and event horizon radii.

r xh, M mxmh and mx = x / 2.
m(r,M) m(xh,mxmh).
A value of KPV = 1 is assigned within the event horizon (i.e. r < xh) due to maximum
permissible space-time manifold curvature [i.e. KPV(r) = 0].
v. For solutions where KPV = 1, only one harmonic mode exists [i.e. n(xh,mxmh) = 1]
such that PV(1,xh,mxmh) = (xh,mxmh) and the PV spectrum is convergent.
6.1.7.2 Characteristics of a non-physical Planck-Particle

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
It is not a SPBH.
r < xh such that n(r<xh) < 1.
(r,M) < PV(1,r,M).
The PV spectrum is described as divergent.
144
6.1.7.3 Physicality of the EGM adjusted Planck Length

A derivation of the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge diameter is performed in [10]
demonstrating that = 2r h. Subsequently, utilising the EGM adjusted Planck Length, it
may be demonstrated that Kh = to within 0.83(%) [13] according to,
K . h
2 .r
1 = 0.82832 ( % )
(4.85)
Since is extremely close to QM expectation and all EGM adjusted Planck properties
were derived in the same manner, it follows that the individual (not combined) physical Planck
scale properties of frequency , length and mass m may be defined as:
i. Kh.
ii. Kh.
iii. m Kmmh.
NOTES
145
6.2
Derivation of the value of the KPV at the event horizon of a SPBH
6.2.1 Synopsis
It was stated previously that, for a SPBH in a vacuum, one would intuitively expect that
KPV Undefined at (or beyond) the event horizon, relative to a non-local observer without. This
section demonstrates two independent methods for mathematically verifying this contention
utilising xh and mxmh. The 1st method applies EGM principles; the 2nd advances the work
of Depp et. Al as derived in [47].
6.2.2 Construct
6.2.2.1 1st Formulation
Recognising,
U x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
h .
x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
(4.86)
and utilising Eq. (4.69), it follows that:

PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3 . . .
.
1 . 2 c G mx mh .
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
. x. h
(4.87)
1 .
x. h
2 .c .G.m x.m h
. x. h
2 .c .G.
1 .
x. h
x
2 .c .G. .m h
1 .
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
.
.
xh
x. h
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
(4.88)
.m
h
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
. x. h
3
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
h
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
(4.90)
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
(4.89)
(4.91)
Performing the appropriate substitutions yields,

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
2 .c
(4.92)
U m x. h , m x.m h
4
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
2 .c x
146
(4.93)
U m x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
x
U m x. h , m x.m h
h . h
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
h . h
3
4
4
3.
2 . . .c x
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
(4.94)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x U m x. h , m x.m h
.
4
.
h h
K PV x. h , m x.m h
(4.95)
Partially evaluating Eq. (4.95) numerically within a computational environment yields,

3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.U . , m .m = 8
m x h x h
4
.
h h
Hence,
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
(4.96)
8
K PV x. h , m x.m h
(4.97)
such that an expression for KPV may be formed according to,

K PV x. h , m x.m h
2. 2.
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
(4.98)
Recognising that the EGM spectrum converges to a single mode for a SPBH and utilising
Eq. (3.71) yields,
n x. h , m x.m h
x. h , m x.m h
12
4
x. h , m x.m h
1 1
(4.99)
where,
x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
(4.100)
x. h , m x.m h
108.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
12. 768 81.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
(4.101)
By inspection, the only solution satisfying this equation is:

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
(4.102)
Verifying numerically yields,

3
108.0
2
12. 768 81.0 = 6.928203
4 . 3 = 6.928203
(4.103)
(4.104)
Therefore,
K PV x. h , m x.m h
147
2. 2
0
Undefined
(4.105)
6.2.2.2 2nd Formulation

Let the expression for KPV (shown as KDepp below) derived by Depp et. Al. in [47],
satisfying the SBH condition be assigned the form,
1
K Depp ( r , M )
2 .G.M
r .c
(4.106)
such that:
K Depp ( r , M )
1
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
r .c
2 .G.M
(4.107)
Performing a sample calculation at the surface of the Earth and comparing results utilising
Eq. (3.55, 4.107) produces,
K PV R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
(4.108)
K Depp R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
(4.109)
Hence, the relationship between the Depp and weak field exponential form is,
K PV( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
(4.110)
To ensure the preceding results were not coincidental due to weak field application, we shall
test Eq. (4.110) in the strong field as follows,
K PV( r , M )
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
r .c
2 .G.M
(4.111)
Substituting Eq. (4.64) into Eq. (4.110) validates the relationship for a strong gravitational field and
yields the expected result,
K PV R BH, M BH
2 .G.M BH
2 .G .
2
M BH.c
2
c
Undefined
(4.112)
Substituting Eq. (4.69, 4.71) into Eq. (4.107) produces the Depp value for a SPBH as follows,
K Depp x. h , m x.m h
1
2 .G.m x.m h
2
x. h .c
1
1
2 .G.m x c2
.
1
2 G
.
xc
2 .m x
x
2.
1
1
x 0
Undefined
2
x
(4.113)

From the results obtained above, we have shown by derivation of identical values of
Refractive Index, that a Planck-Particle is dynamically, kinematically and geometrically
equivalent to a SBH. This may be mathematically stated as follows,
KPV(xh,mxmh) = KPV(RBH,MBH) = KDepp(xh,mxmh) = KDepp(RBH,MBH)
148
(4.114)
6.3
Derivation of at the event horizon of a SPBH
6.3.1 Synopsis
It was stated previously - for a SPBH in a vacuum, one would intuitively expect that KPV
Undefined (not infinity - an important distinction) at (or beyond) the event horizon, relative to a
non-local observer without. This section derives the value of for a SPBH [i.e.
_3(xh,mxmh)] relative to a local observer within the event horizon.
6.3.2 Assumptions
The value of _3(xh,mxmh) may be determined by assuming the following (remaining
consistent with preceding sections),
i.
The space-time manifold is maximally curved and cannot be geometrically modified beyond
the maximum permissible limit.
ii.
A value of KPV = 1 is assigned within the event horizon of a SPBH due to the dimensional
consistency of the space-time manifold within being analogous (only) to a totally flat spacetime manifold without [i.e. KPV(r) = 0].
6.3.3 Construct
Commencing with the utilisation of the 9th power form of Eq. (4.36), we substitute r =
xh and M = mxmh producing,
2
M
St G.
5
r
St G.
m x.m h
x. h
St G.
St G.
x. h
(4.115)
x
2
St G.
.m
h
x. h
m x.m h
.m
h
x. h
(4.116)
St G m h
.
3
5
4 . x h
(4.117)

2
St G m h
.
3
5
.
4x h
3
.
4
3
.
4
.h
.h
3
.
4
5
4
c . h
.
9
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
h .m h
.h
3
.
4
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
h .m h
.h
2
c .m h
.
h
x
(4.118)
5
4
c . h
9
2
2
(4.119)
15 2
2 .
(4.120)
Substituting Eq. (4.121) into Eq. (4.120) yields Eq. (4.122) as follows,
149
m h .c
h
St G.
m x.m h
x. h
(4.121)
3
15 2
2 .
(4.122)
Utilising Eq. (4.36, 4.122) and simplifying yields,

9
St G.
9
3
3
x
9
1.
2
m x.m h
x. h
9
3
x
9
1.
15 2
2 . 2
15 2
2 .
(4.123)
. 1 .
h
x 26 .2
9
(4.124)
1. 1 . 3
. 1 .
.
h
h
2
6
2 2 4 . x
x 2 .
3
1. 1 . 3
.
h
2 2 4 . x
1
9
.
2
2.
(4.125)
3 .
h
4 . x
(4.126)
Substituting Eq. (4.72) into the Left-Hand-Side (LHS) of Eq. (4.126) yields,
9
1. 1 .
2 2
3
6
4. 4.
1. 3 . 6
4 25 3
3
3 .
(4.127)
Hence,
9
_3 x. h , m x.m h
1. 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
(4.128)
Displaying the numerical result for at the event horizon of a SPBH yields,
. 18 ( YHz)
_3 x. h , m x.m h = 1.87219710
(4.129)
6.3.4 PV(1,xh,mxmh)
Substituting Eq. (4.81) into the basic EGM relational form (r,M) = n(r,M)PV(1,r,M),
facilitates the derivation of PV(1,xh,mxmh) as follows,
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
_3 x. h , m x.m h
n _3 x
(4.130)
_3 x. h , m x.m h
(4.131)
Recognising that n_3(x) = 1 yields,

PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
150

By inspection, _3(xh,mxmh) h utilising a definition of h = 6.626069 x10-34(Js).
However, no specific conclusion may be inferred from the following result,
1.
. 18 ( YHz)
h = 1.84996810
4
(4.132)
Evaluating the approximation with respect to Eq. (4.129) demonstrates a small error according to,
h
1.
4 _3 x. h , m x.m h
1 = 1.187319 ( % )
(4.133)
Additionally, it is noteworthy that x may be represented in terms of the exponential

function e and the Fine Structure constant (to high precision). However, no specific
conclusion may be inferred from the following results,
x
e
1
e
1
(4.134)
= 2.698589
(4.135)
Checking the simplification error yields,

1 . e
x 1
. 3 (%)
1 = 4.43474910
(4.136)

The preceding construct demonstrates that the value of for a SPBH is h. This
appears consistent with the QM assertion of a physical frequency limit being h. However, in
the proceeding construct, the QM expectation shall be challenged and shown to be ill-founded.
NOTES
151
6.4
Derivation of at the event horizon of a SBH
6.4.1 Synopsis
The actual value of KPV is unimportant within the event horizon of a SBH. That is, an
observer without cannot see past the event horizon, so any value of KPV within, has no physical
meaning to an observer without. Therefore, we may assign any convenient value of KPV inside
the event horizon, provided it is done consistently.
6.4.2 Assumptions
At the event horizon of a SBH, KPV(RBH,MBH) = Undefined (not infinity - an important
distinction) relative to a non-local observer without. Subsequently, for an observer within the event
horizon of a SBH, we shall assume:
i.
A physical singularity of radius rS exists at the centre of a SBH.
ii.
KPV is constant [i.e. KPV(r) = 0] from the singularity radius rS to the event
horizon RBH [i.e. KPV(rSrRBH,MBH) = 1]. This feature is beyond the determination
of an observer without.
6.4.3 Construct
Utilising Eq. (4.36, 4.64), we may derive the value of at the event horizon of a SBH
[i.e. _4(MBH) at RBH] as follows,
9
_4 M BH
St G.
2 .G.M BH
c
c .St G
M BH
c.
5
5
3
( 2 .G) .M BH
(4.137)
Let,
9
St BH
c.
c .St G
5
( 2 .G)
(4.138)
Hence,
3
_4 M BH
St BH.
1
M BH
(4.139)
6.4.4 Sample calculations

Performing sample calculations for a SPBH (i.e. MBH = mxmh), a SBH at one solar mass,
105 and 1010 solar masses (i.e. MBH = MS, 105MS, 1010MS respectively) yields,
_4 m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_4 M S
5
_4 10 .M S
. 5
6.23977510
( YHz)
. 4
1.34431910
10
_4 10 .M S
289.624693
(4.140)

Since _4(mxmh) = _3(xh,mxmh), no errors have been generated in the formulation of
_4(MBH). A clear mathematical pattern is articulated demonstrating that _4 increases with
energy density (i.e. to RBH) and decreases with MBH.
152
Note: the decrease in _4 arises from the increase in RBH because:

i. The physical geometry of a SBH utilised to determine energy density is defined by RBH.
The larger it becomes due to an MBH increase, the lower the value of the energy density
and _4.
ii. Matter is considered to be a point source wavefunction radiator under the EGM construct.
As the wavefunction propagates, its frequency decays. Since the event horizon is farther
away from the singularity (i.e. the point source) for increasing MBH, _4 decreases.
NOTES
153
6.5
Derivation of rS
6.5.1 Synopsis
A physical Planck-Particle is considered to represent the condition of maximum
permissible energy density in the Universe. If a SBH is a real manifestation of a physical PlanckParticle, then it follows that the maximum permissible mass-density of the singularity at the centre
of a BH is equal to the mass-density of a physical Planck-Particle (i.e. a SPBH).
6.5.2 Assumptions
Utilising key features defined in preceding sections, we shall assume that, for an observer
within the event horizon of a SBH:
i. A physical singularity of mass-density m(rS,MBH) exists at the centre of a SBH.
ii. The physical singularity at the centre is a SPBH [i.e. m(rS,MBH) = m(xh,mxmh)].
iii. KPV is constant [i.e. KPV(r) = 0] from the singularity radius rS to the event
6.5.3 Construct
6.5.3.1 1st Formulation
rS may be derived utilising Eq. (4.77i) according to,
m( r , M )
3 .M
3
4 . .r
(4.77ii)
Substituting Planck-Particle characteristics yields,
m x. h , m x.m h
3.
3 .m x.m h
4 . . x. h
x
2
.m
h
3 .m h
3
4 . . x. h
2
3
8 . . x . h
(4.141)
Let the mass-density of the singularity at the core of a SBH be defined by,
3 .M BH
m r S , M BH
4 . .r S
(4.142)
If m(rS,MBH) = m(xh,mxmh) then,

M BH
3
rS
mh
2
3
2 . x . h
(4.143)
Substituting h2 = (c/h)2 and c2/G = mh/h into the above yields,

M BH
3
rS
2
2
2 .G. x
(4.144)
such that:
154
r S M BH
2
2 .G. x
. . 2.
.M
BH h 2 x
M BH
mh
(4.145)
Recognising that RBH(MBH) = 2GMBH/c2 yields,

3
r S R BH
2
x. h .R BH
(4.146)
Noting that,
3
r S x. h
2
x. h . x. h
x. h
(4.147)
6.5.3.2 2nd Formulation

Since the singularity mass-density S is constant, we may express the construct in an
alternative form by specifying S = m(xh,mxmh) as follows,
3
r S M BH
3 .M BH
4 . . S
(4.148)
Hence,
3.
2
c .R BH
2 .G
3
4 . .r S
r S R BH
2
3 .c .R BH
3
8 . .G.r S
(4.149)
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G. S
(4.150)
6.5.3.3 3rd Formulation

An expression for MBH as a function of rS may be formulated utilising V(r) = (4/3)r3
as follows,
4. .
3
S .r S
3
M BH r S
(4.151)

Performing sample calculations of rS expressing MBH in terms of proportional solar
mass yields,
rS MS
5.
r S 10 M S
.
3.28046310
=
10
r S 10 .M S
0.015227
( am)
0.706754
(4.152)
155
Similarly, performing sample calculations of the BH to solar mass ratio MBH/MS as a function of
rS such that it resides on the fundamental particle scale (see: [12,17]) yields,
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 13 1.62379510
. 19 1.60185510
. 19 1.57097210
. 13
4.66247210
M BH r
1 . M
BH r uq
MS
M BH r bq
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 13 2.45782610
. 7
5.19529810
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 1.28408510
. 10 2.95005410
. 10 1.9828610
. 10 3.68186410
. 10
M BH r tq
M BH r W
. 10 2.27391910
. 10 5.99684310
. 10 3.39015710
. 10
3.47948910
M BH r H
M BH r
M BH r gg
M BH r Z
1.( kg )
. 10
2.3560510
. 9 2.12850410
. 11
7.96867110
(4.153)
Note:
i. Disregard 1(kg) from the above: this was required and included merely to define the
matrix for evaluation in the MathCad computational environment.
ii. rS of a Super-Massive-Black-Hole (SMBH) [i.e. 1010 solar masses] approaches
the dimensions of a Quark or Boson.
Calculating the total mass of the Universe has been attempted many times by the Physics
community, with no definitive success. We shall perform some qualitative comparisons utilising
rS. The following results represent various speculative total mass values of the Universe if it were
condensed to an rS value equal to some well known particles.
M BH r
. 43
9.27104510
M BH r
. 49
3.22881910
M BH r e
. 51
1.26038310
( kg )
. 63
8.34661610
M BH r Bohr
(4.154)

It should not escape attention that when rS r, RBH approximately equals the size of the
observable Universe according to,
RBH(MBH(r)) 14.56(GLyr)
(4.155)

The derivation of rS has lead to the development of some very useful relationships and
characteristics. Six significant results may be emphasised from this section, these are:
i. The SPBH and SBH singularity energy densities are equal:
U m x. h , m x.m h
U m r S M BH , M BH
(4.156)
ii. The singularity at the centre of every SBH exists at the energy density limit.
iii. A key difference between a SPBH and a SBH singularity is the location of the event
horizon. For a SPBH, rS and RBH coincide: for a SBH, they do not.
iv. By observational inference regarding the mass limit of SMBHs (i.e. approximately 1010
solar masses), the preceding results suggest that the physical dimensions of a Quark or
Boson might be some sort of natural singularity size limit.
v. If the preceding point is correct, it may be possible to discount Bosons by recognising
them to be force carriers. Subsequently, it may (?) be reasonable to conjecture that the
dimensions of a SMBH singularity is generalised by the physical Quark range according
to 1.28 x1010MS < MBH(rS) < 3.69 x1010MS.
vi. A philosophical question arises: is a Quark actually a SMBH from another Universe?
156
6.6
n and profiles (as r RBH) of SBHs
6.6.1 n
6.6.1.1 Synopsis
This section derives the n profile (i.e. as r RBH) of any SBH. It is numerically
demonstrated (explicitly in terms of MBH) and graphically illustrated (in terms of radial
displacement) that the profile remains consistent with conclusions defined in [5] such that:
i. n_2 increases as r RBH [see: Eq. (4.157, 4.158), Fig. (4.18)].
ii. n_4,5 increases with rising MBH [see: Eq. (4.160)].
6.6.1.2 Assumptions
i. The singularity of mass-density m(rS,MBH) at the centre of a SBH exists at the physical
limit such that: m(rS,MBH) = m(xh,mxmh).
ii. KPV is constant [i.e. KPV(r) = 0] from the singularity radius rS to the event
iii. n(rSxh,MBHmxmh) > 1 where n n_2.
6.6.1.3 Construct
The n profile for SBHs (i.e. as r RBH) may be determined trivially in a
computational environment utilising n_2. However, for subsequent use within this text, it is more
convenient to define a new form explicitly in terms of MBH as follows,
Let n at the periphery of a SBH singularity be given by n_4 according to,
n _2 r S M BH , M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.157)
Let n at the event horizon of a SBH be given by n_5 according to,

n _2 R BH M BH , M BH
n _5 M BH
(4.158)
Let the event horizon to singularity cut-off mode ratio be given by nBH according to,
n BH M BH
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.159)
6.6.1.4 Sample calculations

Evaluating Eq. (4.157 4.159) utilising arbitrary values produces the following illustrational
results explicitly in terms of MBH,
n _4 m x.m h
n _5 m x.m h
n BH m x.m h
n _4 M S
n _5 M S
n BH M S
5
n _4 10 .M S
5
n _5 10 .M S
5
n BH 10 .M S
10
n _4 10 .M S
10
n _5 10 .M S
10
n BH 10 .M S
157
1
=
. 5 9.00254210
. 24 2.56419310
. 19
3.51086810
. 6 1.93953910
. 28 1.0035610
. 22
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31 3.92767810
. 24
1.06388810
(4.160)
6.6.1.5 Sample plots (log vs. log)

The increase in n (as a function of radial displacement Rbh and mass MBH) over the
range rS(MS) Rbh RBH(MS) may be graphically illustrated according to,
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode
rS MS
R BH M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
n _2 R bh , 10
10 .
MS
n _4 M S
R bh
Radial Displacement
Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (1 Solar Mass)

Schwarzschild-Black-Hole (10^5 Solar Masses)
Figure 4.18 (log vs. log),

Note: n_2(RBH,mxmh) has been omitted due to plotting limitations.
6.6.2
6.6.2.1 Synopsis
This section derives the profile (i.e. as r RBH) of any SBH. It is numerically
demonstrated (explicitly in terms of MBH) and graphically illustrated (in terms of radial
displacement) that the profile remains consistent with conclusions defined in [5] such that:
i. _3 decreases as r RBH [see: Fig. (4.19)].
ii. _4 decreases with rising MBH [see: Eq. (4.165)].
iii. _5 increases with rising MBH [see: Eq. (4.163, 4.165)].
6.6.2.2 Assumptions
i. The singularity of mass-density m(rS,MBH) at the centre of a SBH exists at the physical
limit such that: m(rS,MBH) = m(xh,mxmh).
ii. KPV is constant [i.e. KPV(r) = 0] from the singularity radius rS to the event
iii. h is not a physical limit.
158
6.6.2.3 Construct
The profile for SBHs (i.e. as r RBH) may be determined trivially in a
computational environment utilising _3. However, for subsequent use within this text, it is
more convenient to define a new form explicitly in terms of MBH as follows,
Let at the periphery of a SBH singularity be given by _5 according to,
_5 M BH
_3 r S M BH , M BH
(4.161)
Let the singularity to event horizon cut-off frequency ratio be given by BH according to,
BH M BH
_5 M BH
_4 M BH
(4.162)

Evaluating Eq. (4.161, 4.162) utilising arbitrary values produces the following results
explicitly in terms of MBH,
_5 m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_5 M S
. 19
4.55727410
5
_5 10 .M S
. 19
6.9805610
. 20
1.06924110
10
_5 10 .M S
BH m x.m h
(4.163)
BH M S
5
BH 10 .M S
( YHz)
. 13
7.30358710
. 15
5.19263810
. 17
3.69181510
10
BH 10 .M S
(4.164)
Hence, the proportional relationship between h and _4,5 may be trivially

approximated as follows,
_5 m x.m h
_4 m x.m h
_5 M S
1 .
5
h _5 10 .M S
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
0.253004
_4 M S
=
0.253004
.
6.158585 8.43227510
14
.
9.433354 1.81667910
15
14.44945
(4.165)
The preceding results may be indicative of a natural physical frequency boundary based upon an
observational mass limit of SMBHs.
If we conjecture that BH has harmonic foundations, in accordance with the broader EGM
construct for the harmonic representation of fundamental particles, then a set of simultaneous
equations may be formulated such that a precise observational mass limit for SMBHs may be
predicted.
For example, if we assume that BH = 15 (i.e. an integer value), a precise prediction for
the SMBH limit may be calculated. If this result matches the observational limit, then a natural
physical frequency limit is implied such that a harmonic relationship exists between rS and RBH.
Of course, this is pure conjecture and no emphatic conclusion may be inferred.
159

The decrease in (as a function of radial displacement Rbh and mass MBH) over
the range rS(MS) Rbh RBH(MS) may be graphically illustrated according to,
Harmonic Cut-Off Freq. vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency
rS MS
R BH M S
_3 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
10
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
R bh
Radial Displacement
Figure 4.19 (log vs. log),

Note: Eq. (4.140, 4.163) indicate that (rS,mxmh) = (RBH,mxmh). However, the preceding
graph illustrates that, over the radial displacement range specified, is not constant for a
SPBH. This is due to Rbh > [rS(mxmh) = RBH(mxmh) = xh] (i.e. decreases beyond the
event horizon).
6.6.3 PV(1,r,MBH)
6.6.3.1 Synopsis
This section derives the value of PV(1,r,MBH) at rS and RBH of any SBH (i.e.
_6,7). It is numerically demonstrated (explicitly in terms of MBH) that results remain
consistent with conclusions defined in [5] such that:
i. PV(1,r,MBH) decreases as r RBH [see: Fig. (4.20)].
ii. PV[1,r(MBH),MBH] decreases with rising MBH [see: Eq. (4.166 - 4.169)].
6.6.3.2 Assumptions
Refer to preceding sections.
160
6.6.3.3 Construct
The value of PV(1,r,MBH) at rS and RBH for SBHs may be determined trivially in a
computational environment utilising _4,5 and n_4,5. However, for subsequent use within this
text, it is more convenient to define new forms explicitly in terms of MBH as follows,
Note: the following symbols for the fundamental harmonic frequencies of a SBH have been adopted
to emphasise that PV(1,r,M) = (r,M) for a SPBH (i.e. when r = xh, M = mxmh).
Let PV[1,rS(MBH),MBH] at the periphery of a SBH singularity be given by _6 according to,
_6 M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.166)
Let PV[1,RBH(MBH),MBH] at the event horizon of a SBH be given by _7 according to,

_7 M BH
_4 M BH
n _5 M BH
(4.167)
Let the singularity to event horizon fundamental frequency ratio be given by PV_1 according to,
_6 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_7 M BH
(4.168)

Evaluating Eq. (4.166 - 4.168) utilising arbitrary values produces the following
approximated results explicitly in terms of MBH,
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_6 M S
_7 M S
5
_6 10 .M S
5
_7 10 .M S
10
_6 10 .M S
10
_7 10 .M S
. 42 1.87219710
. 42
1.87219710
=
. 38 6.93112610
. 4
1.29804810
. 37
3.61189510
. 37 6.93112610
.
1.00503110
PV_1 m x.m h
( Hz)
0.693113
6
(4.169)
PV_1 M S
5
PV_1 10 .M S
10
PV_1 10 .M S
. 33
1.8727810
. 37
5.21112310
. 42
1.45002610
(4.170)
The preceding results indicate that the PV spectral bandwidth expands as the radial displacement
from the singularity increases (i.e. r ).
The decrease in PV(1,r,MBH) (as a function of radial displacement Rbh and mass
MBH)37 over the range rS(MS) Rbh RBH(MS) may be graphically illustrated according to,
37
Shown in the proceeding graph as the ratio _3(Rbh,MBH) / n_2(Rbh,MBH).

161
Fundamental Freq. vs Radial Disp.

rS MS
R BH M S
_3 R bh , m x .m h
n _2 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
10
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
n _2 R bh , 10
10 .
MS
R bh
Radial Displacement
Figure 4.20,
6.6.3.6 Honourable mention
It should not escape attention that the dimensionless ratio shown below approaches an
integer value. However, no specific conclusion may be inferred from the following result,
1
10
PV_1 10 .M S ( Hz)
= 5.103269
(4.171)

The key determinations are:
i. n_2 increases as r RBH.
ii. n_4,5 increases with rising MBH.
iv. _3 decreases as r RBH.
v. _4 decreases with rising MBH.
vi. _5 increases with rising MBH.
vii. PV(1,r,MBH) decreases as r RBH.
viii. PV[1,r(MBH),MBH] decreases with rising MBH.
ix. PV[1,r(Rbh),MBH] increases with rising MBH [Rbh f(MBH)].
x. The PV spectral bandwidth expands as the radial displacement from the singularity
increases (i.e. r ).
xi. It is conjectured that a natural physical frequency limit may exist such that it
influences the SMBH observational limit.
162
6.7
Derivation of the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL
6.7.1 Synopsis
6.7.1.1 Fundamentals
EGM assumes that the spectral energy of the polarized ZPF surrounding an object (i.e. the
PV spectrum / gravitational field) is equal to the mass-energy of the object itself, which may be
characterised by a population of coherent conjugate wavefunction Photon pairs at . The massenergy equivalence relationship is given by Einsteins famous equation,
E( M )
M .c
(4.172)
To derive the minimum gravitational lifetime of matter TL, we require a reference particle
(i.e. a starting point) for the derivation process. For simplicity and clarity, we shall utilise the SPBH
as our reference particle from which to build a construct. The primary reason for this selection is
because rS coincides with RBH which negates any potential singularity or event horizon
arguments the investigator (i.e. us / the reader) might have.
The propagation energy of a single Photon is given by E(),
E ( )
h .
(4.173)
Consequently, the energy of a coupled Photon pair (i.e. a Graviton as defined by EGM) should
equal 2E(). A simple mathematical proof of this may be demonstrated as follows: let the
relationship between the propagation energy of a Graviton (i.e. a conjugate Photon pair) be,
E g ( ) E x.E ( )
(4.174)
where, Eg() denotes the Propagation energy of a Graviton and Ex represents the proportional
relationship to the propagation energy of a Photon. Moreover, let the population of Gravitons (i.e. a
population of coherent conjugate Photon pairs) being radiated per period be given by T_4
according to,
T _4 M BH
1
_4 M BH
(4.175)
Hence, the average number of Photons radiated by a SBH, each with propagation energy
E(), is given by n according to,
n , M BH
E M BH
E ( )
(4.176)
Subsequently, the number of Gravitons is given by ng according to,

n g , M BH
E M BH
E g( )
(4.177)
However, recognising that a single Graviton is a conjugate Photon pair (i.e. by the EGM
definition given) according to,
n g , M BH
1.
n , M BH
2
(4.178)
It follows that,
1.
n , M BH
2
163
E M BH
E g( )
(4.179)
Substituting Eg() = ExE() yields,

1.
n , M BH
2
Hence,
Ex
E M BH
E x.E ( )
(4.180)
2 .E M BH
2
n , M BH .E ( )
E g( )
(4.181)
2 .E ( )
(4.182)
6.7.1.2 Assumptions
To apply the preceding equations, we are required to specifically assign a mechanism
facilitating the existence of gravitational fields. EGM considers all matter to be wavefunction
radiators of populations of coherent conjugate Photon pairs such that each pair constitutes a
Graviton38. Hence, to evaluate the preceding equations we shall assume the following key
mathematical modelling criteria for an object at rest,
i. Gravitons reside within, until they are spontaneously ejected and the supply has been
exhausted. Hence, existing gravitational (PV) field strengths are sustained in this manner.
ii. Only whole Gravitons are ejected.
iii. The physical reality of the mathematical modelling processes utilised, or theories of
Graviton absorption by the object itself from external sources - at this stage, are irrelevant.
The true measure will be the complete and accurate derivation of the Hubble constant and
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature later in this text.
Considering a SPBH (i.e. MBH = mxmh) yields a value of mass-energy equivalence and
Photon-Graviton emission / absorption period as follows,
E m x.m h = 6.616163 ( GJ)
(4.183)
T _4 m x.m h = 5.341319 10
43 .
(4.184)
The energy radiated per T_4 (i.e. per Photon or Graviton) is given by E() and Eg()
respectively according to,
E _4 m x.m h
= 1.240531 ( GJ)
E g _4 m x.m h
= 2.481061 ( GJ)
(4.185)
(4.186)
Hence, the average number of Photons and Gravitons radiated per T_4 is evaluated to be,
n _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
n g _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
5.333333
2.666667
(4.187)
38
In a manner of speaking, the typical PV spectrum contains many different Graviton massenergies dependent upon ones definition of how many Photons constitute a specific kind / type
of Graviton. However, the EGM definition is applied throughout this construct.
164
6.7.2 Construct
6.7.2.1 Reconciliation
6.7.2.1.1 Dilemma
How does one reconcile Eq. (4.187) against the 2nd assumption?
6.7.2.1.2 Resolution
6.7.2.1.2.1 Uncertainty
The preceding results suggest that the Graviton burst per period varies slightly around the
average value. Subsequently, over 3 periods, the total number of Gravitons radiated equals 8.
This may be explained a numbers of ways. For example, in the case of a SPBH (conserving
coherent population characteristics), Graviton emission profiles could (?) appear as follows,
i. 3 Gravitons in the 1st period + 3 Gravitons in the 2nd period + 2 Gravitons in the
3rd period = 3 + 3 + 2 = 8, with an average being = 8/3 = 2.6667 =
ng(_4(mxmh),mxmh).
ii. 2 Gravitons in the 1st period + 2 Gravitons in the 2nd period + 4 Gravitons in the
3rd period = 2 + 2 + 4 = 8 etc.
iii. 1 Graviton in the 1st period + 1 Graviton in the 2nd period + 6 Gravitons in the
3rd period = 1 + 1 + 6 = 8 etc.
iv. 0 Gravitons in the 1st period + 0 Gravitons in the 2nd period + 8 Gravitons in the
3rd period = 0 + 0 + 8 = 8 etc.
Note: the potential emission profiles above re-enforce the uncertainty principle.
6.7.2.1.2.2 Quasi-Uncertainty
An alternative possibility is that the sum of the Gravitons radiated over any 3 consecutive
periods equals 8 (commencing the count from an arbitrary period position in the emission train),
in which case an emission profile could (?) be 3 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 2 + .. Hence,
moving from left to right across the emission train yields,
i. 3 + 3 + 2 = 8
ii. 3 + 2 + 3 = 8
iii. 2 + 3 + 3 = 8 etc.
Therefore, our initial assumption regarding coherent integer Graviton population ejections has
been reconciled against ng by the existence of a number of different possible emission trains and
temporal profiles.
6.7.2.2 TL
6.7.2.2.1 Fundamentals
The generalised form has been avoided thus far because it did not adequately expose the
dilemma surrounding emission / absorption trains. For example, if one applies a value of MBH
other than mxmh, one obtains relatively large values of Graviton emission / absorption numbers.
Hence, the presence of uncertainty principles in the EGM construct may not have been readily
apparent.
165
However, because the possibility of emission / absorption trains has been introduced, we
may now determine the minimum gravitational lifetime of starving matter in generalised form by
considering the mass-energies of a Photon m and Graviton mgg at rest by the EGM method
defined in [10],
m
m gg
3.195095
10
6.39019
45 .
eV
(4.188)
Subsequently, the population of Gravitons and Photons contained within starving matter
(ngg and n respectively) may be stated as,
E( M )
n gg ( M )
m gg
(4.189)
2 .n gg ( M )
n ( M )
(4.190)
Hence, the minimum gravitational lifetime of starving matter is given by TL according to,
T L( r , M )
n gg ( M ) .T _3( r , M )
n g _3( r , M ) , M
(4.191)
where,
1
T _3( r , M )
_3( r , M )
(4.192)
6.7.2.2.2 Sample calculations

Evaluating the preceding equations for arbitrary values of SBH mass at rS yields,
T L r S x. h , m x.m h
. 13
4.10173110
T L r S M S ,M S
=
5
5
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
. 13
4.10173110
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
. 13
4.10173110
10
10
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
(4.193)
Evaluation at RBH [recalling that: rS(xh) = RBH(xh) = xh] produces,

T L R BH x. h , m x.m h
. 13
4.10173110
T L R BH M S , M S
5
5
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
(4.194)
Notably, evaluation at the charge radius (i.e. ZPF equilibrium radius) of several fundamental
particles produces,
T L r uq , m uq
T L r , m e
T L r , m p
T L r ,mn
. 13
4.10173110
=
. 13
4.10173110
. 13
4.10173110
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
(4.195)
Therefore, these results indicate that all starving matter has identical gravitational lifetimes.
166
6.7.2.2.3 Simplifications
By inspection, TL may be simplified according to,
h
TL
(4.196)
Evaluating yields,
1
m
h.
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
m gg
9
10 .yr
(4.197)

Utilising the Hubble constant H0 defined by the Particle Data Group (PDG) in [22], we
may determine the minimum gravitational lifetime of the Universe expressed as a scalar multiple of
H0 according to,
H0
71.
km
s .Mpc
(4.198)
Hence,
.
T L.H 0 = 2.97830810
12
(4.199)
Therefore, the minimum gravitational lifetime of starving matter is approximately 3 Trillion

times the Hubble age of the Universe.
NOTES
167
6.8
Derivation of the average emission frequency per Graviton g
6.8.1 Synopsis
BHs are the most extreme gravitational objects in nature and at least 1 Graviton should
be emitted within a few periods at . However, all but a SPBH are described by a spectrum of
EGM frequencies. Subsequently, at for example, not every cycle emits a Graviton with
certainty. Hence, the average emission frequency per Graviton shall be determined.
6.8.2 Assumptions
i. The uncertainty resolution in the preceding section is an adequate representation for
mathematical modelling purposes and is appropriate for the objective defined above.
ii. The average number of Gravitons radiated by matter at PV is given by ng(PV,M)
[i.e. the generalised form of Eq.(4.177)].
iii. The maximum number of cycles at PV it may take to emit the appropriate coherent
Graviton population is given by ng(PV,M)-1.
6.8.3 Construct
The average emission period per Graviton at PV is given by Tg according to,
T g n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
n g PV n PV, r , M , M
(4.200)
Hence, the average emission frequency per Graviton is given by g according to,
g n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
(4.201)
Substituting TPV = 1 / PV yields,

T PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M .n g PV n PV, r , M , M
(4.202)
Substituting ng = n yields,
1
PV n PV, r , M . .n PV n PV, r , M , M
2
(4.203)
Subsequently,
g n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
(4.204)
Substituting E = hPV yields,

1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 h . PV n PV, r , M
(4.205)
Simplifying produces,
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
.
2 h PV n PV, r , M
E( M )
2 .h
(4.206)
Therefore,
g( M )
M .c
2 .h
168
(4.207)
Hence, it follows that the total population of Gravitons residing within matter is equal to the
average emission frequency per Graviton39 multiplied by the minimum gravitational lifetime of
starving matter, given by ngg(M) according to,
n gg ( M ) T L. g ( M )
(4.208)
Note: ngg(M) = E(M) / mgg = Mc2 / mgg.

Evaluating the preceding equations for various arbitrary values of SBH mass yields,
g m x.m h
. 18
4.99252510
g MS
5
g 10 .M S
. 56
1.34855310
. 61
1.34855310
( YHz)
. 66
1.34855310
10
g 10 .M S
n gg m x.m h
(4.209)
. 72
6.46222510
n gg M S
=
5
n gg 10 .M S
10
n gg 10 .M S
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
E m x.m h
(4.210)
. 72
6.46222510
E MS
1 .
5
m gg E 10 .M S
10
E 10 .M S
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
(4.211)
39
On average, Graviton emission occurs once every g-1 seconds.
g is non-physical: it is a mathematical contrivance.

169
6.9
Why can't we observe BHs?
6.9.1 Synopsis
The invisibility of BHs has been historically attributed to the curvature of the space-time
manifold induced by their mass. However, the PV model of gravity attributes this behaviour to the
value of KPV of the space-time manifold induced by the radial gradient of the energy density of
the gravitational field at the event horizon.
EGM advances to the next logical step by combining the static PV gravitational field with
the harmonic nature of the ZPF resulting in a spectrum of frequencies describing the gravitational
field such that the spectral bandwidth converges to a single mode in the case of a SPBH. Moreover,
it demonstrates that the PV spectrum may be characterised by a single wavefunction due to the
magnitude of S where, >> 99.99(%) of gravitational energy exists at (i.e. all other
frequencies may be usefully neglected).
Therefore, EGM implies that, for a SBH, a wavefunction radiating from RBH with a
frequency of , should degrade into the Visible Light (VL) frequency range if a hypothetical
EGM wavefunction detector was sufficiently distant from it. However, three principle reasons
exist as to why SBHs will never be detectable. The 1st reason is discussed in this section, i.e. the
Universe is insufficiently large to permit an EGM wavefunction detector to detect SBHs, even if
the incoming conjugate pair EGM signal could be appropriately isolated, amplified and filtered
somehow(?)40.
Even if the Universe is much older and larger than current estimates, we show that it
remains too small for a device to detect SBHs in the VL range. Subsequently, it is implied that the
EGM wavefunction of a SBH will enter the optical wavelength range in the far distant future long
after our species has probably disappeared from existence.
As an alternative to VL detection and confirmation of the EGM construct, we explore the
possibility of detecting BHs within the X-Ray range. It is shown that, whilst VL prospects are
doubtful, the X-Ray range may be a potential theoretical direction for future community research, if
(and only if), the technical problems of signal isolation, amplification and filtration, emphasised in
Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for gravitational astronomy? and
Gravitational Cosmology respectively, are overcome.
To facilitate this derivation, we must firstly specify a size and age of the Universe for
subsequent use. Since these values are not precisely known and are hotly debated within the
scientific community, we shall approximate them directly from the Hubble constant. These are
termed the Hubble size and age of the Universe (i.e. r0 and H0-1 respectively).
6.9.2 Assumptions
i. All physical BHs, for the purpose of this derivation, are usefully represented by
approximation to SBHs (note: SPBHs are probably non-physical).
ii. The present size and age of the observable Universe is adequately approximated utilising
H0 according to r0 = c / H0 and H0-1 respectively.
iii. r0 >> RBH such that KPV(r0,M) 1 and (r0,M) _3(r0,M).
iv. It will somehow(?) be technologically possible in the distant future to appropriately
isolate, amplify and filter the incoming conjugate wavefunction paired EGM signal to
verify the derivation.
40
The 2nd and 3rd reasons are discussed in: Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools
for gravitational astronomy? and Gravitational Cosmology respectively.
170
6.9.3 Construct
The VL spectrum for human beings is approximately bounded by wavelengths in the
nanometre (nm) range according to 400VL(nm)750. The X-Ray spectrum has an
approximate wavelength range of 0.3X-RAY(nm)300. Both these wavelength ranges can be
converted to the frequency domain according to the classical relationship = c / .
Utilising the expression for _3, such that r = r represents the distance from the centre
of mass of a celestial object to the Earth, we may determine the visibility of SBHs in the VL and
X-Ray ranges by transposing for r as follows,
5
St G.
r _3 , M
_3
(4.212)
Therefore, r denotes the distance from the Earth that a celestial object (i.e. an EGM
wavefunction radiation source) must be located such that its EGM wavefunction frequency decays
to the VL or X-Ray ranges.
6.9.4.1 SBHs
The value of _3 at the edge of the presently observable Universe for various arbitrary
SBH mass configurations (i.e. expressed as solar multiples) is approximated by,
_3 r 0 , M S
5.
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
0.163994
= 2.118067 ( EHz)
27.355887
(4.213)
where, EHz = 1018(Hz). However, computation of the EGM Flux Intensity at an Earth based
detector implies current impossibility of technical achievement according to,
C _J1 r 0 , M S
5.
C _J1 r 0 , 10 M S
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
.
1.48429110
= 8.89809310
.
10
20 .
yJy
5.334267
(4.214)
-24
where, yJy denotes yocto-Jansky [i.e. 10 (Jansky)].

Ignoring technical feasibility: for SBHs at the edge of an observable Universe, the
following results demonstrate (i.e. being significantly greater than unity) that a Universe is
required to be substantially larger than r0 for the value of _3 to be within the VL range
according to,
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , 105 .M
VL
S
r0
10
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
. 4 5.05271110
. 4
1.62975410
5
r VL( 750 ( nm) ) , 10 .M S
= 1.62975410
. 6 5.05271110
. 6
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
. 8 5.05271110
. 8
1.62975410
(4.215)
Repeating the procedure in the X-Ray frequency range (i.e. 30(PHz)X-RAY30(EHz)) produces
favourable detection results according to,
171
r 30.( PHz) , M S
5.
r 30.( EHz) , M S
r 30.( PHz) , 10 M S
r 30.( EHz) , 10 M S
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
. 5
2.93002110
5.
= 2.93002110
.
1.166462
116.646228
. 9 1.16646210
. 4
2.93002110
6
10 .Lyr
(4.216)
15
where, PHz = 10 (Hz) and Lyr = light-year.

The preceding results indicate that the detection of SBHs in the X-Ray range may(?) be
possible within observational distances of approximately 1.2 117 million light years from
Earth. However, computation of the EGM Flux Intensity for an Earth based detector implies current
impossibility of technical achievement according to,
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , M S , M S
2.164916
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S

5.
5.
.
= 2.16491610
.
2.16491610
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , M S , M S

5.
10
29 .
yJy
(4.217)
8.618686
5.
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S
.
= 8.61868610
.
8.61868610
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
14 .
yJy
(4.218)
6.9.4.2 SPBHs
The existence of SPBHs is considered to be a theoretical possibility predicted by the
dimensional manipulation of Planck properties. Physicality of such phenomena cannot be
completely discounted due to a lack of observational evidence. Hence, EGM predicts a VL range
according to,
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
0.239057
0.741144
( Lyr)
(4.219)
However, computation of the EGM Flux Intensity for an Earth based detector implies current
C _J1 r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h , m x.m h
28.979765
1.102778
10
16 .
yJy
(4.220)
A SPBH existing in the X-Ray frequency range would be visible within our solar system
according to,
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
. 6
2.95234410
3
10 .km
11.753495
(4.221)
However, computation of the EGM Flux Intensity for an Earth based detector implies current
7
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 6.228302 10 .yJy
(4.222)
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 2.479532 ( fJy )
(4.223)
where, fJy denotes femto-Jansky [i.e. 10-15(Jansky)].
172

Assuming it is technically possible to appropriately isolate, amplify and filter an incoming
EGM wavefunction signal, the preceding construct implies the following,
i. Eventually, as the observable Universe continues to expand to thousands of times its
present size, the radiant EGM wavefunctions of BHs at the edge of the Universe will
enter the VL range. This does not mean that they will become visible to the naked eye.
This only means that their EGM wavefunction will enter the VL part of the EM
spectrum.
ii. It may(?) be theoretically possible to detect BHs utilising the X-Ray range within
observational distances of approximately 1.2 117 million light years from Earth.
However, significant theoretical and technical challenges would be required to be
overcome, emphasised in Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for
gravitational astronomy? and Gravitational Cosmology respectively.
NOTES
173
NOTES
174
7 Fundamental Cosmology
Abstract
The primordial and present values of the Hubble constant are derived (H and HU
respectively), leading to the determination of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
(CMBR) temperature TU. This facilitates the determination of the impact of Dark Matter /
Energy on HU and TU such that a generalised expression for TU in terms of HU is
formulated. An experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF is
also presented.
175
7.1
Derivation of the primordial and present Hubble constants H, HU
7.1.1 Synopsis
The derivation of the primordial H and present HU Hubble constants by the EGM
method is possible by postulating an initial size, shape and mass of the Universe, momentarily prior
to the Big-Bang: we shall term this state the Primordial Universe. Once a description of the
Primordial Universe has been mathematically articulated in generalised terms, it may be
compared to a dimensionally equivalent object in accordance with BPT and similarity principles.
The objective herein is to derive a system of generalised equations, withholding numerical
evaluation. In a subsequent section, the generalised expressions will be numerically evaluated
demonstrating a calculation of HU in favourable agreement with expert opinion and physical
measurement of H0. Moreover, a value of H is presented demonstrating that the EGM method
suggests exciting new avenues for Cosmological research.
7.1.2 Assumptions
i. Dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity:
The Primordial Universe was analogous to a spherical particle on the Planck scale
with radius r1 and homogeneous mass distribution M1, described by a single
wavefunction whereas the presently observable Universe is described by a spectrum of
wavefunctions. The maximum EGM Flux Intensity measured by an observer at the edge of
the Primordial Universe is given by C_J1(r1,M1).
Matter radiates Gravitons41 at a spectrum of frequencies such that the Cosmological
majority of it exists in Photonic form, resulting in an approximately homogeneous massenergy distribution throughout the Universe whereby any Galactic formation is dynamically,
kinematically and geometrically equivalent to a spherical particle of homogeneous mass
distribution and may be represented as a Planck scale object to be utilised as a Galactic
Reference Particle (GRP).
The associated EGM Flux Intensity of the GRP is given by C_J1(r2,M2) where,
r2 denotes the mean H0 measurement distance42 to the Galactic centre and M2
represents total Galactic mass43. The definition of r2 comes from the scientific requirement
to compare calculation or prediction to measurement. Subsequently, one should also utilise
parameters within the same frame of reference as the measurement, against which the
construct is being tested.
It is not known by physical validation that H0 is measured as being the same from
all locations in the Universe. It is believed to be the case by contemporary theory; however
it is not factually known to be true. To verify it physically, one would be required to perform
the H0 measurement from a significantly different location in space. Thus, to minimise
potential modelling errors, we shall confine r2 to the same frame of reference44 as the
measurement of H0.
ii. The ratio of the presently observable Cosmological size rf, to the initial size ri of the
Primordial Universe instantaneously prior to the Big-Bang, is proportional to the
corresponding EGM Flux Intensity {i.e. (rf / ri) [C_J1(rf) / C_J1(ri)]}.
iii. A relationship exists between the physical proportions of a particle at the Planck scale
limit governed by x and n_2 such that it may be stated as x = y(r1,r2,M1,M2).
41
Coherent populations of conjugate Photon pairs for a minimum period of TL.

i.e. the distance relative to the Galactic centre from where a physical measurement of H0 is
performed.
43
Visible + dark.
44
Our solar system.
42
176
Upon consideration of the preceding assumptions, it follows that Eq. (3.230ii) represents the basic
form of mass-energy distribution throughout the Cosmos.
7.1.3 Construct
7.1.3.1 AU, RU, HU
The EGM harmonic representation of fundamental particles may be applied to facilitate the
derivation of HU by considering the initial i and present f mass and observable size of the
Universe. Hence, utilising Eq. (3.230ii) yields,
Mi
Mf
rf
St
ri
(4.224)
where, Mi = Mf due to the conservation of mass. For simplicity, let the rf to ri ratio be defined
according to,
rf
KU
ri
(4.225)
St9 in Eq. (3.230ii) represents the harmonic relationship between the values of of
two dimensionally similar particles. Hence, recognising that the value of St is presently
unknown in a Cosmological context, and that the frequency and time domains are interchangeable,
let St9 equal the ratio of TL to the present Hubble age of the Universe AU according to,
St
TL
AU
(4.226)
Hence,
5
KU
TL
AU
(4.227)
Considering the preceding assumptions and equations, one expects that a relationship should
exist between ri,f and C_J1(r1,2,M1,2); however, their precise values are not yet known.
Subsequently, we shall deduce a relationship to be tested against physical observation utilising the
following logical statements and deductions,
i. If the order of magnitude of rf is approximately known by physical measurement45 and
ri approached the Planck scale limit, then rf >> ri such that e(rf / ri) .
ii. Without empirical evidence, ones expectation is that C_J1(r1,M1) >> C_J1(r2,M2), such
that [C_J1(r1,M1) / C_J1(r2,M2)] .
iii. Hence, it follows that46: e(rf / ri) [C_J1(r1,M1) / C_J1(r2,M2)] according to,
rf
ri
ln
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
(4.228)
It was demonstrated earlier that the appropriate proportions of a particle at the Planck scale
limit satisfying the EGM construct are: r1 = xh and M1 = mxmh = xmh / 2. Although the
precise value of x was calculated and shown to be small, we shall remove this constraint and
advance the derivation in a more generalised manner.
45
46
i.e. approximately < 15 billion light-years.

e denotes the exponential function.
177
Temporarily ignoring the previously computed value of x facilitates the creation of a

substantially more robust construct such that the generalisation may be tested against physical
observation utilising the following logical statements and deductions,
iv. Let x = y(r1,r2,M1,M2).
v. If y(r1,r2,M1,M2) 0 then e[1 / y(r1,r2,M1,M2)] .
vi. Without empirical evidence to the contrary, ones expectation is that n_2(r2,M2) >>
n_2(r1,M1), such that [n_2(r2,M2) / n_2(r1,M1)] .
vii. By definition: n_2(r1,M1) = 1 at the Planck scale limit for the wavefunction of the
particle to remain consistent with the EGM construct47. Subsequently, n_2(r2,M2) .
viii. Hence, it follows that e[1 / y(r1,r2,M1,M2)] n_2(r2,M2) according to,
1
y r 2, M 2
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
(4.229)
Subsequently, r1 and M1 may be written in the following block form,

y r 2 , M 2 .r 3
r1
y r 2, M 2
.M
3
2
M1
(4.230)
Thus, KU may be written in functional form according to,
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
(4.231)
Performing the appropriate substitutions, one obtains the reduced functional form as follows,
5
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
1
2
.ln n
_2 r 2 , M 2
3.
M3
26
M2
r2
r3
(4.232)
Hence, the EGM age of the Universe AU is given by,

A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.233)
Consequently, the EGM size of the Universe RU may be stated as follows,

R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.234)
Therefore, for a flat Universe,

A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.235)
7.1.3.2 H
The energy density of the Universe changes with time and, by mathematical definition, so
must the Hubble constant. Assuming the Primordial Universe was analogous to a particle at the
Planck scale limit, it is possible to predict a value for the Hubble constant at the instant of the BigBang (i.e. the primordial Hubble constant H) by equating it to the mass-density m.
47
i.e. rS(r1,M1) = RBH(r1,M1).

178
Utilising the contemporary density relationship according to,

3 .H
m
8 . .G
2
(4.236)
such that: H H(r3,M3) and m m(r3,M3) yields,

H r 3, M 3
2.
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
(4.237)
7.1.3.3 U
Utilising the contemporary density relationship, the EGM mass-density of the Universe U
may be determined as follows,
U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
3 .H U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
8 . .G
(4.238)
7.1.3.4 MU
Approximating the observable Universe to a spherical volume [i.e. V(r) = 4r3 / 3], the
total EGM mass of the Universe MU (i.e. visible + dark) when r RU(r2,M2,r3,M3) is given by,
M U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
V R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 . U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.239)

A robust generalised construct for H, HU, U and MU has been formulated which
may be tested against physical observation. Non-refractive forms were utilised throughout this
derivation (i.e. C_J1 and n_2) because:
i. KPV(r,M) evaporates when [C(r1,M1) / C(r2,M2)] [C_J1(r1,M1) / C_J1(r2,M2)].
ii. r2 >> 1 such that KPV(r2,M2) 1.
NOTES
179
7.2
Derivation of the CMBR temperature TU
7.2.1 Synopsis
The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) temperature TU may be
calculated utilising the EGM method by considering the total mass-energy of the Universe to be
dynamically, kinematically and geometrically similar to a particle at the Planck scale limit,
consistent with the formulation of H and HU in the preceding section.
By generalising the result: ng(_4(mxmh),mxmh) ng(_3(r3,M3),M3) {see Eq. (4.187)},
we may formulate a relationship between the primordial and Galactic reference average numbers of
Gravitons radiated by similar particles. For a Primordial Universe particle model at the Planck
scale limit, the relationship yields TU by the application of proportional similarity principles,
wavefunction frequency degradation and the Wien Displacement Constant KW.
The following quotation is taken verbatim from [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hphys.html].
When the temperature of a blackbody radiator increases, the overall radiated energy
increases and the peak of the radiation curve moves to shorter wavelengths. When the maximum is
evaluated from the Planck radiation formula, the product of the peak wavelength and the
temperature is found to be a constant.
Figure 4.21,
This relationship is called Wien's Displacement Law and is useful for determining the
temperature of hot radiant objects such as stars, and indeed for a determination of the temperature
of any radiant object whose temperature is far above that of its surroundings.
It should be noted that the peak of the radiation curve in the Wien relationship is the peak
only because the intensity is plotted as a function of wavelength. If frequency or some other
variable is used on the horizontal axis, the peak will be at a different wavelength.
7.2.2 Assumptions
i. The primordial average number of Gravitons radiated per T_3 period, instantaneously
after the Big-Bang, is given by ng(_3(r3,M3),M3).
ii. The Galactic reference average number of Gravitons KT (also termed the expansive
scaling factor), radiated per wavefunction period, may be defined as a proportion of the
primordial average given by KT(r2,M2,r3,M3) ng(_3(r3,M3),M3).
iii. Specific information about KTs wavefunction period is irrelevant due to the assignment
of proportional similarity characteristics between the primordial (i.e. Primordial
Universe) and Galactic reference averages described above.
180
7.2.3 Construct
Generalising the result ng(_4(mxmh),mxmh) ng(_3(r3,M3),M3) facilitates the creation
of a substantially more robust construct such that it may be tested against physical observation
utilising the following logical statements and deductions,
i. If ng(_3(r3,M3),M3) 0 then e[KT(r2,M2,r3,M3) / ng(_3(r3,M3),M3)] .
ii. Without empirical evidence to the contrary, ones expectation is that H(r3,M3) >>
HU(r2,M2,r3,M3), such that [H(r3,M3) / HU(r2,M2,r3,M3)] .
iii. Hence, it follows that e[KT(r2,M2,r3,M3) / ng(_3(r3,M3),M3)] [H(r3,M3) / HU(r2,M2,r3,M3)],
yielding the expansive scaling factor according to,
K T r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
H r 3, M 3
H U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
(4.240)
Wien's Displacement Law provides the frequency (or wavelength) at which Plancks
Law has maximum specific intensity. [46] Consequently, the hotter an object is, the shorter the
wavelength at which it will emit most of its radiation and the frequency for maximal (i.e. peak)
radiation power is found by dividing KW by the temperature. [24]
If the present size of the Universe were held static (i.e. spatial expansion was miraculously
halted) and its total mass-energy (i.e. visible + dark) were compressed48 such that it was
dynamically, kinematically and geometrically analogous to a particle at the Planck scale limit such
that n_2(r3,M3) = 1 (i.e. only one wavefunction describes the Primordial Universe), then a
mass-less observer at the periphery of the presently observable Universe, given by
RU(r2,M2,r3,M3), would measure its EGM wavefunction frequency to be _3(r,M)
_3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3).
Recognising that _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3) = c / _3(RU(r2,M2,r3,M3),M3) yields the
expansive independent average temperature of the observable Universe TW (also termed the
thermodynamic scaling factor) according to,
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
(4.241)
Hence, applying Wien's Displacement Law for blackbody radiation, scaled by KT for application
to the EGM domain by preservation of dynamic, kinematic and geometric similarity, yields the
CMBR temperature (i.e. the expansive dependent average) as follows,
T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.242)
Therefore,
i. TW denotes the Cosmological expansive independent average temperature because the
expression does not contain HU.
ii. TU denotes the Cosmological expansive dependent average temperature because the
expression contains HU.
It is clear from the preceding construct that the CMBR temperature is a function of the
Hubble constant.
48
Mimicking the Primordial Universe and excluding space-time manifold expansion from
consideration.
181
7.3
Numerical solutions for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and TU
7.3.1 r2, r3, M2, M3

Thus far, we have determined mathematical relationships for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and
TU. However, to numerically evaluate these expressions, we require precise definitions of r2, r3,
M2 and M3. If the Primordial Universe was analogous to a particle at the Planck scale limit,
then RBH must have coincided with rS (i.e. the Primordial Universe was analogous to a
SPBH) because nothing (i.e. including a space-time manifold) existed beyond RBH.
This assertion is reinforced by the contemporary scientific belief that the Big-Bang was not
an explosion in the space-time manifold, but was an explosion of the space-time manifold.
Moreover, it was previously shown, by the calculation of rS, that a Planck scale particle
configuration of r = h and M = mh is inconsistent with the EGM construct and non-physical.
The argument for this conclusion is easily demonstrated according to,
r S mh
1 . r m .m
S x h
h
x
1=
144.219703
.
4.21884710
13
(%)
(4.243)
r S mh
1 = 22.109851 ( % )
R BH m h
(4.244)
These results indicate that a Planck scale particle of radius h and mass mh is nonphysical because rS(mh) > h {i.e. [rS(mh) / h] > 1}. Moreover, they also demonstrate that
RBH is smaller than rS {i.e. [rS(mh) / RBH(mh)] > 1}. This means that the event horizon is
inside the singularity, not outside as expected and required. Notably, rS of a particle with radius
xh and mass mxmh is equal to the radius of the particle [i.e. rS(mxmh) = xh] hence, it is
physical. Thus, r3 and M3 may be given according to,
r3 = xh
(4.245)
M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2
(4.246)
At the commencement of the H and HU derivation process, the following assertion was
articulated: any Galactic formation is dynamically, kinematically and geometrically equivalent to a
spherical particle of homogeneous mass distribution and may be represented as a Planck scale mass
to be utilised as a GRP.
Moreover, it was also stated that - for the Galactic formation to be related by proportional
similarity to the Primordial Universe, it should be the Galactic formation from which the Hubble
constant and the CMBR temperature were measured. This constraint ensures that no currently
unknown phenomena influence the calculation.
The GRP is formulated by the compression of all matter (i.e. visible + dark), within the
Galactic formation, to the Planck scale. Hence, it follows that the GRPs dimensions must be
transformed by the EGM adjusted Planck characteristics of Length K and Mass Km, as derived
by Storti. et. Al. in [13], such that r2 r2(r) and M2 M2(M).
Therefore, for consistent and complete generalised dynamic, kinematic and geometric
similarity of any GRP to a SPBH in terms of radius and mass, r2 and M2 may be defined
according to,
r2(r) = Kr
(4.247)
M2(M) = KmM = KM
(4.248)
where, K = Km = [ / 2](1 / 3) 1.162447.

182
7.3.2 Computational results

Utilising the expressions for r2, r3, M2 and M3 defined above such that the GRP is
formed from the Milky-Way (MW), solutions for H, AU, RU, U, MU, HU and TU may be
given according to,
i. r = Ro denotes the mean distance from the Sun to the MW Galactic centre.
ii. Ro = 8(kpc) as defined by the PDG. [20]
iii. M = MG denotes the total mass (i.e. visible + dark) of the MW Galaxy.
iv. MG 6 x1011 solar masses as defined by [21].
v. H0 = 71(km/s/Mpc) as defined by the PDG. [22]
vi. T0 = 2.725(K) as defined by the PDG. [20]
H x. h , m x.m h
h
x
(4.249)
9
(4.250)
9
(4.251)
33 kg
U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 8.453235 10 .
3
cm
(4.252)
. 52 ( kg )
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 9.28458610
(4.253)
km
.
s Mpc
(4.254)
(4.255)
The EGM construct error associated with HU and TU with respect to expert opinion and
physical measurement is given by,
1 .
H0
1 = 5.515064 ( % )
1 .
T0
.
1 = 9.08391310
(4.256)
3
( %)
(4.257)

It should not escape attention that the absence of K, x, Km and mx from r2, r3,
M2 and M3 respectively, continues to produce impressive results, re-affirming the validity of the
EGM construct as follows,
H U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
H U R o , h , M G, m h
H U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
T U R o , x. h , M G, m x.m h
T U R o , h , M G, m h
T U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
183
66.700842
= 69.672169
70.06923
km
s .Mpc
(4.258)
2.716201
= 1.199134 ( K )
1.202877
(4.259)
The EGM construct error associated with HU and TU for the various functional
deviations with respect to physical measurement is given by,
1 .
H0
6.055152
1=
1.310944
1 .
T0
1.870184 ( % )
(4.260)
0.322893
1=
55.995089 ( % )
55.857737
(4.261)

The EGM construct produces highly precise numerical approximations, in agreement with
physical measurement as reported by the PDG. The correlation of HU and TU (including the
functional deviations presented) to the experimental evidence, demonstrates a clear relationship
between H0 and T0, suggesting exciting new avenues of theoretical Cosmological research.
An important question arises as to why the relationship between K and Km is different
to the relationship existing between x and mx. The reason for this is because x and mx
apply specifically to a SPBH a theoretically physical object with a singularity radius, an event
horizon and a value of n equal to unity.
The GRP does not physically exist, it is a mathematical contrivance formulated by
dimensional similarity principles approaching the Planck scale. It does not have a singularity radius
or event horizon associated with it and relative to the position of the Earth, has a value of n
much greater than unity.
Therefore, the reasons for the difference in relationship between x,mx and K,Km may
be summarised as follows:
i.
The relationship between x and mx is governed by n(xh,mxmh) = 1.
ii.
The relationship between K and Km is governed by the Planck scale such that
n(r2(r),M2(M)) >> 1 hence, M2(M) (K / 2)M.
NOTES
184
7.4
Determination of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and TU
7.4.1 Synopsis
The question of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on H0 has long thought to be
certain. It has been assumed that the driving component of the accelerating expansion of the
Universe is the presence of Dark Matter / Energy. EGM disagrees with this assertion because it
(i.e. EGM) maintains that Photon's have mass. Therefore, a significant contribution to the missing
mass relating to Dark Matter / Energy theories, is in-fact - Photonic mass.
Note: the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on T0 has never been (to date) seriously considered,
supported by meaningful and accurate calculations, by mainstream Physicists.
7.4.2 Assumptions
i. The EGM construct is valid.
ii. The values of HU and TU calculated in the preceding section are correct.
iii. The visible mass of the MW Galaxy is MG / 3, as defined by [21].
7.4.3 Construct
It is possible to calculate the value of HU and TU based upon the visible mass only of
the MW Galaxy by a simple substitution of values (i.e. M2 / 3 = KmMG / 3) as follows,
1
km
.
3
s Mpc
(4.262)
1
3
(4.263)
Hence, the magnitude of the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on the value of HU and TU is
demonstrated to be < 1(%) when compared to the previously derived value according to,
1 = 0.987352 ( % )
1
3
1
3
(4.264)
1 = 0.542607 ( % )
(4.265)

The preceding results demonstrate that the impact of Dark Matter / Energy on HU and
TU is very small. This implies that the constitution of the Universe under the EGM construct is
quite different from current thinking. The contemporary view asserted in [23] is that the constitution
of the Universe is,
i. 72(%) Dark Energy.
ii. 23(%) Dark Matter.
iii. 4.6(%) Atoms.
However, the EGM construct generalises the constitution of the Universe as being,
iv. > 94.4(%) Photons.
v. < 1(%) Dark Matter / Energy.
vi. 4.6(%) Atoms.
185
7.5
TU as a function of a generalised Hubble constant TU TU2
Utilising _3, TU may be expressed in terms of a generalised Hubble constant TU2(H)

according to,
9
_3( r , M )
_3( r , M )
1 . r
St G M 2
c.
2
M
St G.
5
r
(4.266)
If r (c / H) and M M3 then,
9
c
c x.
_3 ,
mh
H 2
c.
1 .
St G
5
9
H
x
2
c.
2
.m
h
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
(4.267)
Recognising that ng(_3(r3,M3),M3) = (8 / 3) yields KT(H) as follows,

K T( H )
8 . H r 3, M 3
ln
3
H
(4.268)
Hence,
KW
T W( H)
_3
c x.
,
mh
H 2
(4.269)
T U2( H ) K T( H ) .T W ( H )
(4.270)
Recognising that H(r3,M3) = h / x yields,

K T( H ) .T W ( H )
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
KW
_3
c x.
,
mh
H 2
(4.271)
Performing the appropriate substitutions produces,

9
h
.m
8 KW.
. St . x h
T U2( H ) .
ln
G
3 c
2
x.H
. H
c
(4.272)
Let,
9
.
8 . St G . x m h
St T
5
3 .c
2
c
(4.273)
Injecting StG and simplifying yields,

9
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
St T
(4.274)
Therefore,
T U2( H )
K W .St T .ln
186
h
x.H
. H5
(4.275)
7.6
Derivation of Ro, MG, HU2 and U2 from TU2
7.6.1 Synopsis
The value of Ro has been substantially improved in recent years and is stated by the PDG
as being Ro = 8(kpc) with an experimental uncertainty given as Ro = 0.5(kpc). The value of
MW total Galactic mass, expressed in solar masses as being MG / MS 6 x1011, is quite rough.
In-fact, one has difficulty finding an MG / MS uncertainty value anywhere in the scientific
literature [note: kpc = kilo-parsec].
The principle reason for MG being so generalised is due to the lack of current knowledge
around Dark Matter / Energy. However, utilising the relationship between TU and HU
articulated in TU2, we are able to significantly improve upon the estimates for Ro and MG by
determining a convergent numerical solution bound by the experimental uncertainty associated with
Ro (i.e. Ro).
Before commencing the derivation process, we shall generalise HU such that Ro r,
MG M and HU HU2(r,M) according to,
H U2( r , M )
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
(4.276)
A simple test verifying TU2 is demonstrated below. Since, the computed value of
TU2(HU2(Ro,MG/3)) based upon visible MW Galactic mass MG/3 is exactly compliant with TU
(i.e. TU = TU2), no technical error exists. Moreover, the result TU2(H0) T0 agrees precisely
with historical expectation (i.e. prior to measurement by satellite) of T0.
1
3
T U2 H 0
2.739618
( K)
2.810842
(4.277)
Computing values of TU2 associated with Ro, yields violation of T0 experimental

boundaries [i.e. T0 0.001(K)]. In other words, the TU2 result returned when r = (Ro Ro)
is beyond T0 T0 when M = MG according to,
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
2.720213
2.729021
( K)
(4.278)
Repeating the calculation based upon visible MW Galactic mass (i.e. M = MG/3) yields,
T U2 H U2 R o
T U2 H U2 R o
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
2.733025
2.741859
( K)
(4.279)
The preceding results infer numerical avenues for the accurate determination of Ro and
MG based upon precise measurement of T0. It is likely that the experimental measurement of
T0 will advance at a substantially greater pace than Ro or MG. In the proceeding construct, we
shall establish a method to accurately determine the values of Ro and MG, which may be
observationally tested in the future when the experimental capability of T0 0(K) is achieved.
7.6.2 Assumptions
i. The EGM Cosmological construct thus far is correct.
ii. The values of Ro, MG and MG/3 are approximately correct.
iii. The values of T0, T0 and Ro are precisely correct.
187
7.6.3 Construct
7.6.3.1 Ro or MG
Compliant mutually exclusive boundary values for Ro and MG may be determined
numerically within the MathCad 8 Professional environment utilising the Given and Find
commands as follows,
Let rx1, rx2, mg1 and mg2 denote the algorithm pre-factors required by the computational
environment with initialisation string: rx1 = rx2 = mg1 = mg2 =1.
Given
T U2 H U2 r x1.R o , M G
T U2 H U2 R o , m g1 .M G
T0
T 0
(4.280)
T0
T 0
(4.281)
r x1
r x2
m g1
Find r x1, r x2, m g1 , m g2
m g2
(4.282)
Hence,
r x1
r x2
m g1
0.989364
=
1.017883
1.057292
0.911791
m g2
(4.283)
Substituting rx1, rx2, mg1 and mg2 into TU2 produces T0 T0, confirming that the
algorithm executed correctly as follows,
2.724
=
2.726
2.724
( K)
2.726
(4.284)
Thus, the mutually exclusive boundary values satisfying the condition TU2 = T0 T0 become,
R o.
r x1
r x2
7.914908
8.143063
( kpc )
(4.285)
. 11
M G m g1
6.34375310
.
=
M S m g2
. 11
5.47074910
r x1 m g1
r x2 m g2
1=
(4.286)
1.063645 5.729219
1.788292
188
8.820858
(%)
(4.287)
Therefore, TU2 = T0 T0 is satisfied when:

0.9894Ro < Ro < 1.0179Ro or 0.9118MG < MG < 1.0573MG.
7.6.3.2 Ro and MG
Compliant simultaneous boundary values for Ro and MG (i.e. to 6 decimal places)
satisfying the condition TU2 = T0 T0 may be determined numerically within the MathCad 8
Professional environment utilising the Given and Find commands as follows,
Given
T U2 H U2 r x1.R o , m g1 .M G
T0
T0
T 0
(4.288)
T 0
(4.289)
Let,
r x3
r x4
m g3
m g4
(4.290)
Hence,
r x3
r x4
m g3
0.984956
=
1.013348
0.977007
0.977007
m g4
(4.291)
Substituting rx3, rx4, mg3 and mg4 into TU2 produces T0 T0, confirming that the
algorithm executed correctly as follows,
2.724
2.726
( K)
(4.292)
Thus, the simultaneous boundary values satisfying the condition TU2 = T0 T0 become,
R o.
r x3
r x4
7.879647
8.106786
( kpc )
(4.293)
. 11
M G m g3
5.8620410
.
=
M S m g4
. 11
5.8620410
r x3 m g3
r x4 m g4
1=
1.50441 2.29934
1.334822 2.29934
(4.294)
(%)
(4.295)
Therefore, TU2 = T0 T0 is satisfied when:

0.9850Ro < Ro < 1.0133Ro and MG / MS = 5.8620 x1011.
189
7.6.3.3 Ro, MG, HU2 and U2

7.6.3.3.1 Ro and MG
Compliant simultaneous values for Ro and MG satisfying the condition TU2 = T0 may
be determined numerically within the MathCad 8 Professional environment utilising the Given
and Find commands as follows,
Given
T0
(4.296)
Let,
r x5
m g5
Find r x1, m g1
(4.297)
Hence,
r x5
m g5
1.013403
1.052361
(4.298)
Substituting rx5 and mg5 into TU2 produces T0, confirming that the algorithm executed
correctly as follows,
= 2.725 ( K )
(4.299)
Thus, the simultaneous values satisfying the condition TU2 = T0 become,

r x5.R o = 8.107221 ( kpc )
m g5 .
MG
(4.300)
.
= 6.31416710
11
MS
r x5
m g5
(4.301)
1=
1.340256
5.236123
(%)
(4.302)
Therefore, TU2 = T0 is satisfied when:

Ro = 8.1072(kpc) and MG / MS = 6.3142 x1011.
7.6.3.3.2 HU2 and U2
If T0 is exactly correct, then HU2 and U2 may be determined utilising the derived
values for rx5 and mg5 according to,
H U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 67.095419
km
s .Mpc
(4.303)
Hence,
U2( r , M )
3 .H U2( r , M )
8 . .G
(4.304)
33 kg
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 8.456036 10 .
3
cm
190
(4.305)

The preceding construct demonstrates a method by which it is possible to determine the
values of Ro and MG for the MW Galaxy from an exact measurement of T0.
NOTES
191
7.7
Experimentally implicit derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF
7.7.1 Synopsis
The ZPF energy density threshold UZPF is very important to Cosmology as it is believed to
be the reason for the flat expansion phenomenon as determined by the Wilkinson Microwave
Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). The EGM method may be applied to derive UZPF by considering the
average EGM mass-density of the Cosmos, given by the form m(r,M) according to,
m R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h , M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
= 8.453235 10
33 .
kg
3
cm
(4.306)
This result may also be expressed in U2 notation as,

U2 R o , M G = 8.453235 10
33 .
kg
3
cm
(4.307)
Hence, if we compare U2(rx5Ro,mg5MG) to U2(Ro,MG), the ratio produces the EGM density
parameter EGM, leading to the threshold value (i.e. upper limiting estimate) of UZPF.
7.7.2 Assumptions
i. The experimental value of T0 is exactly correct.
ii. U2(rx5Ro,mg5MG) being based upon the experimentally measured value of T0, differs
from the idealised EGM result U2(Ro,MG) due to the flat expansion phenomenon.
iii. The ZPF energy density value, responsible for the flat expansion phenomenon, is a
negative quantity.
7.7.3 Construct
The EGM total density parameter EGM may be written according to,
EGM
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
U2 R o , M G
(4.308)
EGM = 1.000331
(4.309)
Subsequently, considering the contemporary representation of Cosmological density parameter

such that EGM, the critical EGM total density may be identified as U2(Ro,MG) from,
(4.310)
where, c denotes critical Cosmological total density.

The PDG state in [20] that the total density parameter is PDG = 1.003 such that its
constitution may be decomposed according to,
PDG m ..
(4.311)
where, each term on the Right-Hand-Side (RHS) of the equation denotes a physical contribution
such as visible matter m, Photons , Neutrinos and Dark Energy etc.
However, under the EGM construct all matter radiates populations of high frequency
conjugate Photon pairs (possessing non-zero mass). Subsequently, all the typical density terms may
be clumped together such that EGM PDG according to,
192
EGM
PDG
= 0.997339
(4.312)
The geometry of the Cosmological space-time manifold has been measured by WMAP to be
nearly flat, hence; the Friedman equation written in ZPF considerate form is EGM + ZPF = 1
where, ZPF denotes the ZPF density parameter. Approximated evaluation yields,
ZPF
EGM
.
ZPF = 3.31400710
(4.313)
4
(4.314)
Therefore, the Cosmological average ZPF energy density may be approximated according to,
3 .c .
ZPF .
H U2 R o , M G
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
U ZPF = 2.51778 10
(4.315)
13 .
Pa
(4.316)

The utilisation of T0 (i.e. a physical measurement) leads to an experimentally implicit
derivation of the ZPF energy density threshold UZPF characterised by the following boundary
values:
i. ZPF < -3.32 x10-4.
ii. UZPF < -2.52 x10-13(Pa).
On a human scale, this translates to levels of ZPF energy according to,
iii. < -252(yJ/mm3).
On an astronomical scale, this becomes,
iv. < -0.252(mJ/km3).
v. < -7.4 x1012(YJ/pc3).
On a Cosmological scale, this becomes,
vi. < -6.6 x1041(YJ/RU3).
The deceleration parameter,
vii. EGM may be utilised to obtain non-zero deceleration parameter solutions.
Note: although on the human scale the quantities of ZPF energy are extremely small, on the
astronomical or Cosmological scales, they become extremely large when approaching the
dimensions of the visible Universe according to RU RU(KRo,xh,KmMG,mxmh).
193
NOTES
194
8 Advanced Cosmology
Abstract
A time dependent derivation of TU is performed, including its rate of change and
relationship to HU. This facilitates the articulation of the Cosmological evolution process into four
distinct periods dealing with the inflationary and early expansive phases. Subsequently, the history
of the Universe49 is developed and compared to the Standard Model (SM) of Cosmology. This
assists in determining the Cosmological limitations of the EGM construct. The question of the
practicality of utilising conventional radio telescopes for gravitational astronomy is also addressed.
49
As defined by the EGM construct.

195
Time dependent CMBR temperature TU2 TU3
8.1
8.1.1 Synopsis
A Hubble constant dependent expression is formulated and graphed for the CMBR
temperature in the time domain. This may be further developed into a generalised time dependent
representation of the average CMBR temperature; laying foundations such that the relationship to
the primordial Hubble constant is emphasised and thermodynamic rates of change may be
subsequently articulated in the proceeding section.
8.1.2 Assumptions
i. The Universe is flat (i.e. as indicated by WMAP).
ii. t = 1 / H.
8.1.3 Construct
Recalling that H(xh,mxmh) = h / x facilitates the derivation of a time dependent
expression for CMBR temperature. Simplifying notation such that h / x = H and substituting
into TU2, yields a primordially dependent form where TU2 TU3 according to,
T U3( H ) K W .St T .ln
. H5
(4.317)
Let: = 1 / 3 and H = HH where, 1 H > 0 such that it denotes a dimensionless range

variable. Hence,
T U3 H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
(4.318)
Determining local maxima in the conventional manner (i.e. dTU3/dH = 0) yields,

1 .
d
K W .St T .ln
H .H
H
dH
5 .
(4.319)
H e
2
5 .
(4.320)
If the freezing temperature of water [i.e. 0(C) = 273(K)] represents some sort of
Cosmological milestone, we may determine the value of the Hubble constant and the age of the
Universe satisfying this temperature condition numerically utilising the Given and Find
commands within the MathCad 8 Professional environment according to the following algorithm,
Let H2 denote the algorithm pre-factor required by the computational environment with an
appropriate initialisation value such that the error vector converges to zero.
Given
T U2 10
H 2
H 2
.H
273.( K )
(4.321)
Find H 2
(4.322)
Hence,
H 2 = 56.450309
196
(4.323)
The primordial Hubble constant (i.e. the value at the instant of the Big-Bang) was,
. 61
H = 8.46094110
km
s .Mpc
(4.324)
The maximum average Cosmological temperature since the Big-Bang was,

1
T U3 e
2
5 .
. 31 ( K )
= 3.19551810
(4.325)
The value of the Hubble constant at the maximum average Cosmological temperature
was,
1
2
5 . .
. 61
H = 1.39858410
km
s .Mpc
The present Cosmological value of H is,

H U2 R o , M G
= 7.928705 10
61
T U3( 1 )
0
0
( K)
(4.328)
The value of the Hubble constant coinciding with an average Cosmological temperature
of 273(K) was,
10
(4.327)
The average Cosmological temperature at the moment of the Big-Bang was,

T U2 H
(4.326)
H 2
.H = 2.99992310
. 5
km
.
s Mpc
(4.329)
The Cosmological age coinciding with an average Cosmological temperature of

273(K) was,
10
H 2
.H
6
= 3.259461 10 .yr
(4.330)
8.1.5 Sample plots
See overleaf.
197
8.1.5.1 TU3 vs. H: Figure 4.22

Av. Cosmological Temperature
31
3.5 .10
e
5 .
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
0.1
0.01
1 .10 3
H
Dimensionless Range Variable
1 .10 4
1 .10 5
1 .10 6
Average Cosmological Temperature

Maximum Av. Cosmological Temperature
198
8.1.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.23

31
3.5 .10
1
H
5 . . 1
H
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
199

It should not escape attention that the preceding graphs clearly exhibit Planck-Black-Body
radiation characteristics.
The key determinations are:
i. The preceding graphs imply that the Primordial Universe prior to the Big-Bang
was non-physical and at the moment of the Big-Bang, it became physical. This
suggests that the space-time geometry of the Primordial Universe prior to the BigBang was inverted50 in relation to its present form51.
ii. Prior to the Big-Bang52, T0 -(K).
iii. At the instant of the Big-Bang53, T0 = 0(K).
iv. Since the Big-Bang54, the maximum value of T0 was 3.2 x1031(K).
v. The present value of T0 is 2.724752(K).
NOTES
50
i.e. it was analogous to a non-physical Planck-Particle such that RBH < rS.
i.e. analogous to a SBH where RBH > rS.
52
i.e. at t = 0.
53
i.e. at t = 1 / H.
54
i.e. at t = t1: refer to proceeding section.
51
200
Rates of change of CMBR temperature TU3 TU4 d1,2,3TU4/dt1,2,3
8.2
8.2.1 Synopsis
This section develops expressions and graphical representations of the rates of change of
CMBR temperature within the first few moments of the Big-Bang, based upon the preceding
construct.
8.2.2 Assumptions
No new assumptions are asserted.
8.2.3 Construct
If t = (HH)-1 then TU3 TU4 according to,
1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .ln H .t .
t
5 .
(4.331)
Determining the local maxima of CMBR temperature in the time domain utilising standard
techniques produces t1 according to,
d
T U4( t )
dt
K W .St T .
1 . 1
t t5
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
(4.332)
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
(4.333)
Subsequently: if t t1 then,
1
t1
2
5 . .
1
H
(4.334)
Hence, let the expression for the 1st derivative of the CMBR temperature be given by,
K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
(4.335)
.t
The local minima of the 1st CMBR temperature derivative t2 is determined according to,
2
1 . 1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .
2
5
2
dt
t
t
d
1 . 1
K W .St T .
2
5
t
t
. 5 . 2 . ln H .t . 5 . 2
(4.336)
. 5 . 2 . ln H .t . 5 . 2
(4.337)
10 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
201
1
1
. 1
H
(4.338)
Hence, let the expression for the 2nd derivative of the CMBR temperature be given by,
K W .St T .
dT2 dt2 ( t )
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
5 .
.t2
(4.339)
The local maxima of the 2nd CMBR temperature derivative t3 is determined according
to,
d
d t3
T U4( t )
1 . 1
K W .St T .
3
5
t
t
K W .St T .
1 . 1
t
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
2
2
15. . 5 .
(4.340)
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
2
2
15. . 5 .
(4.341)
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
. 1
H
(4.342)
Hence, let the expression for the 3rd derivative of the CMBR temperature be given by,
dT3 dt3 ( t )
K W .St T .
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 .
5 .
2
.t3
2
2
15. . 5 .
(4.343)

Evaluating expressions numerically yields,
dT dt t 1 = 0
dT2 dt2 t 2 = 0
(4.344)
K
s
dT3 dt3 t 3 = 0
(4.345)
K
s
(4.346)
Expressing values in perspective produces,

1
H
t1
t2
0.364697
=
2.206287
4.196153
10
42 .
6.205726
t3
(4.347)
202
dT dt
1
. 74
1.32321810
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
(4.348)
1
. 116
7.65967810
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
. 114
2.02615310
. 112
8.77595210
dT2 dt2 t 3
dT3 dt3
. 72
1.05719310
. 71
9.25283810
dT dt t 3
dT2 dt2
(4.349)
1
. 159
6.22716710
dT3 dt3 t 1
. 156
3.77545710
155
.
1.45285710
dT3 dt3 t 2
K
s
dT3 dt3 t 3
(4.350)
T U2 H
T U2
T U2
T U2
t1
1
t2
1
. 31
3.19551810
=
. 31
3.03432210
( K)
. 31
2.83254210
t3
(4.351)
An example of the CMBR temperature prior to the Big-Bang is given by,

4
. 34 ( K )
T U2 10 .H = 7.41414610
(4.352)
8.2.5 Sample plots
See overleaf.
203
8.2.5.1 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.24

1
H
31
3.5 .10
t1
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
204
8.2.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.25

t2
31
3.5 .10
t3
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
205
8.2.5.3 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (i): Figure 4.26

Av. Cosmological Temp. vs. Hubble Cons.
31
3.5 .10
1
t1
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
Hubble Constant (Hz)
206
8.2.5.4 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (ii): Figure 4.27

31
3.5 .10
1
1
t2 t3
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
207
8.2.5.5 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (i): Figure 4.28

Av. Cosmological Temperature vs. Size
c
H
31
3.5 .10
t 1 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
EGM Cosmological Size (m)
208
8.2.5.6 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (ii): Figure 4.29

31
3.5 .10
t 2 .c t 3 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
209
8.2.5.7 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.30

1st Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
1 .1072
t1
t2
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
210
8.2.5.8 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.31

1 .1072
t2
t3
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
211
8.2.5.9 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.32

2nd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
113
5 .10
t1
t2
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
212
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
8.2.5.10 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.33

113
5 .10
t2
t3
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
213
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
8.2.5.11 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.34

3rd Derivative of Av. Cosmological Temp.
157
1 .10
t1
t2
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
214
8.2.5.12 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.35

157
1 .10
t2
t3
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
215

The preceding graphs exhibit interesting properties of the CMBR temperature in relation to
the Hubble constant. In particular, an inference is presented to precisely differentiate and articulate
the differences between the inflationary period of the Primordial Universe (i.e. t < t1) and the
expansion period of the present Universe (i.e. t > t1).
NOTES
216
Rates of change of the Hubble constant d1,2H/dt1,2
8.3
8.3.1 Synopsis
The rates of change of the Hubble constant in the time domain d1,2H/dt1,2 are useful
relationships confirming the assertion that the Cosmos can never end with a Big-Crunch. This
shall be comprehensively discussed in the next section, but for the moment, we shall develop the
tools (i.e. expressions and graphs) we require to conduct the analysis.
This section achieves, by differentially combining the CMBR temperature in the Hubble and
time domains via numerical approximation methods, verification that the assigned temporal
property of t = 1 / H produces the appropriate d1,2H/dt1,2 curves resulting in,
i. Mathematical expressions for dH/dt, d2H/dt2 and |H| in the time domain.
ii. Graphical representations of dH/dt vs. (HH)-1, d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 and |H| vs.
(HH)-1 qualitatively and quantitatively tested against TU2,3 vs. |H|.
Note: neither an expression nor graphical representation of d3H/dt3 vs. t = (HH)-1 has been
included - for reasons of brevity.
8.3.2 Assumptions
8.3.3 Construct
Substituting = 1 / 3 into TU3, the generalised 1st derivative of the CMBR
temperature with respect to the Hubble constant dTU3/dH: is given by,
H
. 2
d
d
.H5
T U3( H )
K W .St T .ln
dH
dH
H
5 .
H
. 2
d
.H5 K .St . H
K W .St T .ln
W T
dH
H
H
(4.353)
. 5 .ln
. 2
(4.354)
Recognising that TU3 TU4, the 1st derivative of the Hubble constant with respect to time
dH/dt may be determined according to,
5 .
H
K W .St T .
d
d
T U3( H ) .
t
dH
d T U4( t )
5 .
H
K W .St T .
. 5 .ln
H
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
. 5 .ln
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 5 .ln
. 5 .ln H .t .
217
1 . 1
t t5
(4.355)
H
2
. 2
5 .
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
. 2
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
(4.356)
5 .
. 5 .ln
. 2
t . . 5 . 2 . . H . 2
(H t)
5 ln
H
H
1 . 1
t t5
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
2
5 .ln H .t .
(4.357)
Hence,
H
d
H
dt
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
. 2
1
1
(4.358)
Let: H H such that dH/dt dHdt and H H according to,

t
1
H .H
5 .ln H .
d
H
dt
H .
1
H .H
(4.359)
2
5 .
5 .ln
1
H .H
1
. 2
.
H H
. 2
(4.360)
Therefore,
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.361)
The temporal ordinate of the local maxima t4 may be determined in the typical manner,
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
dH
H
5 .
H
d
dH dt H
dH
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
dH
5 .
H
H
H
(4.362)
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
2
H
5 .
H
5 .
(4.363)
2
5 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
H
5 .
(4.364)
1
H e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
(4.365)
Hence,
1
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
(4.366)
The 2nd time derivative dH2dt2 may be derived similarly as follows,

Let,
218
d t2
d t2
H
d
dt
dH2 dt2
( H .t )
(4.367)
.
5 .
.t
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
. 2
(4.368)
Subsequently,
H
d
dt
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
. 2
. 2
5 .2
( H .t )
t
5 .ln
2
H
H .
5 .
1
H .H
. 2
H
2
5 . . ln H .
d t2
.
2
1
H .H
(4.369)
1
. 5 . 2
.
H H
H
5 .ln
. 2
(4.370)
Therefore,
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
dH2 dt2 H
(4.371)
The temporal ordinate of the local minima t5 is determined as follows,

3
H .H
d
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
dH
5 .
H
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 .ln
5 .
ln
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 .ln 1
2
H
5 .
H
ln
1
H
2 .ln
1
H
(4.372)
(4.373)
2
2
5 . . 5 .
H e
2 .ln
1
H
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
1
(4.374)
Hence,
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
1
. 1
H
(4.375)
The magnitude of the Hubble constant |H| in the time domain may be derived by
numerical approximation utilising dHdt as follows55,
Let,
H H
(4.376)
For solutions where H = 1 / t (i.e. the deceleration parameter is zero),

55
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain, as indicated by the proceeding equations.
219
d
d 1
H
dt
dt t
1
t
(4.377)
56
Hence ,
d
H
dt
(4.378)
Therefore, may be numerically approximated utilising the Given and Find

commands within the MathCad 8 Professional computational environment, subject to the
constraint that dHdt as a function of the present value of H [i.e. HU2(Ro,MG) / H] raised to
an indicial power, is equal to the square of the present Hubble constant as determined by the EGM
construct HU2(Ro,MG)2 according to the following algorithm,
Given
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H U2 R o , M G
(4.379)
Find( )
(4.380)
Note: the utilisation of rx5Ro and mg5MG instead of Ro and MG does not significantly, nor
adversely, influence the otherwise computed value of .
Executing the algorithm to determine the value of yields,
= 4.595349
(4.381)
Evaluating dHdt and dH2dt2 for various temporal ordinates produces the results,
1
dH dt t 1 .H
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
dH dt t 2 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt t 3 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt t 5 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 68
7.50137510
. 68
7.50137510
. 83
9.06689310
. 83
9.06689310
= 1.22575310
. 84
. 84
1.22575310
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.38436210
. 84
1.38436210
Hz
2
1
(4.382)
56
Noting that the terminology utilised is an abbreviated reference to the square-root of the
magnitude of the rate of change of the Hubble constant in the time domain, as indicated by the
equation.
220
dH2 dt2 t 1 .H
2
5 .
dH2 dt2 e
10 .
dH2 dt2 t 2 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 3 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 5 .H
dH2 dt2 e
. 125
8.50679910
dH2 dt2 t 4 .H
. 125
8.50679910
125
.
1.16257810
. 125
1.16257810
. 124
8.2461110
. 124
8.2461110
. 125
1.33162810
. 125
1.33162810
Hz
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
(4.383)
where,
1
t1
2
5 . .
1
H
10 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
. 1
H
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2.206287 2.206287
4.196153 4.196153
2
3
. 1
H
= 6.205726 6.205726
t5 e
8.385263 8.385263
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
42 .
20.932666 20.932666
t4
10
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
. 1
H
(4.384)
The present values of dHdt and dH2dt2 are given by the following approximations,
dH dt
dH2 dt2
H U2 R o , M G
= 4.726505 10
36 .
Hz
(4.385)
H U2 R o , M G
= 0 Hz
(4.386)
The calculation algorithm may be verified against the following two determinations,
confirming the validity of the numerical approximation as follows,
H
=1
dH dt 1
221
(4.387)
dH dt 1
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
. 61
8.46094110
km
67.084257
s .Mpc
(4.388)
8.3.5 Construct errors

8.3.5.1 How can they be determined?
The computational environment utilised for the numerical determination of has
limitations. Subsequently, one must consider its effect and the error associated with the introduction
of any numerical method into a construct. The error relating to the approximation of and |H|
are resolved by graphical, analytical and numerical techniques indicating that,
i. The expression for dH/dt is correctly derived.
ii. The approximated value of satisfies boundary conditions such that TU2 = TU3 and is
precisely representative of the present value of CMBR temperature hence, it is
sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
iii. Graphical comparison of various intermediate thermal ordinates indicates that the
approximated value of is sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
iv. Calculation of various intermediate thermal ordinates demonstrates that TU2 TU3
hence, the approximated value of is sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
8.3.5.2 Analytical
Separating variables in the dH/dt expression and integrating both sides of the equation
produces H = 1 / t, confirming that the rate of change was correctly derived as follows,
5 .
. 5 .ln
2
5 .ln H .t .
1 dH
5 .
1
dt
.t
(4.389)
5 .
. 5 .ln
H
. 2
5 .
1 dH H
.ln
H
H
(4.390)
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
ln H .t
1
dt
.t
5 .
(4.391)
5 .
.ln
H
H
ln H .t
t
5 .
(4.392)
Solving for H confirms that the expression for dH/dt is correct and no error exists.
H
1
t
(4.393)
222
8.3.5.3 Graphical
Graphical representations of the TU2,3 vs. |H| curves57 suggests common characteristics.
Thus, illustrating that TU2 TU3 and the approximated value of is sufficiently accurate for
qualitative applications.
8.3.5.4 Numerical
8.3.5.4.1 General case
A numerical comparison of results demonstrates that the approximated value of satisfies
boundary conditions such that TU2 = TU3 and is exactly representative of the present value of
CMBR temperature. Moreover, determination of various intermediate thermal ordinates
demonstrates that TU2 TU3 such that the difference between them at t1 is 7(%). This
indicates that the approximated value of is sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
T U2
dH dt 1
T U3( 1 )
T U2
dH dt e
2
10 .
T U2
dH dt e
T U3 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
T U2
dH dt
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
H U2 R o , M G
. 31
3.19551810
= 3.18632310
. 31 3.03432210
. 31 ( K )
T U3
2.724751
2.724752
H U2 R o , M G
H
dH dt
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
T U2
.
2.97174510
. 31 2.83254210
. 31
3.18071410
T U3 e
0
31
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
3
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U3 e
5 .
2
10 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
2
5 .
(4.394)
2
5 .
1 = 7.002696 ( % )
1
T U3 e
5 .
(4.395)
8.3.5.4.2 Specific case

For the specific case of dHdt(H) = 0, the exact value of may be determined by solving
for H as follows,
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.396)
H e
5 .
(4.397)
57
i.e. the TU2 curve (solid line) is superimposed upon the TU3 curve (dotted line) refer to
graphs.
223
Let H t7 in the typical manner, hence:

1
t7
2
5 . .
1
H
(4.398)
Comparing t7 to t1 (i.e. the instant of maximum Cosmological temperature) yields,

t7
=1
t1
(4.399)
Therefore, utilising the relationship H = H, the value of at t7 = t1 is given by,
ln H
ln t 7 .H
ln H
ln t 1 .H
(4.400)
However, when t7 = t1 in terms of H is substituted into dHdt(H), a result consistent

with Eq. (4.394) is produced (see below), not the correct result such that dHdt[(t1H)-1] = 0 as
required by the preceding derivation.
1
2
H .e
. 5 .ln
2
5 .
2
5 .
. 2
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
1
5 .
2
5 .
(4.401)
The obvious question arises as to why this occurs when the t7 = t1 result is analytically
exact. Localising the anomaly is possible by systematically simplifying the expression for dHdt. A
1st level investigation may be conducted by recognising that dHdt(H) may be written as,
dH dt H
2
1 . 2
2
4 . . .
H .H
5 ln
(4.402)
Evaluating at H t7 = t1 continues to produce the anomalous result as given by,

4
2.
H e
5.
5 .ln
. 2
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
5 .
(4.403i)
A 2nd level investigation produces the correct result by further simplification according to,
1
4
2.
H e
5.
5 .ln e
5 .
. 2
1 = 0 Hz
(4.403ii)
The cause of the anomalous result becomes apparent when replacing with 1 / 3 as follows,
1
5 .ln
. 1
3
1
5.
1 =0
(4.404)
8.3.6 Sample plots
See overleaf.
224
8.3.6.1 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.36

1st Derivative of the Hubble Constant
1.6 .1084
t1
t4
84
1.4 .10
84
1.2 .10
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
dH dt e
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
1
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
8 .1083
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
83
6 .10
83
4 .10
2 .1083
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
225
8.3.6.2 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.37

2 .1084
1
H
t1
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
226
8.3.6.3 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.38

2 .1084
t2
t3
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
227
8.3.6.4 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.39

2 .1084
t5
t4
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
228
8.3.6.5 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.40

2nd Derivative of the Hubble Constant
1
H
4 .10127
t1
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
229
8.3.6.6 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.41

t2
4 .10127
t3
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
230
8.3.6.7 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.42

t5
4 .10127
t4
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
231
8.3.6.8 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.43

125
8 .10
t1
t2
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
232
1 .10 40
8.3.6.9 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (v): Figure 4.44

125
8 .10
t3
t4
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
233
1 .10 40
8.3.6.10 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45

125
8 .10
t5
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
234
1 .10 40
8.3.6.11 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.46

2.5 .1042
1
H
t1
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
235
8.3.6.12 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.47

2.5 .1042
1
H
t4
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
236
8.3.6.13 TU2,3 vs. |H|: Figure 4.48

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
, H .H
237
8.3.6.14 TU2 vs. |H|: Figure 4.49

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
238

For most computational environment application users, it is naturally assumed that the
environment will always produce numerically valid results. However, one should be cautious in this
regard because numerical output is a direct function of the computational structure of the
environment. For example, an anomalous result became apparent when replacing with 1 / 3
in a specific calculation.
Importantly, the same computational anomaly encountered when dHdt = 0 does not occur
when dH2dt2 = 0. This suggests that the anomalous effect is a localised environmental defect an
assertion supported by the following scaled representation of the 1st derivative of the Hubble
constant versus Cosmological age.
The axis scaling technique nullifies potential large number error effects, clearly
demonstrating that at maximal resolution, the interpolated line between the final 2 of 5000 data
points spanning an identical domain to that utilised in preceding curves, passes precisely through
the origin (i.e. at dHdt = 0) in agreement with the exact analytical result.
Moreover, it is known that within the MathCad 8 Professional environment, the graphical
generation engine is sufficiently distinct from the user facing work pad calculation engine, such
that graphical results may sometimes be considered more reliable. Hence, in our case at the very
least, the graphical representations are sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications, to disregard
the computed result of dHdt[(t1H)-1] 0 in favour of the agreement between the analytical proof
and the graphical evidence.
10
42
t 1 .10
8
Scaled Derivative (Hz^2)
4
dH dt H
10
79
2
0
0
2.20624
2.20625
2.20626
2.20627
2.20628
2.20629
2.2063
2.20631
2.20632
2.20633
2.20634
2.20635
2.20636
2.20637
2.20638
.1042
H .H
Scaled Cosmological Age (s)
Figure 4.50,
Therefore, the construct error relating to the approximation of and |H| is resolved by
graphical, analytical and numerical techniques indicating that,
i. The expression for dH/dt is correctly derived.
ii. Numerical comparisons of results demonstrate that the approximated value of satisfies
boundary conditions such that TU2 = TU3 and is exactly representative of the present
value of CMBR temperature hence, it is sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
iii. Determination of various intermediate thermal ordinates demonstrates that TU2 TU3
239
such that the difference between them at t1 is 7(%). This indicates that the
approximated value of is sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
iv. Graphical representations of the TU2,3 vs. |H| curves [i.e. the TU2 curve (solid line) is
superimposed upon the TU3 curve (dotted line) refer to graphs] suggests common
characteristics. Thus, illustrating that TU2 TU3 and the approximated value of is
sufficiently accurate for qualitative applications.
v. The graphical representations of dH/dt, d2H/dt2 and |H| demonstrate that the rate of the
change of the Hubble constant in the time domain is presently positive indicating that the
Universe is flatly expanding.
NOTES
240
8.4
Cosmological evolution process
The Cosmological evolution process may be categorised into two regimes, comprised of
four distinct periods (i.e. three inflationary and one expansive) as follows,
Time
Temperature
Hubble Constant
-1
0 < t < H
- < TU2 < 0
+ > |H| > H
0 H-1
- 0
+ H
-1
-1
H t < t1
0 TU2 < TU2(t1 )
H |H| > 0
H-1 t1
0 TU2(t1-1)
H 0
-1
-1
t1 t < t4
TU2(t1 ) TU2 > TU2(t4 )
0 |H| < |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
t1 t4
TU2(t1-1) TU2(t4-1)
0 |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
-1
t4 t < AU
TU2(t4 ) TU2 TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| |H| HU2
t4 AU
TU2(t4-1) TU2(HU2)
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]| HU2
Description
Primordial Inflation (prior to the Big-Bang): the Universe may be described as
inverted and non-physical such that the interior of the Cosmos existed outside
the exterior boundary RBH in accordance with the Primordial Universe model
described previously such that:
1. TU2 increases from negative infinity to zero.
2. dHdt increases from negative infinity to -H2.
3. |H| decreases from positive infinity to H.
Thermal Inflation: the period from the instant of the Big-Bang to the instant of
maximum Cosmological temperature such that:
4. TU2 increases from zero to its maximum value TU2(t1-1).
5. dHdt increases from -H2 to zero.
6. |H| decreases from H to zero.
Hubble Inflation: the period from the instant of maximum Cosmological
temperature to the instant of maximum post-primordial |H| such that:
7. TU2 decreases from its maximum value to TU2(t4-1).
8. dHdt increases from zero to its maximum physical value dHdt[(t4H)-1].
9. |H| increases from zero to its maximum physical value |dHdt[(t4H)-1]|.
Hubble Expansion: the period from the maximum post-primordial |H| to the
present day such that:
10. TU2 decreases from TU2(t4-1) to TU2(HU2).
11. dHdt decreases from its maximum physical value to HU22.
12. |H| decreases from its maximum physical value to HU2.
Symbol
Definition / Value
The EGM Hubble constant at the instant of the Big-Bang:
H
2.742004 x1042(Hz) 8.460941 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
-H2
-7.518587 x1084(Hz2) -7.158752 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
HU2
The present value of the EGM Hubble constant:
= HU2(Ro,MG) 67.084304(km/s/Mpc)
HU22
4.500304 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H0
The PDG Hubble constant: 71(km/s/Mpc)
H02
5.041 x103(km/s/Mpc)2
H-1
The instant of the Big-Bang: 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1
The instant of maximum Cosmological temperature:
2.206287 x10-42(s)
t4
The instant of maximum physical |H|: 2.093267 x10-41(s)
Physical @ {RBH rS}
Non-Physical
@ {RBH < rS}
Period
Primordial
Inflation
Thermal
Inflation
Hubble
Inflation
Hubble
Expansion
Regime
241
AU
TU2(H)
TU2(t1-1)
TU2(t4-1)
TU2(HU2)
T0
dHdt[(t4H)-1]
|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|
RU
2
H (dHdt[(t4H)-1])-1
H(|dHdt[(t4H)-1]|)-1
The EGM Cosmological age: = HU2-1 14.575885 x109(yr)

The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of the Big-Bang:
= 0(K)
The Maximum EGM Cosmological temperature:
3.195518 x1031(K)
The EGM Cosmological temperature at the instant of maximum physical
|H|: 2.059945 x1031(K)
The present EGM Cosmological temperature:
= TU3(HU2H-1) 2.724752(K)
The present experimentally measured CMBR temperature: 2.725(K)
The approximated maximum rate of change of the physical EGM
Hubble constant:
1.553518 x1084(Hz2) 1.479167 x10123(km/s/Mpc)2
The approximated maximum physical |H|:
1.246402 x1042(Hz) 3.845994 x1061(km/s/Mpc)
The EGM Cosmological size: = cHU2-1 14.575885 x109(Lyr)
4.839718
2.199936
Table 4.10,
Time
0
H-1 3.646967 x10-43(s)
t1 2.206287 x10-42(s)
t4 2.093267 x10-41(s)
AU 14.575885 x109(yr)
TU2 (K)
dHdt (km/s/Mpc)2
-
-
0
-7.158752 x10123
0
3.195518 x1031
31
2.059945 x10
1.479167 x10123
2.724752
4.500304 x103
Table 4.11,
|H|| (km/s/Mpc)
+
8.460941 x1061
0
3.845994 x1061
67.084304
NOTES
242
8.5
History of the Universe
8.5.1 According to the Standard Model (SM)

8.5.1.1 Graphical representation (i)
Figure 4.51,
243
8.5.1.2 Graphical representation (ii)
Figure 4.52,
244
8.5.1.3 Graphical representation (iii)
Figure 4.53,
245
8.5.1.4 Graphical representation (iv)
Figure 4.54,
246
8.5.2 According to EGM

Epoch or Event
Time Domain
t
Primordial epoch
Boundary Temperature Value
T U2 H = 0 ( K )
Grand unification epoch
< t 10
34 .
10
10-34 < t(s) 10-10
Electroweak / Quark Epoch
T U2
(s)
10-10 < t(s) 102
28
T U2
( K)
(s)
T U2
10
Lepton Epoch
.
= 1.92400510
34 .
. 15 ( K )
= 3.43308810
10 .
(s)
. 9 ( K)
= 1.01325410
2.
10 ( s )
Photon Epoch
Universe becomes transparent
102 < t(s) 1013

1013(s) 3 x105(yr)
T U2
3 x105 < t(yr) 109
T U2
1
13 .
= 978.724031( K )
10 ( s )
1
9.
= 11.838588 ( K )
10 ( yr )
109 < t(yr) 5 x109
First Supernovae
Present Epoch
T U2
5 x109 < t(yr) 14.58 x109
1
9.
5 .10 ( yr )
= 4.898955 ( K )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
Table 4.12,
T U2
T U2
T U2
1 .( day )
1
31.( day )
T U2
T U2
1
1 .( s )
1
1 .( yr )
1
2.
T U2
1
3
10 .( yr )
1
4
10 .( yr )
5.
10 ( yr )
1
T U2
6.
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
T U2
T U2
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
. 7
2.52413210
521.528169
. 6
3.86401510
147.71262
= 1.00307810
. 6
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
10 ( yr )
. 4
2.29089210
3.35005
.
6.49496110
0.947724
7
10 .( yr )
1
8
10 .( yr )
T U2
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
9.
( K)
10
10 .( yr )
1
11
10 .( yr )
247
(4.405)
8.6
EGM Cosmological construct limitations
8.6.1 Synopsis
Any complete physical model requires construct limitations to be clearly defined so as to
acknowledge the boundaries of applicability. This section determines the maximum permissible
values of Cosmological mass, size and age (i.e. ML, rL and tL respectively) at which the EGM
construct remains valid expressed as,
i. MU M < ML.
ii. RU r < rL.
iii. AU t < tL.
8.6.2 Assumptions
8.6.3 Construct
8.6.3.1 The mass limit ML
Utilising C_J1(r,M), we may formulate an estimation for the maximum permissible
Cosmological mass ML for which the EGM construct remains valid. This is facilitated by
considering ML to be concentrated at the geometric centre of a spherical Universe, with an
observer at its periphery. Hence,
C_J1(r1,M1) = C_J1(r2,M2)
(4.406)
5
M1
M2
26
26
r1
M 2 M 1.
r2
r2
5 5
r1
(4.407)
r2
r1
(4.408)
Let, r1 = KRo, r2 = REGM, M1 = KmMG and M2 = ML such that the maximum permissible
Cosmological mass ML is given by,
ML
K m.M G.
where,
R EGM
R EGM
K .R o
5 5
R EGM
K .R o
(4.409)
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
(4.410)
8.6.3.2 The size limit rL

For a SBH of mass ML, the maximum permissible Cosmological size rL is given by,
rL
R BH M L
248
(4.411)
8.6.3.3 The age limit tL

The maximum permissible EGM age limit of the Universe tL may be determined as
follows,
tL
rL
c
(4.412)
8.6.4 Boundary ratio

EGM construct boundary relationships for ML, rL and tL may be expressed in ratio
form as follows,
Let: MEGM = MU and tEGM = AU given by,
M EGM
t EGM
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
(4.413)
(4.414)
Hence,
M L M EGM
rL
tL
R EGM t EGM
(4.415)

Evaluating ML, rL, tL and boundary ratios yields,
. 71 ( kg )
M L = 4.86482110
(4.416)
.
r L = 7.6372910
(4.417)
9
10 .Lyr
19
. 19 109 .yr
t L = 7.6372910
(4.418)
ML
M EGM
rL
R EGM
. 18
5.23967510
= 5.23967510
. 18
tL
. 18
5.23967510
t EGM
(4.419)
Notably,
tL
.
= 1.86196810
TL
(4.420)

The boundaries of Cosmological mass, size and age at which the EGM construct remains
valid are given by,
i. MU M < ML.
ii. RU r < rL.
iii. AU t < tL.
249
8.7
Are conventional radio telescopes, practical tools for gravitational astronomy?
8.7.1 Synopsis
A very important question to address is the possibility of utilising conventional Radio
Telescopes (RTs) for application to Gravitational Astronomy (GA). The practicality of this may be
determined by consideration of C_J1 expressed in terms of _3 such that C_J1 C_J.
Subsequently, if _3 represents the observational Radio Frequency (RF) limit, the required RF
Flux Intensity for direct gravitational observation may be determined.
8.7.2 Assumptions
8.7.3 Construct
Substituting the expression for _3 into C_J1 produces C_J as follows,
9
M
St J .
St J .
26
r
5
26
St G.
2
9
_3
(4.421)
9
9
St J .
St G.
St G
_3
26
_3
(4.422)
St J .
St J .
26
26
9
26
_3
26
St G
St J . _3
St J . _3
26 9
5 .
M
52
26
5
26
.St
G
52
26 9
5 .
26
St J . _3
26
.St 5
G
27
5
26
.St 5
G
5
St J . _3 .
27
26
(4.423)
5
4
9 .c .
5.
5.
.
_3 St G M
4 .
.St 5
G
(4.424)
3
5
(4.425)
Recognising that,
26
St J .St G
45
9 .c .
9
St G .St G
.
4
4
250
26
45
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
4
5
(4.426)
Therefore,
5.2
C _J _3 , M
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
(4.427)

For illustrational purposes only, let _3 equal the value of at the event horizon of a
SMBH, such that _3 = _4(1010MS). Although the illustrational value of _3 is
substantially above the RF range, it clearly demonstrates that the required RF flux intensity for
direct gravitational observation far exceeds present capability as follows,
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S = 180.283336( nJy )
(4.428)
where, nJy denotes nano-Janskys [i.e. 10-9(Jansky)].

It is exceedingly obvious from the illustrational result that conventional RF telescopes are
not practical tools for GA. To compound the problem, the signal strength required to be detected
from an Earth base telescope, due to amplitude decay by the time it reaches the detector, makes the
problem even more difficult (i.e. C_J will be many orders of magnitude less than computed
above).
In addition to signal strength detection issues, frequency decay poses another substantial
issue to be resolved. By the time the signal has reached the detector, it will be hidden amongst
background radiation as noise. Subsequently, the signal would require the appropriate filtration
(also considering the conjugate wavefunction pair nature of the signal in accordance with the EGM
construct) such that it might somehow be identified.
Note: the propagation characteristics of gravitational signals are discussed in the proceeding
chapter.
NOTES
251
NOTES
252
9 Gravitational Cosmology
Abstract
An engineering model is developed to explain how gravitational effects are transmitted
through space-time in terms of EGM wavefunction propagation and interference.
253
9.1
Gravitational propagation: the mechanism for interaction
9.1.1 Synopsis
EGM is a method, not a theory, producing experimentally verified results from the
fundamental to the Cosmological scale. This chapter develops an engineering model to explain how
gravitational effects are transmitted through space-time. The intention herein is not to advance an
explanation (theory) on how gravitational transmission occurs, only to present an engineering
approach leading to observationally validated physical results as derived in the preceding chapters.
To achieve this, we are compelled to distinguish between physical theory and modelling
technique. As stated in the very first sentence, EGM is a method, a tool by which we may attempt to
conceptualise space-time manifold effects. The tool has been repeatedly tested against physical
observation in order to ensure that, at the very least; the method itself is robust and consistent.
One of the most fundamental questions in Physics is the phenomenon of gravity and its
propagation. The standard view of this was advanced by Einstein involving the geometry of spacetime curvature. His approach has been highly successful in describing and predicting many
astronomical situations and has been rigorously tested by the scientific community.
Commonly in engineering solutions, one is not required to understand the physical nature of
a specific phenomenon in great detail. Very often, the observed behaviour of a system is modelled
in a non-physical way, permitting and facilitating the manipulation and prediction of desired effects
for commercial gain. For example, the technique of discontinuity functions is often applied to
beam loading configurations to avoid the loss of life or property through structural failure.
This particular approach to stress analysis is such that physical loads (uniformly distributed
and point alike) are represented as discontinuous functions along the beam. The reason for this is
because no single equation can model deflections along a beam continuously (other than the
simplest situations). Each time the loading situation changes, so does the mathematical equation
describing the deflection of the beam. Subsequently, the analysis is broken-up into a set of
manageable stress sections. From this, one obtains shear force and bending moment diagrams and is
able to determine permissible loading boundaries and beam deflections.
The significance of the above is that it emphasises the fact that the structural member (the
beam in the example given) is modelled and analysed in a manner which is vastly distant from what
is physically real. In this case, the engineer is seeking to predict an effect and quantify safe working
loads, not necessarily model the Physics of what is happening within the beam in great detail. For a
far more detailed analysis, an engineer requires finite difference or element methods.
The point of the beam example is to help the reader understand that only the result of a
mathematical modelling method is required to agree with physical observation. The technique
applied to derive the physically verified result is not necessarily important. Only if the logically
derived result disagrees with observation does the mathematical modelled utilised become
questionable. If it agrees with physical observation, particularly on a broad scale of application, it
defies logic to disregard it in favour of that which cannot achieve comparable results.
A second example of a mathematical description being potentially dissimilar to physical
reality is an EM wave. The true nature of an EM wave is unknown to contemporary Physics, yet it
is considered by many, to be exactly as it appears mathematically (i.e. a sinusoid). However, one
should be very careful to draw the distinction between what physically is and the tool utilised to
describe observed effects and behaviour. Hence, we shall demonstrate that basic engineering
Control Theory is a useful tool by which to develop a gravitational propagation model, consistent
with the Cosmological results obtained in the preceding chapters.
Note: two propagation models are presented herein (i.e. broadband and narrowband), with the key
characteristics of the broadband model preserved in the narrowband approximation.
254
9.1.2 Construct
9.1.2.1 Broadband
The propagation of EGM waves may be represented by two distinct models (i.e. broadband
and narrowband). The broadband propagation model refers to the entire PV spectrum surrounding
an object, whilst the narrowband propagation model refers to the same spectrum, but usefully
approximated to a single wavefunction at a frequency of . Since the narrowband model is an
analogous representation of the broadband model, key characteristics of the broadband model are
required to be preserved in the narrowband analogy.
In was demonstrated in [5] that, in the case of broadband propagation, the group velocity of
a large number of superimposed wavefunctions is zero. However, if one could filter-out all EGM
wavefunctions except a specific frequency, an EM signal would be detected. The next important
issue to reconcile against the zero group velocity behaviour of broadband propagation is how
narrowband propagation might work such that it remains consistent with broadband characteristics.
A single wavefunction representation of a broadband PV spectrum implies that the evidence
of propagation of high frequency gravitational waves from celestial bodies should be clear and
obvious contradicting physical observation. Hence, it shall be demonstrated in the proceeding
section that broadband characteristics are preserved in the analogous narrowband approximation by:
i. The utilisation of Control System principles to describe EGM wavefunction propagation
and space-time curvature in terms of a control loop.
ii. Simplifying the constitution of a Graviton to be: a Photon coupled to its ZPF (space-time
manifold) response, representing the conjugate EGM wavefunction associated with a
Photon pair. Subsequently, the narrowband approximation propagates with characteristics
preserving the broadband group velocity condition.
iii. Recognising that the conjugate EGM wavefunction associated with a Photon pair (i.e. the
ZPF response) may be considered, for practical solution purposes, to be a Virtual
Photon (VP) popping into existence as a result of the ZPF response to EGM stress.
9.1.2.2 Narrowband
EGM considers all masses to be radiators of conjugate wavefunction pairs. That is to say, all
mass radiates a spectrum of wavefunctions at frequencies according to PV(1,r,M)
(r,M): both being dependent upon the objects mass-energy distribution over space-time. At each
frequency in the spectrum, wavefunctions are being radiated with positive and negative amplitudes
of equal magnitude. This is at the heart of a Fourier representation of any constant function in
complex form.
Hence, each positive amplitude wavefunction is coupled to its negative amplitude
counterpart. If we assume that Electricity, Magnetism and Gravity are unified, then EGM
propagation may be graphically represented as follows,
Figure 3.14,
255
where, the Electric Field Wave is at right angles (orthogonal58) to the Magnetic Field Wave, and the
Electro-Gravitic Coupling Wave is at right angles (orthogonal) to the Magneto-Gravitic Coupling
Wave. The arrow denotes the orientation of the associated Poynting Vector (i.e. the propagation of
energy).
A very big and obvious question is what is the nature of the Gravitic coupling waves?
Simply put, the Gravitic coupling waves are the responses of the space-time manifold to the work
being done to it by the Electric and Magnetic Field Waves, consistent with Newtons 1st Law of
motion (i.e. for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction).
Explaining EGM propagation may be reduced in complexity by initially considering only
the contribution of the Electric Field Wave. That is, we may consider the Electric and Magnetic
Field Waves as being independent of each other. As will be shown graphically, the Magnetic Field
Wave may then be considered and the explanation process repeated.
To facilitate this, let M denote the mass of an object radiating an Electric Field Wave in
accordance with the EGM construct (i.e. not generated in the classical EM wave production
manner). This characteristic is conceptualised diagrammatically by the function G(s), existing in
the Laplace Domain (i.e. the classical form of representation in Control System Engineering59).
Subsequently, H(s) denotes the response of the space-time manifold to the Electric Field Wave
(i.e. the Electro-Gravitic Coupling Wave).
Figure 4.55: control system representing EGM propagation (illustrational only),

Mathematically, this means that G(s) = -H(s), or in other words, the response of the spacetime manifold is equal and opposite of the work being done to it by the Electric Field Wave.
Diagrammatically, G(s) = H(s) but note that it feeds into the summing junction illustrated as a
negative input, producing G(s) = -H(s) mathematically. Graphing forcing function and space-time
manifold response [i.e. G(s) and H(s) respectively], for each EM component separately, yields
the following two illustrations,
Electric Field
EGM Propagation (Electric Component)
Time
Electric Field Wave (Forcing Function)

Space-Time Manifold Electric Response
Figure 4.56: Electric forcing function G(s) and its space-time manifold response H(s),
58
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_systems; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_engineering;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_Function
59
256
Magnetic Field
EGM Propagation (Magnetic Component)
Time
Magnetic Field Wave (Forcing Function)

Space-Time Manifold Magnetic Response
Figure 4.57: Magnetic forcing function G(s) and its space-time manifold response H(s),
The function E(s), in both cases, represents signal degradation (in the Laplace domain)
over distance (in the direction of propagation). A complete and thorough control systems
engineering analysis60 utilising Transfer Functions, Characteristic Equations, Root Locus, Nyquist
Stability, Bode Plots and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controllers etc., is beyond the
scope of this text and has been omitted for brevity.
9.1.3 Testing
9.1.3.1 Newtonian
It is extremely important to test the analogous narrowband approximation against well
established classical and contemporary gravitational models. The testing to be conducted is not
intended to replace any widely accepted model, but rather to ensure that key aspects of mainstream
Physics are qualitatively contained within the narrowband approximation.
Immediately, one can see that the Electric and Magnetic Field Waves mathematically
cancel-out with respect to their conjugate space-time manifold responses, producing a constant
mathematical result of zero force (i.e. action equals reaction), at right angles to the direction of the
Poynting Vector61. In terms of EM propagation, the Poynting Vector travels the path of least
resistance through the space-time manifold.
Hence, key Newtonian aspects are qualitatively (in principle) satisfied by the action-reaction force
pairing in the analogous narrowband approximation.
9.1.3.2 Relativistic
From a General Relativity (GR) perspective, energy has been deposited into the region by
the EM Field Wave and the space-time manifold reacts via the physical manifestation of spacetime curvature. The analogous narrowband approximation regards the ZPF as an infinite store of
available reactive space-time manifold bending stress as an EM wave propagates through it.
Hence, key aspects of GR are qualitatively (in principle) satisfied by the deposition of energy
manifesting as space-time curvature (i.e. bending stress) in the analogous narrowband
approximation.
60
Suggest reading: Linear Control System Analysis and Design, John J. DAzzo and Constantine
Houpis, Third Edition, 1988, McGraw-Hill.
61
The direction of energy flow: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poynting_Vector.
257
9.1.3.3 PV
Gravitational acceleration is proportional to the cubic frequency of the PV spectrum62, of the
specific mass being considered. As the EM signal degrades, the Poynting Vector diminishes. EGM
considers Gravity to be a direct result of the gradient of the Energy Density (realised by the
Poynting Vector). The EM field deposits energy into a region, but without a gradient over distance,
there would be no change in Energy Density, no change in Poynting Vector and no Gravity.
Since the Energy Density of the gravitational field surrounding an object is less, farther
away from the objects centre of mass than closer to it, the change in Energy Density always acts
toward the centre of mass of the object. That is why Gravity always acts downward because the
change in Energy Density is always negative.
The Electro-Gravitic and Magneto-Gravitic Coupling Waves may each be described as
populations of Virtual Photons (VPs), popping into existence from the Zero-Point Vacuum as it
seeks a lower state of potential energy in response to work being done to it. That is, in response to it
being bent by the input of energy, in the case of EGM, a propagating EM wave. In other words,
one may consider the ZPF as being an energy sink which is always full. It seeks equilibrium with
the applied EM forcing function by curving the space-time manifold, thereby producing an EGM
wave.
Hence, key aspects of the PV model are satisfied by the analogous narrowband approximation.
The analogous narrowband approximation may be summarised as follows:
i. The constitution of a Graviton is simplified to be: a Photon coupled to its ZPF (space-time
manifold) response, representing the conjugate EGM wavefunction associated with a
Photon pair. Subsequently, the narrowband approximation propagates with characteristics
preserving the broadband group velocity condition such that an EGM Wave may be
described as an EM Wave coupled to its ZPF (space-time manifold) response.
ii. Gravity propagates as EGM Waves with EM characteristics, but remains undetectable
unless the ZPF response can be appropriately filtered-out by a detector.
iii. The conjugate EGM wavefunction associated with a Photon pair (i.e. the ZPF response)
may be considered, for practical solution purposes, to be a Virtual Photon (VP) popping
into existence as a result of the ZPF response to EGM stress, such that the ZPF acts as an
infinite store of available reactive space-time manifold bending stress as an EM wave
propagates through it.
iv. The response of the ZPF to an applied forcing function is reactionary (consistent with
Newtons 1st Law of Motion) and equivalent (in principle) to space-time manifold
curvature.
v. The mechanism of the ZPF response may be usefully described by VPs, propagating
180-out-of-phase with respect to an EM forcing function.
vi. The EGM Wave may be categorised into two key couplings. That is, the Electric Field
Wave couples to its Electro-Gravitic conjugate, whilst the Magnetic Field Wave couples
to its Magneto-Gravitic conjugate.
vii. The gravitational effect arises from the degradation of the EM Wave Poynting Vector over
distance (change in Energy Density) associated with EGM propagation.
Note: the wavefunction describing each population of Photon pairs (i.e. a population of Photons
and their ZPF response) may be considered to be representative of either side of a Fourier
distribution in Complex form, symmetrical about the 0th mode.
62
A bandwidth of the EGM spectrum.

258
9.2
Gravitational interference: the mechanism of interaction
9.2.1 Synopsis
The gravitational interaction between two bodies may be represented by the EGM construct
as (i), a broadband interference pattern or (ii), a narrowband interference pattern such that the entire
PV spectrum surrounding each mass is usefully approximated by a single wavefunction at .
We shall illustrate both of these situations by graphical example.
Consider the location of zero net acceleration [0(m/s2) - termed the buoyancy point] between
the Earth and the Moon with the lunar orbit usefully approximated as being circular. Let, DE2M,
r4 and r5 denote the mean distance from the Earth to the Moon, the mean distance from the
centre of mass of the Earth to the buoyancy point and the mean distance from the centre of mass of
the Moon to the buoyancy point respectively such that:
r4
r 5 D E2M
r5
(4.429)
D E2M
r4
(4.430)
Hence, when accelerations are balanced:

G.M E G.M M
2
r4
r5
(4.431)
Solving for r4 yields,

r4
D E2M. M M .M E
MM
M M .M E
(4.432)
r4
r5
. 5
3.46028110
. 4
3.83719110
( km)
(4.433)
Calculating g at r4 and r5 yields,

g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M
. 3
3.33165310
. 3
3.33165310
(4.434)
where, the resultant acceleration is given by,

g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M = 0
m
s
(4.435)
9.2.2 Construct
9.2.2.1 Broadband
The broadband interference pattern of the buoyancy point between the Earth and the Moon
may be formulated by graphing the harmonics of gravitational acceleration aPV. Summing the first
21 modes only (i.e. nPV = 21), an approximation of the resultant interference pattern may be
represented (illustrational only) utilising the EGM construct as follows,
a PV( r , M , t )
i .
C PV n PV, r , M .e
n PV
.n PV . PV( 1 , r , M ) .t .i
(4.436)
where, CPV and nPVPV(1,r,M) represent the gravitational amplitude and frequency spectra
respectively mindful that in physical reality, |nPV| .
259
Harmonic Acc. & Grav. Interference

T PV 1 , r 5 , M M
Acceleration
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
t
Time
Gravitational Acceleration due to The Earth

Gravitational Acceleration due to The Moon
Resultant Acceleration (Interference)
Figure 4.58,
The graph above only includes the first 21 harmonics. A complete representation would
involve summing all modes (i.e. > 1029 wavefunctions for each celestial object). Subsequently,
complete graphical representation at the zero g position [aPV(r4,ME,t) and aPV(r5,MM,t)
respectively: producing a resultant acceleration of zero aPV(r4,ME,t) - aPV(r5,MM,t)], will appear as
flat lines. The resultant magnitude of acceleration curve aPV(r4,ME,t) - aPV(r5,MM,t) will run along
the x-axis with a value of zero.
9.2.2.2 Narrowband
The narrowband representation is formed by usefully approximating the PV spectrum of the
gravitational field, as a single wavefunction at . Firstly, we shall validate that the EGM method
produces the correct result with negligible error as follows,
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
a EGM_ r 5 , M M
.
3.33165310
.
3.33165310
m
s
(4.437)
where, the resultant acceleration is given by,

a EGM_ r 4 , M E
a EGM_ r 5 , M M = 0
m
s
(4.438)
Graphing the high frequency harmonic accelerations ag of the gravitational interaction of

the Earth and the Moon at the buoyancy point (illustrational only), based solely upon [i.e.
(r4,ME) and (r5,MM)], produces a visualisation of beats utilising a generalised form
according to,
a g ( r , M , , t )
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
(4.439)
At = 0, the average acceleration is given by gav,
g av ( r , M )
2
T ( r, M )
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
0 .( s )
260
a g( r, M , 0, t ) d t
(4.440)
Evaluating yields the correct result as demonstrated by,

g av R E, M E = 9.809009
m
s
(4.441)
such that:
r 4 , M E = 56.499573 ( YHz)
(4.442)
r 5 , M M = 72.138509( YHz)
(4.443)
and,
Hence, the conjugate wavefunction acceleration pairs may be illustrated as follows,
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Pairs
Acceleration
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction From The Earth

-ve WaveFunction From The Earth
+ve WaveFunction From The Moon
-ve WaveFunction From The Moon
Figure 4.59,
The Moons EGM narrowband wavefunction approximation contribution is phase-shifted
180 (polarized) relative to the Earth because it approaches the zero g position from the
opposite direction. This is inconsequential because aPV is equal to the time averaged magnitude of
the curves above.
Acceleration
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Beats
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction Interference Beat

-ve WaveFunction Interference Beat (Conjugate)
Figure 4.60,
261
Note: for narrowband representations of non-zero acceleration, one may apply either of two
techniques to the approximation,
i. Disregard the conjugate wavefunction or,
ii. Apply an appropriately adjusted magnitude constraint.
9.2.3.1 Broadband
EGM interference patterns form when two or more gravitational fields interact. EGM
considers all masses to be radiators of conjugate wavefunction pairs. That is to say, all mass
radiates a spectrum of wavefunctions at frequencies according to PV(1,r,M) (r,M). Each
positive amplitude wavefunction is coupled to its negative amplitude counterpart. The total
gravitational influence of the wavefunction pair is characterised by the sum of the magnitudes.
Gravitational interaction between two bodies may be written mathematically in the time domain as
an interference pattern such that nPV has the odd number harmonic distribution from -n(r,M)
to +n(r,M) as follows,
n PV
n ( r, M ) , 2
n ( r , M ) .. n ( r , M )
(4.444)
The magnitude of n(r,M) is extremely important in EGM as it defines the breadth of the
double sided EGM spectrum. Without a sufficiently large magnitude of n(r,M), a measurably
constant function is not possible. In other words, if n(r,M) is too low, then EGM would imply
that gravity varies with time (noticeably) at the surface of the Earth and we would all be able to feel
this behaviour on our bodies.
Therefore, n(r,M) is required to be sufficiently large such that aPV produces a flatlined graph, consistent with human experience of g at the surface of the Earth. Fortunately, the
EGM method produces extremely large values of n(r,M) for all masses, even at the fundamental
particle level. Typically, real world values of 1014 to +, depending on the mass being
considered. It should be noted that acceptably constant graphical behaviour can be observed with
values of n(r,M) as low as several hundred.
The value of n(r,M), as determined by the EGM method, is intimately tied to the massenergy distribution of the object under consideration. For example, the value of n(r,M) for free
space (zero gravity) is +. This decreases as the energy density of the space-time manifold
increases. In other words, as mass is added to the space-time manifold, the value of n(r,M)
decreases acting to compresses the local PV spectrum.
Note: gravitational interference patterns form due to broadband propagation of EGM
wavefunctions at a group velocity of zero.
9.2.3.2 Narrowband
A narrowband interference pattern may be produced by approximating the entire PV
spectrum surrounding each mass as a single wavefunction, existing as a population of conjugate
Photon pairs. Where, one population of Photons propagate with positive amplitude, coupled to a
population of Virtual Photons propagating with negative amplitude, such that each population of
pairs is polarized 180 apart (i.e. a pair existing as equal and opposite forms)63.
Note: the broadband group velocity condition is preserved in the narrowband approximation.
63
Refer to previous section for an expanded description.

262
10 Particle Cosmology
Abstract
The following characteristics are derived utilising EGM principles:
i. The Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.
ii. The Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii lower limit.
iii. The Photon charge threshold.
iv. The Photon charge upper limit.
v. The Photon charge lower limit.
263
10.1 Derivation of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit

The lower limit of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies (m2 and mgg2 respectively)
may be determined trivially by equating tL to TL as follows,
Let, TL tL such that:
tL
h
m
(4.445)
Therefore: if m m2 then,
m 2
h
tL
(4.446)
2 .m 2
(4.447)
m gg2
Evaluating yields,
m 2
1.715978
m gg2
10
3.431956
51 .
eV
(4.448)
Hence,
m 2 < m m
(4.449)
m gg2 < m m gg
(4.450)
10.2 Derivation of the Photon and Graviton RMS charge radii lower limit
The lower limit of the Photon and Graviton Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge radii (r2
and rgg2 respectively) may be determined utilising m2 and the radii relationships derived in
[10] as follows,
5
r 2
r e.
m 2
m e .c
(4.451)
where, re and me denote the classical Electron radius and rest mass respectively. Thus,
r gg2
4 .r 2
(4.452)
Evaluating yields,
r 2
r gg2
7.250508
9.567103
10
38 .
(4.453)
Hence,
r 2 < r r
(4.454)
r gg2 < r r gg
(4.455)
10.3 Derivation of the Photon charge threshold

The Root-Mean-Square (RMS) charge threshold of a free Photon Q may be derived in a
similar manner to the mass-energy threshold in [8]. Utilising a generalised form for the energy of a
Photon E [10] propagating at , Q may be derived in highly favourable agreement with
the PDG estimate [49] as follows,
E ( r, M )
h . ( r , M )
264
(4.456)
Subsequently, the Photon population at the charge threshold is given by N,

E ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.457)
where, m denotes the mass-energy threshold. Hence, Q is given by,

Qe
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.458)
where, Qe denotes the Electric charge.
Let: r r and m me such that Q(r,me) Q where r denotes the RMS charge
radius of the Electron as determined in [9]. Hence, Q may be evaluated according to,
Q
= 2.655018 10
30
Qe
(4.459)
30
Q < 2.7.10 .Q e
(4.460)
Therefore,
Comparing Q to the PDG value (i.e. Q_PDG = 5 x10-30Qe) produces a highly favourable result
as follows,
Q _PDG
= 1.883226
(4.461)
10.4 Derivation of the Photon charge upper limit

The upper limit of the RMS charge of a free Photon Q may be derived trivially by
considering the value of the charge threshold in proportion to the Photon population as follows,
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
N ( r, M )
(4.462)
Subsequently it follows that,

Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
Qe
(4.463)
Let: r r and m me such that Q(r,me) Q according to,

Q
Qe
(4.464)
Evaluating yields,
Q = 1.129394 10
Q
= 7.049122 10
78 .
(4.465)
60
Qe
(4.466)
Therefore,
Q 7.05. 10
265
60
.Q
e
(4.467)
10.5 Derivation of the Photon charge lower limit

The lower limit of the RMS charge of a free Photon Q2 may be derived trivially by
recognising that the Cosmological age, Photon mass-energy and Photon RMS charge limit ratios are
equal as follows,
tL
T L m 2 Q 2
m
(4.468)
.
= 1.86196810
m 2
(4.469)
Hence,
Q
Q 2
.m
2
(4.470)
Evaluating yields,
Q 2 = 6.065593 10
Q 2
85 .
= 3.785846 10
(4.471)
66
Qe
Therefore,
(4.472)
Q 2 .Q e < Q Q .Q e
(4.473)
10.6 Other useful relationships

i. Relationship:
m
E r ,me
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
(4.474)
Verification,
m
E r , m e
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
1.525768
1.525768
10
46 .
eV
(4.475)
ii. Relationship:
E r e, m e
(4.476)
Verification,
E r e, m e
m
0.165603
0.165603
( J )
(4.477)
iii. Relationship:
r e, m e
266
h .m
(4.478)
Verification,
r e,m e
m
h .m
249.926816
249.926816
( YHz)
(4.479)
iv. Relationship:
Qe
me
2.
c Q
. 11
1.7588210
198.286288
kg
(4.480)
NOTES
267
NOTES
268
11 Equation Summary
The following is an itemised account of the key relationships derived herein:
11.1 Gravitation
11.1.1 Stg
6
3
3 . h
St g
13 2
2 . .c
(4.23)
11.1.2 _2
_2( r , M )
St g
r
.g ( r , M ) 2
(4.25)
11.1.3 aEGM_
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
a EGM_( r , M )
(4.26)
11.1.4 StG
3.
St G
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
(4.35)
11.1.5 _3
9
M
St G.
5
r
_3( r , M )
(4.36)
11.1.6 _3
_3 = c / _3
11.1.7 G
St G
St g
(4.37)
11.1.8 PV(nPV,r,M)3
2 .c .n PV
PV n PV, r , M
.r
.g ( r , M )
(4.41)
11.1.9 StJ
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
2
9
(4.51)
11.1.10 C_J1, C_J

C _J1( r , M )
St J
2
. M
(4.52)
5.2
C _J _3 , M
269
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
(4.427)
11.1.11 n_2
.
3
3 . m h . r
16 M
h
2
n _2( r , M )
(4.60)
11.1.12 KDepp
1
K Depp ( r , M )
2 .G.M
11.1.13 KPV
K PV( r , M )
r .c
(4.106)
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
(4.110)
11.1.14 TL
TL
h
m
(4.196)
11.1.15 g
M .c
2 .h
g( M )
11.1.16 ngg
(4.207)
n gg ( M ) T L. g ( M )
(4.208)
11.1.17 r
5
St G.
r _3 , M
_3
(4.212)
11.1.18 aPV
a PV( r , M , t )
i .
C PV n PV, r , M .e
.n PV . PV( 1 , r , M ) .t .i
n PV
(4.436)
11.1.19 ag
a g ( r , M , , t )
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
(4.439)
11.1.20 gav
g av ( r , M )
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
T ( r, M )
0 .( s )
a g( r, M , 0, t ) d t
(4.440)
11.2 Planck-Particles
11.2.1 mx
mx
x
2
(4.71)
11.2.2 x
x
4 . 2
3
270
(4.72)
11.2.3 m, S
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
(4.78)
S = m(xh,mxmh)
11.2.4 r3, M3
r3 = xh
(4.245)
M3 = mxmh = xmh / 2
(4.246)
11.3 SBHs
11.3.1 StBH
c .St G
St BH
c.
( 2 .G)
(4.138)
11.3.2 _4
3
St BH.
_4 M BH
1
M BH
(4.139)
11.3.3 rS
3
2
x. h .R BH
r S R BH
r S M BH
3
r S R BH
(4.146)
3 .M BH
4 . . S
(4.148)
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G. S
(4.150)
11.3.4 n_4
n _4 M BH
(4.157)
n _5 M BH
(4.158)
11.3.5 n_5
11.3.6 nBH
n BH M BH
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.159)
11.3.7 _5
_5 M BH
_3 r S M BH , M BH
(4.161)
11.3.8 BH
BH M BH
_5 M BH
_4 M BH
(4.162)
11.3.9 _6
_6 M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
(4.166)
11.3.10 _7
_7 M BH
271
_4 M BH
n _5 M BH
(4.167)
11.3.11 PV_1
_6 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_7 M BH
(4.168)
11.3.12 ng
n g , M BH
E M BH
E g( )
(4.177)
11.4 Cosmology
11.4.1 r2, M2
r2(r) = Kr
(4.247)
M2(M) = KmM = KM
(4.248)
11.4.2 y
1
y r 2, M 2
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
(4.229)
11.4.3 KU
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
5
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
(4.231)
.ln n
_2 r 2 , M 2
3.
M3
26
M2
r2
r3
(4.232)
11.4.4 AU
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
11.4.5 RU
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.233)
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.234)
11.4.6 HU, HU2, HU5, |H|
H U5( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
( 3 . )
(4.235)
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
H U2( r , M )
7 . .
A U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
32
256
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
(4.276)
7 .
. r
h
d
H
dt
2
7 .
mh
M
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
(4.529)
(4.378)
11.4.7 H
H r 3, M 3
2.
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
(4.237)
H(r3,M3) = h / x
272
H x. h , m x.m h
(4.249)
11.4.8 U, U2
3 .H U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
8 . .G
3 .H U2( r , M )
U2( r , M )
11.4.9 MU
M U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
(4.238)
8 . .G
(4.304)
V R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 . U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
(4.239)
11.4.10 KT
K T r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
H r 3, M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
8 . H r 3, M 3
ln
3
H
K T( H )
(4.240)
(4.268)
11.4.11 TW
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
(4.241)
KW
T W( H)
_3
c x.
,
mh
H 2
(4.269)
11.4.12 StT
9
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
St T
(4.274)
11.4.13 TU, TU2, TU3, TU4, TU5

T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
h
K W .St T .ln
T U2( H )
T U3 H
x.H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H5
(4.275)
. H .H

KW
c
.ln
.
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
273
2 .
5 .
(4.318)
1
t
T U5( r , M )
(4.242)
5 .
1
.H
(4.331)
2 .
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
(4.530)
11.4.14 dTdt, dT2dt2, dT3dt3

K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
dT2 dt2 ( t )
K W .St T .
dT3 dt3 ( t )
.t
(4.335)
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
t
K W .St T .
5 .
5 .
.t2
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 .
(4.339)
3
5 .
2
2
15. . 5 .
2
.t3
(4.343)
11.4.15 dHdt, dH2dt2

1
H .H
H H
dH dt H
dH2 dt2 H
(4.359)
(4.376)
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.361)
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
(4.371)
11.4.16 t1, t2, t3, t4, t5

1
t1
2
5 . .
1
H
10 .
t2
(4.334)
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
(4.338)
2
. 1
H
(4.342)
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5
. 1
H
4
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
274
(4.366)
2
1
. 1
H
(4.375)
11.5 ZPF
11.5.1 EGM
EGM
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
U2 R o , M G
r x5
1.013403
m g5
(4.308)
1.052361
(4.298)
11.5.2 ZPF
ZPF
EGM
(4.313)
11.5.3 UZPF
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
(4.315)
11.6 EGM Construct limits

11.6.1 ML
ML
K m.M G.
R EGM
5 5
R EGM
K .R o
R EGM
K .R o
(4.409)
(4.410)
11.6.2 rL
rL
R BH M L
(4.411)
11.6.3 tL
rL
tL
(4.412)
11.6.4 ML / rL = MEGM / REGM = tL / tEGM

M L M EGM
rL
M EGM
t EGM
tL
R EGM t EGM
(4.415)
(4.413)
(4.414)
11.7 Particle-Physics
11.7.1 m2
m 2
11.7.2 mgg2
m gg2
h
tL
(4.446)
2 .m 2
(4.447)
11.7.3 r2
5
r 2
r e.
m 2
m e .c
275
(4.451)
11.7.4 rgg2
r gg2
11.7.5 N
4 .r 2
(4.452)
E ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.457)
11.7.6 Q
Qe
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
(4.458)
11.7.7 Q
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
N ( r, M )
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
(4.462)
Qe
(4.463)
Qe
(4.464)
11.7.8 Q2
Q 2
Q
m
.m
2
(4.470)
11.7.9 tL / TL = m / m2 = Q / Q2
tL
T L m 2 Q 2
(4.468)
11.8 Other useful relationships

m
E r ,me
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
E r e, m e
r e, m e
276
(4.474)
m
m
(4.476)
2
h .m
(4.478)
11.9 Quick symbol guide

Symbol
aEGM_
ag
aPV
AU
C_J1
C_J
dH2dt2
dHdt
dT2dt2
dT3dt3
dTdt
gav
H
H0
HU
HU2
HU5
H
H
H
KDepp
KT
KU
KW
M1
M2
M3
MBH
MEGM
mg5
mgg2
ML
MU
mx
m2
nBH
ng
ngg
n_2
n_4
n_5
N
Q
Q
Q2
r1
Description
Equal to C_J
EGM Hubble constant
Simplest functionally dependent form of HU
rf / ri
Generalised mass
Generalised mass
Generalised mass or mh
Mass of a SBH
2nd SPBH constant
277
Units
m/s2
s
Jy (Jansky)
Hz3
Hz2
K/s2
K/s3
K/s
m/s2
Hz
mK
kg
eV
kg
eV
r2
r3
RBH
REGM
rgg2
rL
Ro
rS
RU
rx5
r2
r
Stg
StG
StJ
T0
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
tEGM
TL
tL
TU
TU2
TU3
TU4
TU5
TW
UZPF
EGM
ZPF
x
y
_3
m
S
U
U2
BH
g
PV_1

m
Generalised radial displacement or h
pc (parsec)
Singularity radius
m
m
m-1s-5
nd
224
2 EGM gravitational constant: StG = 8.146982 x10
m5kg-2s-9
(kg4m26/s18)(1/9)
K
s
CMBR temperature
CMBR temperature
K
Simplest functionally dependent form of TU
Pa
Computed index
1st SPBH constant
m
c / _3
Mass density
kg/m3
Hz
278
_2
_3
_4
_5
_6
_7

Hz
NOTES
279
NOTES
280
APPENDIX 4.A
Thermodynamic
Groupings of BHs
The temperature of a BH is given by ( denotes Boltzmanns constant [35]),
h .c
T BH
2
16. . .G.M BH
(4.481)
This may be represented in form as follows

h .c
2
2
16. . .G.M BH ( 4 . ) .M BH
2
.
. c . hc
G
(4.482)
Recognising that c2 / G = mh / h, h = c / h and64 Th = mhc2 / = hh / yields,

1
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
mh
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
mh
2
.
. c . hc
G
.
. hc
.
h
.
mh
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
mh
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
h . h
T h .m h
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
Hence,
T BH
.
. hc
. h
(4.483)
h . h
(4.484)
(4.485)
T h .m h
2
( 4 . ) .M BH
(4.486)
Therefore, the thermodynamic representation of BH temperature is given by,

Th
T BH
mh
( 4 . )
M BH
(4.487)
Note: it is a personal preference of the author, never to apply the h-bar form of Plancks
Constant.
Conventional calculation of SPBH temperature TBH
The EGM construct identifies that the Primordial Universe may be modelled as a SPBH
of mass mxmh. Hence, substituting mxmh = xmh / 2 into the form of BH temperature
yields,
Th
T BH
mh
m x.m h
Th
. 1
T BH m x
Th
T BH
. 2
x
2
( 4 . )
(4.488)
64
Planck temperature = Planck energy divided by .

http://www.planck.com/plancktemperature.htm
281
Th
2
( 4 . ) . x
T BH
2
8 . . x
(4.489)
Therefore, the conventional representation of the temperature of a SPBH is given by,

Th
T BH m x.m h
2
8 . . x
(4.490)
Evaluating yields,
Th
.
= 1.66667410
30
( K)
8 . . x
(4.491)
TU2 : TBH
The ratio between TBH and the maximum value of TU2 since the Big-Bang (i.e. at t1)
may be determined numerically, leading to a simple relationship between them [i.e. an
approximation to within 1.72(%)] as follows,
T U2
1
t1
= 19.173025
T BH m x.m h
(4.492)
Hence,
T U2
6 . .T BH m x.m h
t1
(4.493)
Therefore by approximation,
T U2
3 .T h
t1
4 . . x
(4.494)
Evaluating the difference yields,

T U2
1
t1
6 . .T BH m x.m h
1 = 1.716054 ( % )
(4.495)
Approximations of TU2(t1-1)
1st Form
The peak value of Cosmological temperature may be usefully approximated [i.e. to within
0.163(%)] by applying Dimensional Analysis Techniques (DATs) to the gravitational Poynting
Vector S, yielding the dimensional limit of the Cosmological temperature TSPBH ( denotes
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant [35]) as follows,
4
T SPBH
S x. h , m x.m h
(4.496)
Evaluating yields,
.
T SPBH = 5.02766910
31
( K)
(4.497)
Comparing the result to the conventional BH form produces,
282
T SPBH
T BH m x.m h
= 30.165887
(4.498)
Comparing the result to the precise EGM form produces,

T SPBH
T U2
= 1.57335
1
t1
(4.499)
T U2
3
K .T SPBH
t1
(4.500)
Evaluating,
3
. 31 ( K )
K .T SPBH = 3.20071410
(4.501)
Hence, the difference yields,

3
K .T SPBH
T U2
1 = 0.162602 ( % )
1
t1
(4.502)
Since the difference between forms is small [i.e. < 0.163(%)], we may usefully
approximate TU2(t-1) according to,
4
3.
K T SPBH K
3
3 .m x.m h .c
3.
4 . . . x. h
4
4
3
K .
4 . . . x. h
3.
K
3.
3.
3 .m h .c
3.
3
3 .c . h
8 . .G. x
3.
.m .c3
h
3 .m h .c
3.
3
3 .c . h
8 . .G. x
3
2
3 .c .H
8 . .G.
(4.504)
2
3
8 . . . x . h
4
4 . . . x. h
4
3.
(4.503)
3
K .
.m .c3
h
2
3
8 . . . x . h
4 . . . x. h
4
3.
3
3 .m x.m h .c
(4.505)
(4.506)
(4.507)
3
2
3
2
3 .c .H 2 3 .c .H
3.
.
K
8 . .G.
8 . .G.
4
(4.508)
2
2
. 3.
. 3.
2. 3 c H 1. 6 c H
8 . .G.
.G.
283
(4.509)
2
. 3.
1. 6 c H
.G.
6 .c
. .G
3
(4.510)
T U2
t1
6 .c
. .G
3
(4.511)
Checking the result confirms the simplification,

H
6 .c
. 31 ( K )
= 3.20071410
. .G
3
(4.512)
2nd Form
TU2(t-1) may be approximated explicitly in terms of physical constants as follows (to

within 0.249(%) where, KW denotes Wiens displacement constant [35]),
T U2
2
c . KW
5 G.
1
t1
(4.513)
Evaluating,
2
c . KW
. 31 ( K )
= 3.18758510
5 G.
(4.514)
Hence, the approximation error is,

T U2
1
t1
2
KW
.c .
5 G.
1 = 0.248248 ( % )
(4.515)
Approximation of
x in terms of physical constants
The value of x may be usefully approximated in terms of physical constants to within
1.45(%) as follows,
3 .T h
2
c . KW
4 . . x 5 G.
(4.516)
Hence by approximation,
x
15.T h
.
. G
KW
4 . .c
2
(4.517)
Simplifying yields,
m .c
. h
15
15.T h G.
. G.
.
2
2
KW
KW
4 . .c
4 . .c
(4.518)
m h .c
15.
.
. G. 15 m h . G.
2
K W 4 . . K W
4 . .c
(4.519)
284
15.m h
15.m h
.
G
. G
.
4 . . K W
4 .
.K W
15.m h
4 .
(4.520)
15 . h .c .
G
.K W 4 . G .K W
G
(4.521)
15 . h .c .
G
15 .
h .c
4 . G
.K W 4 . .K W
(4.522)
x
15 .
h .c
.
.
4 KW
(4.523)
Evaluating,
15 .
h .c
= 2.659782
4 . .K W
(4.524)
1 . 15 .
h .c
.
.
x 4 KW
(4.525)
Hence, the approximation error is,

1 = 1.442436 ( % )
Physical interpretation of
x
A physical interpretation of x is possible utilising the Stefan-Boltzmann Law where,
denotes the energy flux emitted from a Black-Body at temperature T according to,
.T
(4.526)
Subsequently, if we equate the Stefan-Boltzmann Law to the peak average Cosmological

temperature (correlating to the approximated temperature of a SPBH), a physical interpretation of
x is possible as follows,
.
3 .T h
4 . . x
(4.527)
th
Therefore by inspection, x is proportional to the 4 power-root of the energy flux of the

Universe at the peak average Cosmological temperature, in accordance with the Stefan-Boltzmann
Law shown by,
x
285
(4.528)
NOTES
286
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1993, Ch. 10.
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1957.
288
[62] R.H. Dicke, Machs principle and equivalence, in Proc. Of the International School of
Physics Enrico Fermi Course XX, Evidence for Gravitational Theories, ed. C. Mller, Academic
Press, New York, 1961, pp. 1 49.
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Flight, JBIS, Vol. 55, pp.137, 2002, http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/astro-ph/0107316v2
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Press LTD, 1986, Programme 17.
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[71] http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/students.php/all_subjects/series
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[73] Georgia State University, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/redgia.html
[74] Georgia State University, http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/pulsar.html
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[76] Simon et Al., Nucl. Phys. A333, 381 (1980).
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[78] Andrews et Al., 1977 J. Phys. G: Nucl. Phys. 3 L91 L92.
[79] L.N. Hand, D.G. Miller, and R. Wilson, Rev. Mod. Phys. 35, 335 (1963).
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http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/quarks.html
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[82] Scienceworld, http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Photon.html
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Super-K and SNO observations, http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0108018v1
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289
NOTES
290
APPENDIX 4.B
Note: Quinta Essentia Part 4 is a companion to Quinta Essentia Part 3. Subsequently, the
simulation and calculation engine in Part 4 is a natural extension of Part 3, utilising it as a
foundational construct. Hence, the calculation engine developed in Part 3 has been included
(verbatim) herein for reference. Please consult Part 3 if required.
MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine

a. Computational environment
NOTE: KNOWLEDGE OF MATHCAD IS REQUIRED AND ASSUMED
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 0.001.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 0.001.
Calculation Display Tolerance: 6 figures unless otherwise indicated.
b. Units of measure (definitions)
Scale 1
10
Scale 2
10
10
6
10
10
10
10
12
10
12
10
15
10
15
10
18
10
( mm m nm pm fm am zm ym )
18
10
21
10
10
10
24
24
Scale 1 .( m)
( mHz Hz nHz pHz fHz aHz zHz yHz )

( mJ J nJ pJ fJ aJ zJ yJ )
21
Scale 1 .( Hz)
Scale 1 .( J )
Scale 1 .( W )
( mW W nW pW fW aW zW yW )
( m n p f a z y )
( mV V nV pV fV aV zV yV )
Scale 1 .( ohm )
Scale 1 .( V)
( mPa Pa nPa pPa fPa aPa zPa yPa )

( mT T nT pT fT aT zT yT )
Scale 1 .( T )
( mNs Ns nNs pNs fNs aNs zNs yNs )

( mN N nN pN fN aN zN yN )
Scale 1 .( Pa )
Scale 1 .( Ns )
Scale 1 .( newton )
( mgs gs ngs pgs fgs ags zgs ygs )
Scale 1 .( gauss )
291
Scale 1 .( gm )
( mgm gm ngm pgm fgm agm zgm ygm )

( mSt St nSt pSt fSt aSt zSt ySt )
Scale 1
( kSt MSt GSt TSt PSt ESt ZSt YSt )
Scale 2
( kHz MHz GHz THz PHz EHz ZHz YHz)
Scale 2 .( Hz)
Scale 2 .( newton )
( kN MN GN TN PN EN ZN YN )
Scale 2 .( J )
( kJ MJ GJ TJ PJ EJ ZJ YJ )
Scale 2 .( W )
( kW MW GW TW PW EW ZW YW )
Scale 2 .( ohm )
( k M G T P E Z Y )
Scale 2 .( V)
( kV MV GV TV PV EV ZV YV)
Scale 2 .( Pa )
( kPa MPa GPa TPa PPa EPa ZPa YPa )
Scale 2 .( T )
( kT MT GT TT PT ET ZT YT )
( keV MeV GeV TeV PeV EeV ZeV YeV)
Scale 2 .( eV)
Ns newton .s
c. Constants (definitions)
.
6.674210
11 .
kg .s
.
8.85418781710
12 .
m
299792458.
s
.
6.626069310
34 .
( J .s )
7 newton
4 . .10 .
2
A
.
eV 1.6021765310
19 .
( J)
m
.
7.29735256810
.
1.6021765310
Qe
19 .
( C)
0.5772156649015328
d. Fundamental particle characteristics (definitions or initialisation values)

m e m p m n m m m AMC
. 31 1.6726217110
. 27 1.6749272810
. 27 1.883531410
. 28 3.1677710
. 27 1.6605388610
. 27 .( kg )
9.109382610
Ce CP CN C C
Ce CP CN C C
h. 1
c
me mp mn m m
2
2 . .c .
me mp mn m m
292
eV
6
6
3 0.19.10 18.2.10 .
2
c
m en m n m n
Note: for the Bottom Quark, the SLAC estimate is utilised initially.
4 .10
m uq m dq m sq m cq m bq m tq
( 80.425 91.1876 114.4 ) .
mW mZ mH
GeV
0.13 1.35 4.7 179.4 .
2
c
( 2.817940325 0.875 0.85 ) .( fm)
re rp rn
0.85.10
GeV
c
r xq
8 .10
16 .
( cm)
.
0.529177210810
r Bohr
10
.( nm )
656.469624182052
( m)
e. Planck characteristics (definitions)

G.h
h .c
mh
G.h
th
th
f. Astronomical statistics
MM ME MJ MS
5
1738 6377.18 71492 6.96.10 .( km)
RM RE RJ RS
2
c .R E
2 .G
M BH
200.R S
R RG
24
24
24
30
0.0735.10 5.977.10 1898.8.10 1.989.10 .( kg )
R BH
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
M NS
1 .M S
R NS
M RG
4 .M S
R WD
4200.( km)
M WD
20.( km)
3
300.10 .M E
g. Other
.10
M BH = 4.29379067958471
33
( kg )
mx
mp
rx
r Bohr
h. Arbitrary values for illustrational purposes
KR
1 .( Hz)
R max
4
10 .( km)
R max
RE
F 0( k )
K 0( , X )
R max
250
293
i. PV / ZPF equations
2.
K PV( r , M )
G .M
2
r .c
K 0( r , M )
K PV( r , M ) .e
K EGM_N( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
2 . K 0( r , M )
G.M .
KR
2
r .c
K 0( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
K EGM_E( r , M )
G.M .
C PV n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
n PV 3 2 .c .G.M
.
. K ( r, M )
PV
r
.r
PV n PV, r , M
.n PV
PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M
2 . K 0( r , M )
U m( r , M )
PV n PV, r , M
3 .M .c
4 . .r
U ( r , M )
n ( r, M )
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
PV( r , M )
( r, M )
r n PV, r , r , M
c.
PV n PV, r
( r, M )
n ( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
U ( r , M )
S m( r , M )
r , M
r , M
1
(r
108.
PV( 1 , r , M )
PV n PV, r
r n PV, r , r , M
( r , r , M )
U m( r , M )
( r, M )
12. 768 81.
c .U m( r , M )
ZPF( r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
U ( r , M )
N r( r , M )
( r, M ) .
r
c
PV n PV, r , M
PV n PV, r , M
1
r , M )
( r, M )
3 .M .c .
4 .
2
K C( r , r , M )
r n PV, r , r , M . r n PV, r , r , M
v r n PV, r , r , M
v ( r , r , M )
U m( r , M )
v r n ( r , M ) , r , r , M
U PV( r , r , M ) .
_ZPF( r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
U PV( r , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
(r
r )
2 .c .
U PV( r , r , M )
h
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
4
K R . _ZPF( r , r , M )
294
r( 1 , r , r , M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
n r , r , M , K R
( r , r , M )
(r
S r , r , M , K R
r , M )
( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
( r, M )
_ZPF( r , r , M )
U PV( r , r , M ) .
St ( r , r , M )
n S r , r , M , K R
PV( 1 , r , M )
Ce
n r , r , M , K R
ZPF( r , r , M )
R( r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
r , r , M , K R
St ( r , r , M )
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
n (r
ZPF( r , r , M )
Ce
r , M )
n ( r, M )
v r n PV, r , r , M
St n PV, r , r , M
v ( r , r , M )
j. Casimir equations
C( r )
c
.
2 r
E C( r , r , M )
X( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
C( r )
.N X( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
C( r )
PV( 1 , r , M )
HR( A , D , r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
C( r )
c .K PV( r , M ) . St ( r , r , M )
N TR( A , D , r , r , M )
F PP( r , r )
A D St N
N T A , D , N X( r , r , M )
N T A , D , N C( r , r , M )
H A , D , N X( r , r , M )
H A , D , N C( r , r , M )
.h .c .A PP( r )
4
480.r
F PV( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M )
B C( r , r , M )
X( r , r , M )
(1 1 1 )
H A , D, N T
N R( r , r , M )
n _ZPF( r , r , M )
ln 2 .n _ZPF( r , r , M )
E C( r , r , M )
c
c
X( r , r , M )
St N
N T A , D , St N
NT
. 2 .A
N C( r , r , M )
A PP( r ) .U PV( r , r , M ) .
D. N T
N X( r , r , M )
A PP( r )
N C( r , r , M )
N X( r , r , M )
.ln
4 . .r
N X( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
8 . .G .
U PV( r , r , M )
2
3 .c
295
8 . .G . F PV( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
2
A PP( r )
N C( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
3 .c
St ( r , r , M )
( r , r , M )
R( r , r , M )
r_Error( r , r , M )
St ( r , r , M )
9 .G.M . r( 1 , r , r , M )
EGM( r , r , M )
2
U m( r , M )
. 3 .
r( 1 , r , r , M ) 2
U PV( r , r , M )
Error( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
2 .r
2 3
1 . 16. .r .h . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
K P 27.c .M .r4 N C( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
St PP K P , r , r , M
2 3
16. .r .h . N X( r , r , M ) . N X( r , r , M )
ln
4 N ( r , r , M )
N C( r , r , M )
.
.
.
27 c M r
C
K P( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
( r , r , M )
EGM( r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
r( 1 , r , r , M )
k. Fundamental particle equations
512.h .G.m e
c . .r e
n r e, m e
ln 2 .n r e , m e
5
2 .m
m gg
r e.
2.
gg
m
m e .c
r gg
( r, M )
St ( r , M )
r gg
h . r e , m e
Ce
4 .r
St ( r , M )
( r, M )
CP
Km
m
N
( r, M )
St ( r , M )
CN
Note: the highlighted equation is not included as a constraint. This is the most significant difference
between the calculation engine and the complete algorithm of Appendix 3.K.
5
1
r
c . Ce
2
4
27. h . Ce
4
32.
CP
CP
r r
r .
1 . m
9
4 me
2 5
1 . m
9
6 me
1 . me
r .
9
2 mp
CN
CN
5
r en r n r n
r .
m en
me
r .
m n
m
r .
m n
Given
5
r r .
1 . me
9
2 mp
296
.e
r
r
.e
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
Find r , r , r , r , r , r en , r n , r n
3 .r xq. 2
r uq
m dq
r dq
m uq
r uq
m dq
m uq
r en
r n
r n
5
m sq
St sq
St dq
r dq , m dq
St dq
floor St dq
St sq
r xq, m sq
St sq
floor St sq
St cq
St bq
1
r uq , m uq
St tq
. r xq, m cq
St cq
floor St cq
r xq, m bq
St bq
floor St bq
r xq, m tq
St tq
floor St tq
m cq
r sq
r cq
r bq
r uq .
1
m uq
.
2
St cq
m bq
r tq
St bq
5
m tq
r uq , m uq
St uq
floor St uq
St dq
r dq , m dq
St dq
floor St dq
r sq , m sq
St sq
floor St sq
r cq , m cq
St cq
floor St cq
St bq
r bq , m bq
St bq
floor St bq
St tq
r tq , m tq
St tq
floor St tq
St sq
St cq
r , m e
297
St tq
St uq
9
5
St uq .r uq
m uq
9
5
St dq .r dq
m dq
m sq
me
m cq
m bq
9
5
St sq .r sq
1 . m tq
r uq .
9
10 m uq
r tq
9
5
St cq .r cq
r u( M )
h
.
4 .c .M
rW
r u mW
rZ
r u mZ
rH
r u mH
9
5
St bq .r bq
m tq
9
5
St tq .r tq
r u mW ,mW
St W
round St W , 0
. r u mZ ,mZ
St Z
round St Z , 0
r u mH ,mH
St H
round St H , 0
St W
1
St Z
r uq , m uq
St H
1
St W
rW
r uq .
rZ
m uq
rH
.m 2
W
1 .
2
mZ
9
St Z
rL
1 .
2
mH
9
St H
1.
r QB
r uq
m QB St , r QB
Let:
r dq
r sq
r cq
9
m uq . St .
r bq
r QB
r uq
r tq
rW
rZ
rH
m L St , r L
9
m e . St .
rL
4. . 3
r
3
V( r )
Q( r )
1
V( r )
Q ch ( r )
Q( r )
3
r dr
5.
r
3
Given
2
ln( x) .
2
x
x
KS
1
1 3
Find( x)
2
3 . .r ( 1 x) .x3
.
2
8
1 x x
b1
2
3 .r
.
2
KS
2
KX
2
0.113. fm
298
6 .b 1 .K X . x
rX
3 .b 1 . x
r M
KS
2.
3
. e
3
5
2
.r . x
r E
r M
r dr .
r dr
fm
r
x .r
1.
e
3
x
ch ( r )
r.
fm
K S.
KS
fm
10.r
volt
Given
r dr
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r
r dr
r . ch r E
ch ( r ) d r
r
r . ch r M
ch ( r ) d r
r dr
r
r M
Find r M , r E, r M
r E
r M
r M
r M
r E
r E .( fm)
r M
r M
5
5
r 2 r 3 r 5
A( r, M )
m en
1 .
r .
2
9
me
2
r .
m n
9
r .
m n
r .( fm)
KS
K S . fm
PV( 1 , r , M )
2 .n ( r , M )
Given
A K .r x, m AMC
B
rx
Find r x
299
l. Particle summary matrix 3.1

2
0.69. fm
0.848.( fm)
r
r E
KX
KS
0.113
0.113364
0.857.( fm)
r M
fm
1.
r E
830.702612 830.662386
=
r M
rp
848.636631
848
850.059022
857
874.696943
875
( am)
826.944318 825.617412
r
rX
r M
0.879.( fm)
879.064943
879
.e
m tq = 178.440506
GeV
c
.e
.
7.29735310
= 7.29735310
.
A K .r Bohr , m p
B
3.141593
657.329013
656.469624
( nm )
r
r
1 .r .
e
r
r
r
1 .r .
e
r
r
2
0.69. fm
M Error
1 . 1.
r M
rp 2
0.848.( fm)
0.857.( fm)
1
r E
KS
rX
KX
178.( GeV)
.
1.11022310
0.034635
.
7.38826910
Error Av
r M
0.879.( fm)
0.809916
0.160717
0.321692
0.247475
0.130911
M Error
0, 1
M Error
2, 1
A K .r Bohr , m p
B
13
0.075074
1.
M Error
0,0
12
+ M Error
2, 0
r E
m tq .c
.
4.8425510
1.
r
r M
0
M Error =
(%)
M Error
0, 2
M Error
2, 2
M Error
1, 0
M Error
3,0
M Error
1,1
M Error
3, 1
M Error
1, 2
...
M Error
3, 2
Error Av = 0.149388 ( % )
300
m. Particle summary matrix 3.2

2
. c .e
r e Ce
r _1
r _2
r
r _1
r _av
r _2
r _av
r _1
2 r _1
r _2
r _av
r _1
1 .
r _av
r _Error
r _2
r _Error
1 .
r _av
r _2
rX KX
3 .b 1 . x
r _Error
r _1
r _2
r _1
r _2
r _av r _av
K X
( 0.69 0.02) . fm
(%)
830.594743
826.944318
826.941624
830.648674
826.942971
.
1.34683810
( am)
3
2
0.005. fm
( 0.69 0.02) . fm
14
830.702606
0.053931
2
0.69. fm
1.
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CN
. 3 ( YHz)
r , m p = 2.61722210
.
2.22044610
1=
r _Error
2
6 .b 1 .K X . x
4 . CN
r _1
1.
r _av
c . Ce
r _2
2
4
27. h Ce
.
.
3
4
4 . CP
32. CP
c . Ce
830.662386
12.03985
( am)
2
r X_av
r X_Error
1.
K X
rX KX
K X
rX KX
rX KX
r X_av
K X
r X_av
r X_av
rX KX
K X
r X_av
rX KX
K X
rX KX
K X
843.685579
807.144886
r X_av
825.415232
r X_av
18.270346
m = 5.746734 10
17 .
eV
r X_Error = 0 ( % )
( am)
m
m gg
3.195095
6.39019
10
301
45 .
eV

1 .
h gg
1.152898
1.521258
1 .
K . h gg
0.991785
1.308668
n. Particle summary matrix 3.3

The following is accurate to 1 or 2 decimal places (as implied by the results):
r , m p
r ,mn
r ,mn
r , m e
r , m e
0.5
r en , m en
0.5
r L, m L 2 , r L
r L, m L 3 , r L
r n , m n
r ,m
r L, m L 5 , r L
r n , m n
10
r L, m L 5 , r L
r , m
12
r , m
12
r n , m n
r en , m en
r L, m L 2 , r L
r L, m L 3 , r L
r ,m
r n , m n
1
r , m p
r uq , m uq
= 14
r dq , m dq
14
1
r , m e
r uq , m uq
5
6
=
6
7
7
28
r dq , m dq
42
r cq , m cq
r sq , m sq
56
r bq , m bq
70
r cq , m cq
28
84
r bq , m bq
35
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
42
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
98
112
r W,mW
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
126
56
r Z, m Z
140
r W,mW
63
r Z, m Z
70
r sq , m sq
r H, m H
14
21
49
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
r tq , m tq
302
r , m p
r ,mn
r ,me
0.07
r en , m en
0.07
r L, m L 2 , r L
0.14
r L, m L 3 , r L
0.14
1
14
0.29
r ,m
0.43
r n , m n
0.57
0.07
0.57
0.07
r L, m L 5 , r L
0.71
0.86
0.86
r cq , m cq
0.86
r bq , m bq
0.86
r QB, m QB 5 , r QB
r ,m
1
1
14
r n , m n
r uq , m uq
r uq , m uq
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
10
0.14
0.29
= 0.43
0.57
0.57
0.71
7
6
r QB, m QB 6 , r QB
0.14
7
6
7
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
o. Particle summary matrix 3.4

gg
r Bohr
rx
4.670757
6.163101
10
35 .
1 = 0.352379 ( % )
.
r x = 5.27319110
m
m gg
11
( m)
3.195095
6.39019
10
303
1 .
K . h gg
0.991785
1.308668
45 .
eV
me
11.807027
mp
.
5.10998910
830.702612
mn
0.938272
826.944318
0.939565
8.215954
r en
12.240673
m en
0.095379
r n
0.105658
1.776989
0.655235
m n
1.958664
m n
r uq =
0.768186
m uq
r dq
1.013628
r n
( am)
0.887904
r sq
1.091334
3 .10
1.9.10
0.0182
=
.
3.50490310
m dq
.
7.00980510
m sq
0.113909
1.182905
r cq
1.070961
m cq
r bq
0.92938
m bq
m tq
rW
1.061716
mW
91.1876
mZ
114.4
rH
4.11826
1.284033
rZ
GeV
178.440506
r tq
0.940438
80.425
mH
m L 2, r L
.
9.15554710
m L 3, r L
rL
r QB
10.754551
1.005287
0.056767
m L 5, r L
( am)
0.565476
m QB 5 , r QB
9.596205
m QB 6 , r QB
21.797922
GeV
c
. 3 1.32141 1.319591 11.734441 0.697721 ( fm)

Ce CP CN C C = 2.4263110
.
Ce CP CN C C = 7.76344110
1.
6
1.
6
r uq
m uq
r dq
r sq
m dq
r cq
m sq
r bq
m cq
1.425486 1.427451 0.160523 2.699721 ( YHz)
r tq = 0.960232 ( am)
m bq
m tq = 30.644349
GeV
c
p. Similarity equations
SSE 3 E rms , B rms , r , r , M
4C_S( r , r , M )
K PV( r , M ) . St ( r , r , M ) ln 2 .n _ZPF( r , r , M )
.
.E rms .B rms
n _ZPF( r , r , M ) 1
Re acos SSE 3 E C( r , r , M ) , B C( r , r , M ) , r , r , M
304
5C_S( r , r , M )
Re asin SSE 3 E C( r , r , M ) , B C( r , r , M ) , r , r , M
1
SSE 4 , DC_E, DC_B, E rms , B rms , r , r , M
.SSE ( 1
3
DC_E) .E rms , ( 1
DC_B) .B rms , r , r , M
.SSE ( 1
3
DC_E) .E rms, ( 1
DC_B) .B rms , r , r , M
cos ( )
SSE 5 , DC_E, DC_B, E rms , B rms, r , r , M
sin ( )
q. Calculation results
K PV R E, M M
K PV R E, 2 .M M
K PV R E, M E
K PV R E, 2 .M E
K PV R E, M J
K PV R E, 2 .M J
K 0 R E, M M
K 0 R E, M E
K 0 R E, M J
K 0 R E, M M
K 0 R E, M E
K 0 R E, M J
K EGM_N R E, M M
K EGM_N R E, M E
K EGM_N R E, M J
1.000001
K EGM_E R E, M M
K EGM_E R E, M E
K EGM_E R E, M J
1.000001
0.999999
.
8.55887110
12
.
6.96005110
K PV R E, M S
K PV R E, 2 .M S
3
K PV R E, M E .e
3
K PV R S , M S .e
K 0 R E , M E
K 0 R S , M S
PV 1 , R E, M M
PV 1 , R E, M E
K 0 R E, M E
= 1.000008
.
8.27226110
=
=1
K 0 R E , M E
0.035839
( Hz)
K 0 R S, M S
2.484128
T PV 1 , R E, M S
PV 1 , R E, M M
. 7
3.62406910
PV 1 , R E, M E
.
8.36497210
PV 1 , R E, M J
PV 1 , R E, M S
. 6
1.2259310
. 5
1.20683210
1.000927
K EGM_E R E, M S
120.885935
=
U m R E, M E
U m R E, M J
U m R E, M S
305
27.902544
4.089263
(s)
0.402556
U m R E, M M
( km)
.
2.31613510
K EGM_N R E, M S
T PV 1 , R E, M E
PV 1 , R E, M S
0.999305
= 1.000008
T PV 1 , R E, M J
K 0 R S , M S
0.244543
PV 1 , R E, M J
1.000927
K 0 R E, M S
T PV 1 , R E, M M
.
2.211110
1.000463
K 0 R E, M S
=1
10
6.080707
494.481475
=
. 5
1.57089110
( EPa)
. 8
1.64551410
R E, M M
R E, M E
R E, M J
. 29
2.83606210
n R E, M M
. 29
1.73968910
n R E, M E
. 28
9.17216810
n R E, M J
. 28
4.2341410
n R E, M S
R E, M S
R E, M M
519.573099
=
R E, M J
. 3
1.86915710
R E, M S
. 3
8.76512110
S m R E, M M
0.182295
S m R E, M E
S m R E, M J
( YHz)
14.824182
=
S m R E, M S
. 3
4.70941210
r 1 , R E, r , M E
r 1 , R E, r , M J
. 27
3.5284510
195.505363
PV R E, M E
519.573099
=
PV R E, M J
N r R E, M E
YW
N r R E, M J
cm
. 14
6.52135710
=
N r R E, M S
1.729554
r 1 , R E, r , M M
7.493187
r 1 , R E, r , M E
( pHz)
51.128768
r 1 , R E, r , M J
.
1.33585910
v r 1 , R E, r , M M
R E, r , M E
.
5.02660110
v r 1 , R E, r , M E
.
1.39724710
R E, r , M S
.
2.97920610
v R E, r , M M
13.105112
R E, r , M J
v R E, r , M E
v R E, r , M J
K C R E, r , M M
K C R E, r , M E
K C R E, r , M J
K C R E, r , M S
( ym )
v r 1 , R E, r , M J
13.105121
pm
U PV R E, r , M E
13.105115
U PV R E, r , M J
87.634109
. 4
2.78399910
. 16
2.9237310
7.577156
=
U PV R E, r , M S
1.74894
0.256316
13.105101
=
13.10513
pm
13.105131
13.109717
2.860531
232.617621
=
. 7
7.74094810
_ZPF R E, r , M E
_ZPF R E, r , M J
. 7
2.9162510
( GPa)
4
7.3899.10
_ZPF R E, r , M M
( MPa .M )
( m)
0.025237
U PV R E, r , M M
1.077649
=
. 15
6.23483610
v r 1 , R E, r , M S
13.109693
v R E, r , M S
. 15
1.73310910
r 1 , R E, r , M S
R E, r , M M
=
( YHz)
. 3
1.86915710
. 3
8.76512110
N r R E, M M
519.469801
r 1 , R E, r , M S
. 27
7.64347410
PV R E, M S
. 6
4.93312710
r 1 , R E, r , M M
. 28
1.44974110
PV R E, M M
195.505363
R E, M E
. 28
2.36338510
_ZPF R E, r , M S
123.501066
370.868276
=
. 3
1.56573710
( PHz)
. 3
8.90753610
KR2 = 99.99999999999999(%)
306
ZPF R E, r , M M
ZPF R E, r , M E
R E, r , M M , K R2
14.793206
R E, r , M E, K R2
R E, r , M J , K R2
n S R E, r , M M , K R2
n S R E, r , M E, K R2
n S R E, r , M J , K R2
n S R E, r , M S , K R2
R R E, r , M M
=
R R E, r , M J
R R E, r , M S
St R E, r , M M
. 18
6.40202410
R E, r , M J
. 18
3.58539910
R E, r , M S
S R E, r , M E, K R2
9.615565
S R E, r , M J , K R2
11.66707
S R E, r , M S , K R2
St R E, r , M M
.
2.78399910
St R E, r , M E
St R E, r , M J
.
2.9162510
St R E, r , M S
.
2.19383110
St R E, r , M M
St R E, r , M E
.
5.83032610
St R E, r , M E
.
2.0974410
St R E, r , M S
.
9.83425710
St 1 , R E, r , M M
St 1 , R E, r , M E
St 1 , R E, r , M J
St 1 , R E, r , M S
2.
G .M M
. 1
2
R E .c
1.
2
St R E, r , M J
St R E, r , M S
=1
( PHz)
. 3
8.90658910
0.011474
1
=
1
1
1
St n _ZPF R E, r , M J , R E, r , M J
1.000002
St n _ZPF R E, r , M S , R E, r , M S
. 3
1.56556910
.
2.01680710
1.000001
370.826434
=
1.000001
1.
( PHz)
123.486273
.
4.77711210
St n _ZPF R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
G .M E
. 1
2
R E .c
162.833549
St n _ZPF R E, r , M M , R E, r , M M
2.
45.263389
.
1.59080310
0.999999
. 14
6.84403710
763.476685
8.19356
St R E, r , M M
St R E, r , M J
S R E, r , M M , K R2
( MPa .M )
. 15
1.16748410
. 14
3.81125810
7.251258
17.031676
R E, r , M E
.
1.034710
87.634109
=
. 15
1.78829110
R E, r , M M
19
n R E, r , M M , K R2
n R E, r , M S , K R2
. 19
1.49277510
. 18
6.40270810
. 18
3.5857810
n R E, r , M J , K R2
1.077649
St R E, r , M S
167.366022
. 19
1.03481710
n _ZPF R E, r , M S
n R E, r , M E, K R2
( THz)
946.765196
R E, r , M S , K R2
R R E, r , M E
41.841506
n _ZPF R E, r , M J
. 3
8.90753610
ZPF R E, r , M S
St R E, r , M J
( PHz)
. 3
1.56573710
. 19
1.49295410
n _ZPF R E, r , M E
370.868276
=
ZPF R E, r , M J
St R E, r , M E
n _ZPF R E, r , M M
123.501066
1.000001
=
1
1.000003
1
=1
307
G .M J
. 1
2
R E .c
2.
1.
2
2.
= 1.000001
G .M S
. 1
2
R E .c
1.
2
= 1.000927
N X R M , r , M M
. 17
2.15162910
E C R M , r , M M
N X R E, r , M E
. 17
2.29685210
E C R E, r , M E
.
3.15778710
E C R J , r , M J
N X R J , r , M J
N X R S , r , M S
. 17
3.76223110
B C R M , r , M M
B C R E, r , M E
B C R J , r , M J
X R M , r , M M
X R J , r , M J
36.419294
97.406507
N C R J , r , M J
N C R S , r , M S
ln 2 .N X R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N C R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N X R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N C R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N X R S , r , M S
ln 2 .N C R S , r , M S
8.231693
3.077746
( PHz)
. 12
3.20180310
N C R E, r , M E
1.791481
N C R M , r , M M
167.343325
volt
23.079214
10.073108
X R S , r , M S
( nm )
190.811924
7.220558
X R J , r , M J
ln 2 .N C R M , r , M M
1.
( mgs )
1.
6.364801
X R E, r , M E
ln 2 .N X R M , r , M M
1.
X R M , r , M M
29.761666
X R S , r , M S
1.
9.8181
0.76984
E C R S , r , M S
0.240852
B C R S , r , M S
X R E, r , M E
17
294.339224
. 12
4.18248610
. 13
1.53794510
. 13
3.14792110
1 . N X R M , r , M M
ln
2
N C R M , r , M M
1 . N X R E, r , M E
ln
2
N C R E, r , M E
5.557718 5.557718
=
1 . N X R J , r , M J
ln
2
N C R J , r , M J
5.45678 5.45678
4.964882 4.964882
4.694305 4.694305
1 . N X R S , r , M S
ln
2
N C R S , r , M S
N T 1 , 2 , N C R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , N C R J , r , M J
. 12 7.68972610
. 12
1.60090210
N T 1 , 2 , N X R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , N X R J , r , M J
. 17 1.57889410
. 17
1.07581410
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R M , r , M M
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R J , r , M J
N T 1 , 2 , N C R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , N C R S , r , M S
N T 1 , 2 , N X R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , N X R S , r , M S
. 17 1.88111510
. 17
1.14842610
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R E, r , M E
N T 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R S , r , M S
. 18 8.57004510
. 18
5.17408410
N TR 1 , 1 , R M , r , M M
N TR 1 , 1 , R E, r , M E
N TR 1 , 1 , R J , r , M J
N TR 1 , 1 , R S , r , M S
. 18 7.16489910
. 18
4.83975610
. 12 1.57396110
. 13
2.09124310
. 4
6.72005410
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R M , r , M M
. 4
5.49159510
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R E, r , M E
. 4
2.05325110
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R J , r , M J
. 4
1.19514810
H 1 , 2 , n _ZPF R S , r , M S
308
. 37
9.36929710
=
. 38
1.07084610
. 38
2.05343110
. 38
2.93782710
F PP R M , r
A PP R M
HR 1 , 2 , R M , r , M M
. 9
4.51591310
F PP R E, r
HR 1 , 2 , R E, r , M E
. 9
3.01576110
A PP R E
.
4.21583910
F PP R J , r
. 8
1.42837810
A PP R J
HR 1 , 2 , R J , r , M J
HR 1 , 2 , R S , r , M S
1.300126
=
1.300126
( fPa )
1.300126
1.300126
F PP R S , r
A PP R S
F PV R M , r , M M
F PP R M , r
A PP R M
F PV R M , r , M M
F PV R E, r , M E
2.349179
F PP R E, r
A PP R E
1.300007
F PV R E, r , M E
F PV R J , r , M J
0.074224
( fPa )
F PP R J , r
0.015617
A PP R J
F PV R J , r , M J
F PV R S , r , M S
F PP R S , r
A PP R S
F PV R S , r , M S
R M , r , M M
R E, r , M E
R J , r , M J
44.65616
1
=
1
1.447168
St R E, r , M E
0.029107
15 .
Hz
. 3
1.65163110
St R J , r , M J
(%)
St R M , r , M M
10
. 3
9.15864310
. 3
8.22480110
3.225809
.
3.39437710
R S , r , M S
3.225809
=
St R S , r , M S
1.447168
10
0.029107
.
3.39437710
15 .
Hz
PV 1 , R M , M M
r 1 , R M , r , M M
R R M , r , M M
R R E, r , M E
R R J , r , M J
R R S , r , M S
PV 1 , R E, M E
r 1 , R E, r , M E
PV 1 , R J , M J
r 1 , R J , r , M J
9
1.3035.10
. 9
4.78288210
. 10
5.36192210
. 11
5.22005110
PV 1 , R S , M S
r 1 , R S , r , M S
309
2
U m R M, M M
3 .
2
U PV R M , r , M M
2
U m R E, M E
3 .
2
U PV R E, r , M E
9
1.3035.10
2
U m R J, M J
3 .
2
U PV R J , r , M J
. 9
4.78288510
. 10
5.361910
. 11
5.21985810
2
U m R S, M S
3 .
2
U PV R S , r , M S
r_Error R M , r , M M
r_Error R E, r , M E
r_Error R J , r , M J
r_Error R S , r , M S
r_Error R WD , r , M WD
r_Error R RG, r , M RG
r_Error R NS, r , M NS
r_Error R BH, r , M BH
.
2.45448210
=
.
4.09314210
.
6.56319310
.
3.69917510
0.023754
0.195216
5.248215
27.272806
EGM R M , r , M M
EGM R E, r , M E
3.225809
1.447169
EGM R J , r , M J
EGM R S , r , M S
0.029107
. 3
3.39425210
EGM R WD , r , M WD
EGM R RG, r , M RG
EGM R NS , r , M NS
EGM R BH, r , M BH
Error R M , r , M M
Error R E, r , M E
Error R J , r , M J
Error R S , r , M S
Error R WD , r , M WD
Error R RG, r , M RG
Error R NS , r , M NS
Error R BH, r , M BH
K P R M , r , M M
K P R E, r , M E
K P R J , r , M J
K P R S , r , M S
. 6
2.30813410
. 15
5.25385210
.
8.47616310
12
(%)
10
15 .
Hz
. 9
1.42948610
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319310
.
4.09314210
.
3.69917510
0.023754
0.195216
5.248215
27.272806
(%)
265.650431
480.043646
=
. 3
8.40786210
. 4
3.99605210
2 .G.M M U PV R M , r , M M
.
3
U m R M,M M
RM
2 .G.M E U PV R E, r , M E
.
3
U m R E, M E
RE
2 .G.M J U PV R J , r , M J
.
3
U m R J, M J
RJ
3.225809
=
1.447168
10
0.029107
.
3.39437710
15 .
Hz
2 .G.M S U PV R S , r , M S
.
3
U m R S, M S
RS
310
2 .G.M M .
1
r
RM
RM
2 .G.M E.
1
r
RE
RJ
1
r
RJ
2 .G.M S .
RS
3.225809
3
RE
2 .G.M J .
1.447168
.
3.39437710
15 .
10
0.029107
Hz
1
3
RS
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
M
3
U
R
,
M
RM
m M
M
R M r
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
E
3
U m R E, M E
RE
R E r
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
J
3
U
R
,
M
RJ
m J
J
R J r
RJ
EGM R E, r , M E . 2 .G.M E.
EGM R J , r , M J . 2 .G.M J .
RJ
EGM R S , r , M S . 2 .G.M S .
RS
1
1
1
=
1
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319710
.
4.09312510
.
3.69903810
(%)
1
3
1
3
RE
1
3
RJ
.
2.45448210
.
6.56319710
.
4.09312510
.
3.69903810
(%)
1
r
(%)
RM
1
RE
1
3
RS
1
3
0
=
.
3
U m R S, M S
RS
.
EGM R J , r , M J .
3
U m R J, M J
RJ
RM
1
3
.
3
U m R E, M E
RE
EGM R M , r , M M . 2 .G.M M .
RE
.
EGM R M , r , M M .
3
U m R M,M M
RM
EGM R S , r , M S .
RM
1
1
.
. 2 .G.M .
S
3
U m R S, M S
RS
R S r
EGM R E, r , M E .
1
3
RS
311
CP
c .m e
27.m e
K PV r p , m p .m p
3
128.G. .h
8 .
CN
2
16. . Ce
c . Ce
Ce m p Ce m n
CP m e CN m e
r CN CP m p
r CP CN m n
r
830.594743
2
4
27. h Ce
.
4
32. CN
5
2
3
16.c . .m n
826.941624
= 826.941624 ( am)
826.941624
2
4
27.m h m e
.
mn
4 .
= ( 0.315205 0.315205 0.315205) ( % )
St r , m n
. 5 1.8360210
. 3 1.8386810
. 3
= 3.21927910
PV 1 , r e , m e
PV 1 , r , m p
PV 1 , r , m n
r e, m e
r , m p
r ,mn
PV 1 , r , m p
r , m p
PV 1 , r e , m e
r e, m e
PV 1 , r , m p
r ,mn
PV 1 , r e , m e
r e, m e
r ,mn
PV 1 , r e , m e
PV 1 , r , m p
PV 1 , r , m n
2 . .c .
Ce
2
CP
0.568793
35.500829
.
2.49926810
.
2.61722210
17
18
35.73252
. 18
2.62462610
( GHz)
62.792864 10.50158
r , m p
62.414364 10.471952
r e,m e
Ce
h .m e
St r , m p
CP
2
4
4 . . h Ce
4 . CN
830.594743
. CN
= ( 0.995476 0.998623 0.998623 0.998623)
r CN CP m p
r , m p
c . Ce
= 830.594743 ( am)
27
. 3 1.83615310
. 3 1.83868410
. 3 1.83868410
. 3
= 1.83615310
CP CN m n
St r e , m e
2
16. . Ce
2
4
27.m h m e
.
mp
4 .
2
3
16.c . .m p
( am)
4
2
K PV r n , m n .m n
3
2
4
27. h Ce
.
.
3
4
4 . CP
32. CP
CN
2
4
4 . . h Ce
826.941624
CN
h .m e
830.594743
. CP
27
4
2
K PV r p , m p .m p
5
K PV r n , m n .m n
CP
CP
CP.
mp
. 17 7.32784510
. 16 7.34520410
. 16
= 4.39398910
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 2.6174110
. 3 ( YHz)
= 2.61722210
me
312
CN
r ,mn
Ce
2 . .c .
Ce
mn
CN.
me
CN
r , m e
2 . r , m p
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 2.62463110
. 3 ( YHz)
= 2.62462610
. CP
r , m p Ce
. CN
r , m n Ce
1
= ( 99.985611 100.007215 100.000181) ( % )
m L 1, r
m L 2, r L
m L 3, r L
m L 4, r
m L 5, r L
m L 6, r
m L 7, r L
m L 8, r L
m L 9, r L
m L 10, r L
m L 11, r L
m L 12, r L
m L 13, r L
m L 14, r L
m L 15, r L
m L 16, r L
m L 17, r L
m L 18, r L
m L 19, r L
m L 20, r L
. 5 1.80208610
. 5 2.29847910
. 5 2.89523810
. 5
1.3933810
m L 21, r L
m L 22, r L
m L 23, r L
m L 24, r L
. 5 4.44581510
. 5 5.4303110
. 5 6.57657710
. 5
3.60608710
0.510999
9.155547
56.766874
105.677748
. 3 2.5703410
. 3
565.476231 1.77526210
. 3
4.6876410
. 3 1.27952710
. 4 1.96479110
. 4 2.90646410
. 4
7.96417210
MeV
.
.
.
.
4.16672110
5.81601510
7.93341210
1.06069210
m QB 1 , r dq
m QB 2 , r sq
m QB 3 , r cq
m QB 4 , r bq
.
7.00980510
m QB 5 , r QB
m QB 6 , r QB
m QB 7 , r W
m QB 8 , r Z
9.596205
21.797922
80.425
91.1876
m QB 9 , r H
m QB 10, r tq
m QB 11, r QB
m QB 12, r QB
114.4
178.440506
333.427609
493.23068
m QB 13, r QB
m QB 14, r QB
m QB 15, r QB
m QB 16, r QB
707.097922
986.98519
. 3 1.80000810
. 3
1.3463110
0.113909
1.182905
4.11826
m QB 17, r QB
m QB 18, r QB
m QB 19, r QB
m QB 20, r QB
.
2.36458310
m QB 21, r QB
m QB 22, r QB
m QB 23, r QB
m QB 24, r QB
. 3 7.54460610
. 3 9.21530610
. 3 1.11605410
. 4
6.11957610
U PV R E, r , M M
U PV R E, r , M E
U PV R E, r , M J
U PV R E, r , M S
.
.
3.05816410
3.90054810
3
GeV
c
.
4.91325710
2.860531
232.617621
=
4
7.3899.10
( GPa)
. 7
7.74094810
The following two result sets are accurate to 13 decimal places:

1
r uq , m uq
1
r , m e
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
r dq , m dq
r sq , m sq
r cq , m cq
r bq , m bq
r W,mW
r Z, m Z
r H, m H
r tq , m tq
1 2 3 4
7 8 9 10
7 14 21 28
49 56 63 70
r. Resonant Casimir cavity design specifications (experimental)

Given
R R E, r , M E
Find( r )
r = 16.518377( mm)
X R E, r , M E = 16.340851 ( PHz)
313
E C R E, r , M E = 550.422869
V
m
B C R E, r , M E = 18.360131 ( mgs )
SSE 4 0 .( deg ) , 0 .( % ) , 0 .( % ) , E C R E, r , M E , B C R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
SSE 5 90.( deg ) , 0 .( % ) , 0 .( % ) , E C R E, r , M E , B C R E, r , M E , R E, r , M E
1
1
NOTES
314
MathCad 12: High precision calculation results

a. Computational environment

The high precision calculation results are obtained via the MathCad 12 computational
environment utilising the calculation engine defined in the preceding section.
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 10-14.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 10-14.
b. Particle summary matrix 3.1
rE +
( 2)
0.69 fm
rM
1
2
( rM r )
r
rM
830.647087 830.662386

848.579832 848
0.857 ( fm) 849.993668

857
( am)
=
874.643564
875
rp
826.889045 825.617615
rX
879.016508 879
0.879 ( fm)
0.848 ( fm)
rE
( )
KX 0.113 2
=
fm
KS 0.113348
2
r
e 3
r
r e r
r
r
r r
mtq = 178.470327
GeV
2
c
A( K rBohr , mp ) 657.329013
=
( nm)
B
656.469624
7.297353 10 3
=
3
7.297353 10
3.141593
r
r
r
r
1
1
1
e
e
r
r
r r
r
rE
rM
0.848 ( fm)
0.857 ( fm)
2
0.69 fm
M Error :=
1
1 1
r
K
S
( rM r ) + rE
rX
KX
rp 2
2
rM
mtq c
A ( K rBohr , mp )
0.879 ( fm)
178 ( GeV)
B
( )
315
14
13
0
2.220446 10
1.110223 10
1.841834 10 3
0.068376
0.817542
M Error =
( %)
0.040736
0.153997
0.308232
3
0.264229
0.130911
1.87806 10
ErrorAv :=
12
MError
0, 0
+ M Error
0,1
+ MError
0, 2
+ M Error
1,0
+ MError
+ M Error
1, 1
1,2
...
+ M
Error2 , 0 + MError2 , 1 + M Error2 , 2 + MError3 , 0 + M Error3 , 1 + MError3 , 2
ErrorAv = 0.148979(%)
c. Particle summary matrix 3.2
2
r c
3
e
re Ce
r_1
:=
5
2
4
r_2
c Ce
27 h Ce
4 3 32 4 CP
CP
r_Error
r_av r_1
r_2
r_av
r
r_2
r_1
5
:=
2
4
r
_2
27 h Ce
c
Ce
4 CN3 32 4 CN
1 (r
r
_av + r )
_2
:=
1
r_Error
r_2 ( r_av + r )
:=
r r_av r_1
r_1
r_1
r_av
830.647081 830.594743
826.889045 826.941624
=
( am)
830.620912 826.915335
0.026169 0.02629
rX ( KX ) :=
r_av 1 r_1 + r_2
:=
r_av 2 r_1 + r_2
r_Error
0
1 = ( %)
0
r_Error
(2 )
2
3 b 1 ( x 1)
6 b 1 KX x 1
( 2)
( r , mp ) = 2.617319 10 ( YHz)
3
KX := 0.005 fm
( )
0.69 fm
830.662386
=
1
( am)
2
2
( 0.69 + 0.02) fm ( 0.69 0.02) fm 12.03985
2
( )
rX_av :=
1
2
( (
( )
rX KX KX + rX KX + KX
rX_Error :=
rX KX KX rX_av
rX_av
))
rX_av := rX_av rX KX + KX
rX( KX KX) 843.685786

rX( KX + KX) 807.145085
( am)
825.415435
rX_av
18.270351
rX_av
316
14
rX_Error = 2.220446 10
1.152898
=
h gg 1.521258
1
17
m = 5.746734 10
( %)
eV
m 3.195095 45
=
10 eV
mgg 6.39019
0.991785
=
K h gg 1.308668
1
d. Particle summary matrix 3.3

The following is accurate to 1 or 2 decimal places (as implied by the results):
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2 , rL))
( rL , mL( 3 , rL))
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( r , m ( 5, r ))
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
r
,
m
( uq uq)
( r , mp )
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq )
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
(r , m (5 , r ) )
QB QB QB
(rQB , mQB(6 , rQB) )
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH )
( rtq , mtq )
( r , mp )
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2, rL) )
(r , m (3, r ) )
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( rL , mL( 5, rL) )
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
1
( r , me)
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq)
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
( rQB , mQB( 5, rQB) )
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH)
( rtq , mtq )
1
2

2
4

6
8
8

10
12
12

= 14
14

28
42
56

70
84
98

112
126

140
317
0.5
0.5

1
1
2

3
4

4
5
6

6
=
7
7

14
21

28
35
42

49
56
63

70
( r , mp )
( r , mn)
( r , me)
( ren , men)
( rL , mL( 2, rL) )
(r , m ( 3, r ))
L L
L
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
( rL , mL( 5, rL) )
( r , m )
( rn , mn)
1
( ruq , muq)
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq)
( rsq , msq )
( rcq , mcq)
( rbq , mbq)
( rW , mW)
( rZ , mZ )
( rH , mH)
( rtq , mtq )
0.07
0.07
0.14
0.14
0.29
0.43
0.57
0.57
0.71
0.86
0.86
=
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
e. Particle summary matrix 3.4

r

r 11.806238
r 830.647087

r 826.889045
8.214055
r
12.237844
ren
0.095379

rn 0.655235
rn
1.958664

ruq = 0.768186 ( am)
r 1.013628
dq
rsq 0.887904
r 1.091334
cq 1.070961
rbq
0.92938
r
tq
1.283947
rW
1.061645
rZ 0.940375
r
H
me
5.109989 10 4
mp 0.938272
m
n 0.939565
m 0.105658
1.776989
m
men
9
3 10
mn 1.9 10 4
mn
0.0182
GeV
muq =
3
m 3.505488 10 c2
dq
7.010977 10 3
msq
m 0.113928
cq
1.183102
mbq
4.118949
m
tq
178.470327
mW
80.425
91.1876
m
Z
m
114.4
318
4.670757 35
=
10 m
gg 6.163101
11
rx = 5.273191 10
0.991785
=
K h gg 1.308668
1
( m)
m 3.195095 45
rL 10.752712
=
10 eV
=
( am)
mgg 6.39019
rQB 1.005262
1
6
1
6
rBohr
1 = 0.352379( %)
rx
mL( 2 , rL)
mL( 3 , rL)
m (5, r )
L L
mQB( 5 , rQB)
m (6, r )
QB QB
9.153163 10 3
0.056752
GeV
=
0.565329 2
9.597226 c
21.800242
( ruq + rdq + rsq + rcq + rbq + rtq ) = 0.960232( am)

( muq + mdq + msq + mcq + mbq + mtq ) = 30.649471
GeV
2
c
The following two result sets are accurate to 13 decimal places:

1
( ruq , muq)
( rdq , mdq) ( rsq , msq) ( rcq , mcq) ( rbq , mbq)
( rW , mW) ( rZ , mZ ) ( rH , mH) ( rtq , mtq )
1 2 3 4
7 8 9 10
( rdq , mdq) ( rsq , msq) ( rcq , mcq) ( rbq , mbq) 7 14 21 28

=
( r , me) ( rW , mW) ( rZ , mZ ) ( rH , mH) ( rtq , mtq ) 49 56 63 70

1
NOTES
319
NOTES
320
MathCad 8 Professional
a. Complete simulation
i. Computational environment

ii. Units of measure (definitions)
Jy
10
26 .
pc
2.
. 16 .( m)
3.085677580710
m Hz
( mJy Jy nJy pJy fJy aJy zJy yJy )
Scale 1 .( Jy )
( mpc pc npc ppc fpc apc zpc ypc )
Scale 1 .( pc )
( kJy MJy GJy TJy PJy EJy ZJy YJy )
Scale 2 .( Jy )
( kpc Mpc Gpc Tpc Ppc Epc Zpc Ypc )
Scale 2 .( pc )
iii. Constants (definitions)
. 8.
5.67040010
2. 4
.
1.380650510
Th
J
K
m K
m h .c
23 .
KW
. 3 .( m.K )
2.897768510
iv. Astronomical statistics

Lyr
T 0
c .yr
D E2M
0.001.( K )
8
3.844.10 .( m)
Ro
8 .( kpc )
AU
R o
149597870660.( m) H 0
0.5.( kpc )
MG
71.
km
.
s Mpc
T0
2.725.( K )
11
6 .10 .M S
v. Characterisation of the gravitational spectrum

1. 1, n n_1, _1
Note: the complete simulation is the computational algorithm developed for this text and is
predominantly without comment.
321
Commencing with the following relationship set, significant simplifications to primary

EGM equations may be derived as follows,
4
h .
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
U ( r , M )
c .U n PV, r , M
S n PV, r , M
U ( r , M ) .
U n PV, r , M
U m( r , M )
3 .M .c
n PV
n PV
4 . .r
( r, M )
108.
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
12. 768 81.
n ( r, M )
U ( r , M )
( r, M )
12
( r, M )
Hence,
3 .M .c
U m( r , M )
4 . .r
3 .M .c
U ( r , M )
4
3
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .r .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
U m( r , M )
108.
1( r , M ) 6 .
>> 768, hence simplifying / approximating forms yields,
U ( r , M )
1( r , M )
U m( r , M )
Typically: 81.
108.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
3 .M .c
6.
U ( r , M )
216.
U ( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U m( r , M )
U ( r , M )
1( r , M )
4
3
2 . .r .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
6 .c
r . PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
Typically: ( r , M ) >> 1 hence,

3
n _1( r , M )
1( r , M ) 1 U m( r , M )
.
C _1( r , M )
12
G.M .
2
_1( r , M )
U ( r , M ) 2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
n _1( r , M )
1( r , M )
12
_1( r , M ) n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
.n _1( r , M )
n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
T _1( r , M )
1
_1( r , M )
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
_1( r , M )
c
_1( r , M )
Checking errors yields,

1 R M,M M
1 R E, M E
R M, M M
R E, M E
1 R J, M J
1 R S, M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
1=
. 14 4.44089210
.
6.66133810
14
. 14 6.66133810
.
4.44089210
14
322
(%)
1 R NS , M NS
1 = 0 (%)
R NS , M NS
n _1 R M , M M
n _1 R E, M E
n R M,M M
n R E, M E
n _1 R J , M J
n _1 R S , M S
n R J, M J
n R S, M S
n _1 R NS , M NS
n R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
T _1 R E, M E
T R M,M M
T R E, M E
T _1 R J , M J
T _1 R S , M S
T R J, M J
T R S, M S
T R NS, M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
.
2.22044610
14
.
4.44089210
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
6.66133810
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
5.55111510
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
7.77156110
14
(%)
1 = 0 ( %)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
14
1 = 0 (%)
T _1 R M , M M
T _1 R NS, M NS
.
6.66133810
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
1=
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
2. g
i. _1 _2
3
_1( r , M )
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
_1( r , M )
323
3
2
c .
3 .M .c
2 .r 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M )
. 3
. .
. 2r . 2h
3
2
c
3 .M .c
_1( r , M )
1
16. .h .
r
5
3 .M .c _1( r , M )
_2( r , M )
th
9
2
c . 3 .M .c .
1
.
3
2r
2 . .h
PV( 1 , r , M )
G.h
c
th
c
G.h
3 14
2
3 .c .M
4
3 2
2
3 .G .M . h .c
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
2
13 5 2
2 .r . . h
_2( r , M )
g( r , M )
6
3
3 . h
.
. GM
2
13 . 2 . .
2 rc r
G.M
mh
St g
5
3
3 . h
.
. GM
13
5
2 . h .r
_2( r , M )
h .c
9
2
c . 3 .M .c
2 .r
2 . .h
G.h
c
6
3
3 . h
13 5 2 3
2 .r . .h .G
5
3
3 . h .G.M G.M
.
2 3
13
2 . h . .r
3 14
2
3 .c .M
1
.
1 . 2 c .G.M
3
.r
r
c
G.h
G
h
6
3
3 . h
.
. GM
2
13 2
2 . .r .c r
c
2
245
10
St g = 1.828935
13 2
2 . .c
1.
2
St g .g ( r , M )
r
_2( r , M )
5
m.s
St g
.g ( r , M ) 2

_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
_2 R NS , M NS
1=
.
1.04678510
.
2.32001510
.
6.57443310
.
7.07196310
(%)
1 = 2.491576 ( % )
_1 R NS , M NS
Therefore,
a EGM_( r , M )
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
a EGM_ R E, M E = 9.809009
m
s

a EGM_ R M , M M
a EGM_ R E, M E
g R M,M M
g R E, M E
a EGM_ R J , M J
a EGM_ R S , M S
g R J, M J
g R S, M S
1=
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.5432110
12
.
1.57651710
12
324
(%)
a EGM_ R NS , M NS
.
1 = 1.65423210
g R NS, M NS
12
(%)
ii. _1 _3
3
1 U m( r , M ) .
1
_1( r , M ) .
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2 U ( r , M )
2
_1( r , M )
U m( r , M )
4
h .
PV( 1 , r , M )
3
2 .c
3
1 . 2 .c . U m( r , M )
8 h PV( 1 , r , M )
3 .M .c
_3( r , M )
. ( 1 , r , M )
PV
3
c . U m( r , M )
4 .h PV( 1 , r , M )
3 3
c
4 .h
. .
. 4r
.
2 c .G.M
3
14
27 . c . M
8192 h 3 2 .r5 .G
27 . c . c . M
8192 G.h h 2 2 .r5
3 . 2 .c . M
h
13
2
2
2
h .r5
.r
_3( r , M )
c.
3.
_3( r , M )
3 . h
. M
4 . .h
St G
3.
3 . h
. c
2
4 . .h
M
St G.
5
r
_3( r , M )
224 .
St G = 8.146982 10
2 9
kg .s
9 M
St G .
St G
St g

_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
.
1 = 6.66133810
1=
14
(%)
. 14
8.88178410
.
1.11022310
13
. 13
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
13
1 . St G
.
1 = 3.33066910
(%)
14
(%)
St g
3. g PV3
2 .c .n PV
PV n PV, r , M
2
.r
.g ( r , M )
325
4. S cUm
Reducing / simplifying / approximating utilising computational features of the environment
yields,
n
8 .n
24.n
8 .n . n
8 .n
simplify
32.n factor
3 .n factor
substitute , n
8 .n . n
2
8 .n . n
3 .n
24.n
32.n
16
Hence,
n
8 .n
2
3
2
24.n
S ( r , M )
32.n 8 .n . n
h .
4
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
.
2c
n
2
8 .n
3 .n
n ( r, M )
24.n
32.n
8 .n . n
3 .n
n ( r, M )
16
2
8 .n . n
8 .n
h .
4
3
PV( 1 , r , M ) .8 .n ( r , M )
2
.
2c
3
2
c
4 .h .
4
4
3 .M .c
3 4 .h .
.
S ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .n ( r , M )
PV( 1 , r , M ) .
2
2
2 .r . PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
c
c
3
2
3
4 .h .c . PV( 1 , r , M ) .
3 .M .c
3 .M .c
S ( r , M )
2 3
3 . . .
3
8 .c .r PV( 1 , r , M ) 2 h PV( 1 , r , M ) 4 . .r
Hence,
S ( r , M ) c .U m( r , M )
5. C_J
C _J ( r , M )
2 d
( r , M ) . U m( r , M )
dr
C _J1( r , M )
c
9
M
St G.
5
r
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
St J
. .
. d 3Mc
d r 4 . .r3
2
9
C _J1( r , M )
. r
St G
St J
2
. M
. .
.9 M c
4
4 . .r
5 9
9 .c .
9 M
St G .
26
4 .
r
4
326

C _J1 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 R S , M M
C _J 100.( km) , M M
C _J1 100.( km) , M E
C _J 100.( km) , M E
C _J1 100.( km) , M J
C _J 100.( km) , M J
C _J1 100.( km) , M S
C _J 100.( km) , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M NS
C _J 100.( km) , M NS
C _J R S , M M
1=
.
3.63875410
.
2.95903310
.
9.40034410
C _J1 R S , M E
C _J R S , M E
C _J1 R S , M J
(%)
1=
C _J R S , M J
0.979587
C _J1 R S , M S
0.979587
C _J R S , M S
.
3.86357610
12
.
4.23450210
10
.
1.3506210
.
1.41439110
.
1.41439110
(%)
C _J1 R S , M NS
C _J R S , M NS
vi. Derivation of Planck-Particle and SBH characteristics

1. x, mx
n _1( r , M )
2 .c
1 . U m( r , M ) 1 . 3 .M .c .
8 U ( r , M ) 8 4 . .r3 h . ( 1 , r , M ) 4
PV
2
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
2 .c
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3 h . ( 1 , r , M ) 4 8 4 . .r3
PV
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
2 .c
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3
1 2 .c .G.M
h. .
r
.r
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
3 .c . r
2
1 . 3 .M .c .
8 4 . .r3
2 .c
3. c . . 2
cr
1 . 4 h .G
3
1 2 .c .G.M . 2 .c .G.M 8
h. .
4
.r
.r
r
3 .c . r
n _1( r , M )
1. 4
n _1( r , M )
2 .c .G.M
.r
n _2( r , M )
r . .c . 3
.
16
2
2 GM h
7
2 .c .G.M
.r
3 .
16
.m h
2 .c .G.M
.r
2 3
2
7
r . .m h . 3
16
2
2 M h h
1. 4
. r
M
h
3 9
n _2( r , M )
1. 3
2
327
.m h
M
. r
h
x. h
n _3 x. h , m x.m h
16
mx
3
3 . . 7
x
16
2
2
c .R BH
2 .G
R BH
m
. . h. 3
m x.m h h 2
h
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
3
3
3 . . x 1 . 3 . . x
16 m
2
x 2 mx 2
M BH
R BH
2
c .R BH
2 .G
x. h
m x.m h
x. h
m x.m h
R BH
R BH
5
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
2
x. h .c
x. h
m x.m h
2
1. x . c
4 R 3 G
BH
1.
m x.m h
St x. h , m x.m h
2 .G.m x.m h
x 33 .
. 7
x
2 216
x 4.
3
3 .
m x.m h
2 2
4 .
x h
. c
3 G
m x.m h
1.
. c
3 G
4 .
x h
2
x. h .c
mh
mx
1. x
mx
2 .G.m x.m h
x
2
n _3 x
2
x. h .c
m x.m h
2 .G.m x.m h 2 m x
G h
4 . 2
6
3
2 2
3
1 . 3 . . x
2 x 2
1.
2
3.
3 .
2
3
9
n _3 x
3.
x. h = 1.093333 10
10 .
ym
n _3 x
1 = 0 ( %)
.
m x.m h = 7.36147410
mx
( kg )
mx
2.698709
1.349354
1 = 0.14278 ( % )
Km
n _3
n _3
1
3
0.248017
0.324994
n _3( 1 )
0.515897
0.818935
n _3( 2 )
n _3 x
1.073108
n _3( 3 )
328
2. m(xh,mxmh), Um(xh,mxmh)
V( r )
4. . 3
r
3
m( r , M )
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
M
V( r )
m x. h , m x.m h
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
m R S, M S
.
= 9.55041510
90
3. Physicality of K
. 42 ( Hz)
K . h = 6.36576910
K . h
K . h = 4.709446 10
35 .
.
K m.m h = 6.34179210
( kg )
1 = 0.82832 ( % )
2 .r
4. KPV @ xh
i. KPV = Undefined
Recognising,
U x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
h .
x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
m h c2
h
It follows that,
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3 . . .
.
1 . 2 c G mx mh .
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
. x. h
1 .
x. h
2 .c .G.m x.m h
. x. h
2 .c .G.
1 .
x. h
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
2 .c .G. .m h
1 .
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
.
.
xh
x. h
.m
h
2
. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
. x. h
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
c . 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
x. h
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
. 1. K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
x
329
Performing substitutions yields,

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
U m x. h , m x.m h
h .
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
U m x. h , m x.m h
4
U m x. h , m x.m h
4
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
2 .c x
3.
2 . . .c x
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x U m x. h , m x.m h
.
4
.
h h
K PV x. h , m x.m h
.K
.
.
PV x h , m x m h
h . h
3
U m x. h , m x.m h
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
3
h . h. 1.
K PV x. h , m x.m h
3
.
2c
x
U m x. h , m x.m h
h . h

3
h . h. 1
3
2 .c x
h . h
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
3
. h . h. 1
4
3
2 .c x
h . h
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
Evaluating,
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.U . , m .m = 8
m x h x h
4
.
h h

3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
.U . , m .m
m x h x h
4
.
h h
.
8 = 8.88178410
13
(%)
3
4
3
2 . . .c . x
h . h
= 6.619576
10
87
YPa
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
330
Simplifying,
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
8
K PV x. h , m x.m h
K PV x. h , m x.m h
2. 2.
U x. h , m x.m h
U m x. h , m x.m h
Recognising that the EGM spectrum converges to a single mode for a SPBH yields,
x. h , m x.m h
n x. h , m x.m h
12
x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
4
.
x h , m x.m h
1 1
4 . 3 = 6.928203
x. h , m x.m h
108.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
12. 768 81.
U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
4. 3
By inspection, the only solution which satisfies this equation is,

U m x. h , m x.m h
U x. h , m x.m h
Checking yields,
3
108.0
2
12. 768 81.0 = 6.928203
Therefore,
2. 2
K PV x. h , m x.m h
K PV R BH, M BH
Undefined
K PV x. h , m x.m h
ii. KDepp = KPV
K Depp ( r , M )
1
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
K PV( r , M )
2 .G.M
2 .G.M
r .c
K Depp ( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
K PV( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
r .c
K Depp R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
K PV R E, M E = 1.00000000069601
K PV( r , M )
331
2 .G.M
r .c
r .c
r .c
2 .G.M
R BH
2 .G .
M BH
2
c
K PV R BH, M BH
2 .G.M BH
2 .G .
2
M BH.c
2
c
1
.
2 G.m x.m h
m h c2
Undefined
1
.
2 G.m x c2
.
1
2 G
.
xc
2
x. h .c
K Depp R BH, M BH
mx
2 .m x
x
2.
x 0
Undefined
Undefined
5. _3
M
St G.
5
r
St G.
m x.m h
x. h
St G m h
.
3
5
.
4x h
3
4 .
3
4 .
.h
x
2
h .m h
.h
St G.
9
St G .
m x.m h
15 . 2
_3 x. h , m x.m h
3
x
St G.
1.
15 2
2 . 2
x. h
3
m h .c
.h
St G.
3
4 .
St G.
.m
h
x. h
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
15 2
2 .
.m
h
h .m h
.h
m x.m h
x. h
St G m h
.
3
5
4 . x h
2
5
4
c . h
9
15 2
2 .
x. h
3
4 .
2
c .m h
.
h
x
x. h
St G.
5
4
c . h
.
9 m
. c . h
2 5
h
2
1
m x.m h
.
h
.
1 = 1.11022310
m x.m h
x. h
St G.
. 1 .
h
x 26 .2
1.
2
13
(%)
m x.m h
x. h
3
x
15 2
2 .
1. 1 . 3
. 1 .
.
h
h
2 2 4 . x
x 26 .2
2
1. 1 . 3
.
h
2 2 4 . x
1
9
.
2
2.
3 .
h
.
4x
9
St G .
m x.m h
.
5
x. h
332
1
9
2.
.
2
3 .
h
.
4x
.
1 = 1.11022310
13
(%)
1. 1 .
2 2
4. 4.
1. 3 . 6
4 25 3
m x.m h
9
St G .
x. h
5
9
. 1 . 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
_3 x. h , m x.m h
9
1. 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
3
3 .
2
_3 x. h , m x.m h
.
1 = 1.11022310
.
1 = 1.11022310
13
13
(%)
. 18 ( YHz)
_3 x. h , m x.m h = 1.87219710
(%)
1. 3 . 6 .
h
4 25 3
1.
. 18 ( YHz)
h = 1.84996810
4
e
1
1.
1 . e
x 1
= 2.698589
.
1 = 4.43474910
_3 x. h , m x.m h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
PV 1 , x. h , m x.m h
(%)
n _2 x. h , m x.m h = 1
n _3 x
n _3 x = 1
1 = 1.18731904721517( % )
4 _3 x. h , m x.m h
_3 x. h , m x.m h
6. _4
9
_4 M BH
M BH
St G.
2 .G.M BH
c
c.
5
c .St G
5
3
( 2 .G) .M BH
_4 M BH
St BH.
c .St G
5
( 2 .G)
_4 m x.m h
3
St BH
c.
1
M BH
_4 M S
10
_4 10 .M S
333
. 18
1.87219710
= 6.23977510
. 5
( YHz)
289.624693
7. rS
i. rS(xh)
m( r , M )
3 .M
m x. h , m x.m h
4 . .r
m x. h , m x.m h
3 .m h
.
1 = 2.22044610
14
3.
3 .m x.m h
x
2
4 . . x. h
.m
h
3 .m h
4 . . x. h
3 .M BH
m r S , M BH
(%)
2
3
8 . . x . h
4 . .r S
2
3
8 . . x . h
M BH
m x. h , m x.m h
m r S , M BH
R BH( M )
2 .G. x
rS
r S M BH
x. h
2 .G. x
.M
. . 2.
BH h 2 x
= 1.195378 10
32 .
kg
.
= 5.63257510
94
M BH
r S R BH
mh
r S x. h
am
2 .G.M
c
2
2 .G. x
m h c2
2
3
2 . x . h
rS
M BH
mh
2
x. h .R BH
2
x. h . x. h
x. h
ii. rS(), rS(R)

3
m x. h , m x.m h
r S M BH
r S R BH
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G. S
2
x. h .R BH M S
3
2.
3 .c R BH M S
8 . .G. S
1
rS MS
3 .M BH
4 . . S
3
3
3.
4 . .r S
2
x. h .R BH M S
3
2.
3 .c R BH M S
8 . .G. S
rS MS
1 = 0 (%)
2
c .R BH
2 .G
1=
.
3.28046310
5.
r S 10 M S
10
r S 10 .M S
334
0.015227
2
3 .c .R BH
8 . .G.r S
.
1.11022310
14
.
1.11022310
14
(%)
( am)
0.706754
m r S m x.m h , m x.m h
m r S M S ,M S
1 .
5
5
S m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
1=
.
1.29896110
12
.
8.32667310
13
.
7.66053910
13
.
6.7723610
10
10
m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
(%)
13
U m r S M S ,M S
.
8.10462810
1
. U m r S 105 .M S , 105 .M S
.
.
U m x h,m x mh
10
10
U m r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
m r S m x.m h , m x.m h
.
7.2164510
13
.
6.7723610
13
(%)
U m x. h , m x.m h
m r S M BH , M BH
10
r S 10 .M S
r uq = 0.768186 ( am)
1=
13
U m r S M BH , M BH
1 = 7.996993 ( % )
r uq
iii. MBH(rS)
4. .
3
S .r S
3
M BH r S
M BH r tq
. 10
= 2.27391910
. 40 ( kg )
M BH r tq = 4.52155110
M BH r uq
MS
. 10
= 1.28408510
MS
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 13 1.62379510
. 19 1.60185510
. 19 1.57097210
. 13
4.66247210
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 13 2.45782610
. 7
5.19529810
1 . M
BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 1.28408510
. 10 2.95005410
. 10 1.9828610
. 10 3.68186410
. 10
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
. 10 2.27391910
. 10 5.99684310
. 10 3.39015710
. 10
3.47948910
M BH r H
M BH r
M BH r gg
M BH r Z
1 .( kg )
MS
. 10
2.3560510
. 9 2.12850410
. 11
7.96867110
14.554628
. 6
5.06892810
R BH M BH r n
16.217926
.
7.67248410
R BH M BH r sq
R BH M BH r cq
= 4.00847210
.
R BH M BH r tq
R BH M BH r W
R BH M BH r Z
0.010862
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r gg
R BH( 1.( kg ) )
.
7.35477510
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r en
R BH M BH r n
R BH M BH r uq
R BH M BH r dq
R BH M BH r bq
R BH M BH r H
_4 m x.m h
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
. 5
6.23977510
.
9.2090510
.
7.0983910
U m x. h , m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_4 M S
. 4
1.34431910
5
5
U m R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
289.624693
10
10
U m R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
335
. 6
5.0004410
4.904034
.
2.48754410
0.066445
.
6.18980410
0.011494 ( Lyr)
0.01872
0.010583
. 87
1.20853710
U m R BH M S , M S
( YHz)
. 12
1.65639710
( YPa)
165.639685
.
1.65639710
r S mh
1 . r m .m
S x h
h
x
r S m x.m h
R BH m x.m h
144.219703
1=
.
4.21884710
(%)
13
.
1 = 4.44089210
M BH r
1 = 22.109851 ( % )
M BH r e
R BH m h
(%)
. 43
9.27104510
M BH r
r S mh
13
M BH r Bohr
. 49
3.22881910
. 51
1.26038310
( kg )
. 63
8.34661610
8. r RBH
i. n n_4, n_5, nBH
n _4 M BH
n BH M BH
n _5 M BH
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
n _4 m x.m h
n _5 m x.m h
n BH m x.m h
n _4 M S
n _5 M S
n BH M S
5
n _4 10 .M S
5
n _5 10 .M S
5
n BH 10 .M S
10
n _4 10 .M S
10
n _5 10 .M S
10
n BH 10 .M S
R BH M S
R bh
rS MS
200
R bh
1
=
. 5 9.00254210
. 24 2.56419310
. 19
3.51086810
. 6 1.93953910
. 28 1.0035610
. 22
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31 3.92767810
. 24
1.06388810
r S M S , R bh .. R BH M S
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Mode
rS MS
R BH M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
10
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
n _4 M S
R bh
Radial Displacement

336
ii. _5, BH
_5 M BH
_3 r S M BH , M BH
_4 m x.m h
. 5
6.23977510
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
. 18
1.87219710
_5 M S
( YHz)
5
_5 10 .M S
289.624693
10
_5 10 .M S
BH M S
. 13
7.30358710
10
BH 10 .M S
_4 M BH
. 4
1.34431910
BH m x.m h
=
_5 M BH
_5 m x.m h
. 18
1.87219710
_4 M S
5
BH 10 .M S
BH M BH
. 19
4.55727410
. 19
6.9805610
( YHz)
. 20
1.06924110
. 15
5.19263810
. 17
3.69181510
_5 m x.m h
_5 M S
1 .
5
h _5 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
_4 m x.m h
0.253004
_4 M S
5
_4 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
0.253004
.
6.158585 8.43227510
14
.
9.433354 1.81667910
15
14.44945
Harmonic Cut-Off Freq. vs Radial Disp.
Harmonic Cut-Off Frequency
rS MS
R BH M S
_3 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
10
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
R bh
Radial Displacement
337
iii. _6, _7, PV_1

_6 M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_4 M BH
_7 M BH
n _5 M BH
_6 M BH
_7 M BH
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
. 42 1.87219710
. 42
1.87219710
_6 M S
_7 M S
. 38 6.93112610
. 4
1.29804810
5
_6 10 .M S
5
_7 10 .M S
10
_6 10 .M S
10
_7 10 .M S
PV_1 m x.m h
. 37
3.61189510
( Hz)
0.693113
. 37 6.93112610
.
1.00503110
PV_1 M S
=
5.
PV_1 10 M S
. 33
1.8727810
.
5.21112310
37
10
PV_1 10 .M S ( Hz)
= 5.103269
. 42
1.45002610
10
PV_1 10 .M S
Fundamental Freq. vs Radial Disp.

rS MS
R BH M S
_3 R bh , m x .m h
n _2 R bh , m x .m h
_3 R bh , M S
n _2 R bh , M S
5
_3 R bh , 10 .M S
5
n _2 R bh , 10 .M S
_3 R bh , 10
n _2 R bh , 10
10 .
MS
10 .
MS
R bh
Radial Displacement
338
9. TL
M .c
E( M )
n , M BH
1.
n , M BH
2
E g( )
h .
E ( )
E g ( ) E x.E ( )
E M BH
E M BH
n g , M BH
E ( )
E M BH
E M BH
E x.E ( )
E m x.m h = 6.616163 ( GJ)
2 .E ( )
n _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
n g _4 m x.m h , m x.m h
Ex
= 6.616163 ( GJ)
P g _4 m x.m h
n ( M )
E g _4 m x.m h
= 1.240531 ( GJ)
P _4 m x.m h
= 8.275929 ( Ns )
2 .n gg ( M )
T _3( r , M )
T L r S x. h , m x.m h
10
10
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
m
m gg
3.195095
6.39019
P g( )
10
=2
E g( )
c
45 .
T L( r , M )
_3( r , M )
n gg ( M )
eV
E( M )
m gg
n gg ( M ) .T _3( r , M )
n g _3( r , M ) , M
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
. 13
4.10173110
T L r uq , m uq
. 13
4.10173110
T L R BH M S , M S
10
10
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
E g _4 m x.m h
E _4 m x.m h
= 2.481061 ( GJ)
= 4.137964 ( Ns )
. 13
4.10173110
T L R BH x. h , m x.m h
5
5
T L R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
43 .
. 13
4.10173110
T L r S M S ,M S
5
5
T L r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
2 .E M BH
2
n , M BH .E ( )
2.666667
n g _4 m x.m h , m x.m h .E g _4 m x.m h
E ( )
1.
n , M BH
2
5.333333
= 6.616163 ( GJ)
P ( )
_4 M BH
T _4 m x.m h = 5.341319 10
n _4 m x.m h , m x.m h .E _4 m x.m h
E _4 m x.m h
n g , M BH
E g( )
1.
n , M BH
2
E g( )
T _4 M BH
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
9
10 .yr
T L r , m e
T L r , m p
T L r ,mn
. 13
4.10173110
339
. 13
4.10173110
=
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
9
10 .yr
. 13
4.10173110
1
m
h.
. 13
4.10173110
.
4.10173110
13
m
T L x. h , m x.m h
. m
gg
h
2
9.
10 yr
m gg
H0
71.
km
.
s Mpc
TL
h
m
.
T L.H 0 = 2.97830810
12
10. g, ngg
T PV n PV, r , M
T g n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
T PV n PV, r , M
g n PV, r , M
g n PV, r , M
1
PV n PV, r , M . .n PV n PV, r , M , M
2
E( M )
1
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 E PV n PV, r , M
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
2 h . PV n PV, r , M
g m x.m h
E( M )
2 .h
10
g 10 .M S
. 56
1.34855310
. 61
1.34855310
E MS
1 .
5
m gg E 10 .M S
10
E 10 .M S
M .c
2 .h
n gg ( M )
5
n gg 10 .M S
10
n gg 10 .M S
T L. g ( M )
. 72
6.46222510
n gg M S
( YHz)
. 66
1.34855310
E m x.m h
g( M )
n gg m x.m h
. 18
4.99252510
g MS
5
g 10 .M S
1
E( M )
PV n PV, r , M . .
.
2 h PV n PV, r , M
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
. 72
6.46222510
=
. 110
1.7455410
. 115
1.7455410
. 120
1.7455410
340
11. BHs
r0
9
r 0 = 13.772016 10 .Lyr
H0
St G.
r _3 , M
VL VL
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
VL
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
_3 r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
10 .
218.810356
410.269418
. 4 6.84370610
. 4
3.64997710
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
4
_3 1.63.10 .r 0 , M S
4
_3 5.052.10 .r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
6
5
_3 1.63.10 .r 0 , 10 .M S
6
5
_3 5.052.10 .r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
_3 1.63.10 r 0 , 10 M S
10 .
8.
_3 5.052.10 r 0 , 10
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
( THz)
. 3 5.29883310
. 3
= 2.82604410
10 .
MS
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
749.481145
27.355887
_3 r 0 , M S
C _J1 r 0 , M S
399.723277
= 2.118067 ( EHz)
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
8.
0.163994
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
_3 r 0 , 10
H0
_3
_3 r 0 , M S
9
= 13.772016 10 .yr
0.999916 1.000078
= 0.999916 1.000078
0.999916 1.000078
10 .
MS
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
.
1.48429110
= 8.89809310
.
10
20 .
yJy
5.334267
1
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S .
C _J1 r 0 , M S
1
. 5
3.59381410
599.48425
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
341
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S

10
10
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 M S , 10 M S

10
10
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
. 6
2.95234410
0.741144
( Lyr)
16 .
yJy
= 2.12751776034345
.103 8.46980075872643
.10
.105
2.12751776034345
= 2.93002110
.
0.846980075872643
1.166462
116.646228
6
10 .Lyr
. 9 1.16646210
. 4
2.93002110
2.164916
.
= 2.16491610
.
2.16491610
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , M S , M S

5.
0.239057
. 5
2.93002110
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , M S , M S

5.
10
.10
21.2751776034345 8.46980075872643
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
5
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
1.102778
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
28.979765
r 30.( PHz) , M S
5.
. 8 5.05271110
. 8
1.62975410
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5.
= 1.62975410
. 6 5.05271110
. 6
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
. 4 5.05271110
. 4
1.62975410
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
9
10 .Lyr
9
. 9
2.2445.10 6.95860210
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
1.
10
( Lyr) , 10 .M S = 1.031709
10
r 30.( PHz) , M S
= 2.2445.107 6.95860210
. 7
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , 105 .M
VL
S
r0
10
r VL( 400 ( nm) ) , 10 .M S
K PV
5
. 5
2.2445.10 6.95860210
10
29 .
10
14 .
yJy
8.618686
.
= 8.61868610
.
8.61868610
yJy
3
10 .km
11.753495
7
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 6.228302 10 .yJy
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h = 2.479532 ( fJy )
342
vii. Fundamental Cosmology

1. H, HU
i. AU, RU, HU
5
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1( r , M )
M
St J .
26
r
ln
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y r 2, M 2
ln
M1
ln
M2
r2
r1
M1
r1
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
ln
A U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
ln
r2
26
ln
ri
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y r 2 , M 2 .r 3
y r 2, M 2
.M
3
2
5
y M3
r
.
. 1 . 2
2 M2
y r3
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
y M3
r
.
. 1 . 2
2 M2
y r3
rf
r1
C _J1 r 3 , M 3
26
26
y r 2, M 2
.M
C _J1 y r 2 , M 2 .r 3 ,
3
2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
5
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
M2
26
ln n _2 r 2 , M 2
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
M1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
C _J1 r 3 , M 3
1
2
.ln n
_2 r 2 , M 2
TL
K U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
3.
M3
26
M2
r2
r3
R U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
c .A U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
9
A U r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
9

1 .
H0
km
s .Mpc
1 = 5.515064 ( % )
343
66.700842
70.06923
1 .
H0
km
.
s Mpc
= 69.672169
6.055152
1=
1.870184 ( % )
1.310944
1
km
.
3
s Mpc
1
H U K .R o , h , .K m.M G, m h
3
1=
0.978843
0.987352
(%)
1
3
ii. H
3 .H
m
8 . .G
2
H r 3, M 3
2.
. 61
H x. h , m x.m h = 8.46094110
x
H x. h , m x.m h .
h
2. . .
G m r 3, M 3
3
H x. h , m x.m h
km
s .Mpc
.
1 = 4.44089210
14
.
= 8.46094110
61
h
x
km
s .Mpc
(%)
iii. U
3 .H U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
8 . .G
U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
U K .R o , h , K m.M G, m h
3 .H 0
8.453235
= 9.222226
10
33 .
kg
3
cm
9.468862
8 . .G
Hence,
8.45 U . 10
33 .
kg
9.23
cm
344
iv. MU
M U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
V R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 . U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
. 52 ( kg )
M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h = 9.28458610
2. TU
K T r 2, r 3 , M 2, M 3
_3 r 3 , M 3
n g _3 r 3 , M 3 , M 3 .ln
T0
_3 r 3 , M 3
T W r 2, r 3, M 2 , M 3
T U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
H r 3, M 3
H U r 2, r 3, M 2, M 3
2.725.( K )
.
K W = 2.89776910
( m.K )
KW
_3 R U r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 , M 3
K T r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3 .T W r 2 , r 3 , M 2 , M 3
1 .
.
1 = 9.08391310
(%)
T0
2.716201
= 1.199134 ( K )
1.202877
1 .
T0
0.322893
1=
55.995089 ( % )
55.857737
1
3
1 = 0.542607 ( % )
1
3
345
3. TU TU2
9
_3( r , M )
_3( r , M )
M
St G.
5
r
c
c x.
_3 ,
mh
H 2
1 .
St G
c.
8 . H r 3, M 3
ln
3
H
K T( H ) .T W ( H )
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
.m
h
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
_3
KW
T U2( H ) K T( H ) .T W ( H )
c x.
mh
_3 ,
H 2
c x.
,
mh
H 2
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
c x.
,
mh
H 2
KW
9
c.
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
c.
1 .
2
St G x.m h
. c
H
h
.m
8 .K W .
. St . x h
ln
G
3 c
2
x.H
.
H = 8.46094110
km
.
s Mpc
. H
c
h
.m
8 KW.
. St . x h
T U2( H ) .
ln
G
3 c
2
x.H
9
.
8 . St G . x m h
St T
5
3 .c
2
c
8 .
3 .c
61
3.
KW
KW
KW
c.
T W( H)
h
8.
.
ln
3
x.H
_3
K T( H )
1 . r
St G M 2
c.
3 . h
4 . .h
c
. c
2
3.
.
8 . St G . x m h
5
3 .c
2
c
8 .
3 .c
3 . h
4 . .h
c
. c
2
. H
c
x.m h
x.m h
2
.
8 .c . 3 . 3 h
3 .c 2 c5 4 . .h
x.m h
346
.
8 .c . 3 . 3 h
3 .c 2 c5 4 . .h
9
4.
3
3
4 .c
x.m h
4.
6 5
2 .c
3
4 .c
4.
m
. h. x
.h h
4. 3. . x
c
3 4
.h .G
T U2( H )
. x .c
.h G
3
x
4. 3. .
c
2
3
3 4
.c . h
K W .St T .ln
h
x.H
x.m h . h
.h
4.
6 5
2 .c
4.
3
3
4 .c
4.
.h
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
4.
3
mh x
.
.h h
3
3 . x
c.
4
.h .G
2
9
. 95
St T = 6.35557910
5
9
T U2 H U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
. H5
3
4 .c
. x .c
.h G
St T
x.m h . h
= 2.72475246336977( K )
4. TU2 Ro, MG, HU2, U2

R o
0.5.( kpc )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T U2 H 0
T U2 H U2 R o
1 .
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T0
= 2.724752 ( K )
1
3
T U2 H U2 R o
H U K .r , x. h , K m.M , m x.m h
H U2( r , M )
2.739618
( K)
2.810842
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
2.733025
2.741859
.
1 = 9.08391310
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
T U2 H U2 R o
R o , M G
T 0
( K)
Computational environment initialisation values
2.720213
2.729021
(%)
( K)
0.001.( K )
r x1
m g1
r x2
m g2
Given
T0
T 0
r x1
r x1
r x2
r x2
m g1
m g2
m g1
T0
T 0
0.989364
=
m g2
347
1.017883
1.057292
0.911791
2.724
=
2.726
R o.
( K)
2.724
r x1
r x2
7.914908
8.143063
( kpc )
2.726
. 11
M G m g1
6.34375310
.
=
M S m g2
. 11
5.47074910
r x1 m g1
1.063645 5.729219
1=
r x2 m g2
1.788292
8.820858
(%)
Given
T 0
T0
r x3
r x3
r x4
r x4
m g3
2.724
2.726
1.013348
0.977007
0.977007
m g4
T 0
0.984956
m g3
m g4
T0
R o.
( K)
. 11
M G m g3
5.8620410
.
=
M S m g4
. 11
5.8620410
r x3
r x4
7.879647
8.106786
r x3 m g3
r x4 m g4
1=
( kpc )
1.50441 2.29934
1.334822 2.29934
(%)
Hence, if T0 is exactly correct (i.e. zero experimental uncertainty); Ro, MG and HU2
may be approximated as follows,
Given
r x5
m g5
Find r x1, m g1
r x5.R o = 8.107221 ( kpc )
T0
r x5
m g5
m g5 .
H U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 67.095419
MG
1.013403
1.052361
.
= 6.31416710
11
MS
r x5
m g5
1=
1.340256
5.236123
= 2.725 ( K )
( %)
km
.
s Mpc
m R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h , M U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h
= 8.453235 10
33 .
kg
3
cm
348
5. UZPF
EGM
PDG
EGM
PDG
3 .H U2( r , M )
U2( r , M )
U2 R o , M G = 8.453235 10
8 . .G
EGM = 1.000331
U2 R o , M G
.
ZPF = 3.31400710
U ZPF
3 .c .
H U2 R o , M G
ZPF .
8 . .G
13 .
U ZPF = 2.51778 10
EGM
U ZPF = 251.778016
Pa
fJ
U ZPF = 251.778016
U ZPF = 842.934914
kg
3
PDG m ..
ZPF
= 0.997339
33 .
cm
U2 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
1.003
U ZPF = 251.778016( fPa )
yJ
U ZPF = 0.251778
mJ
3
mm
km
EJ
. 12
U ZPF = 7.39723510
AU
YJ
pc
YJ
. 41
U ZPF = 6.60189810
viii. Advanced Cosmology

1. n_2 n_6
9
n _6( r , M )
.
.
3
3 . mh . K r
.
16
2 KmM h
9
9
1
6.
.
3
3 .K m h . r
16
M
h
2
2 .
3
3 . . m h . r
16 2
M
h
2
n _6( r , M )
3 . . m h
4
.m h
. r
M
h
3
( 3 . ) . m h . r
18
M h
2
1
3 .
16
2
2
.
.
3
3 . mh . K r
.
16
2 KmM h
3 .
16
2
2
9
7 9
6. .
3
3 .K m h . r
16
M
h
2
.m h
. r
M
h
3
( 3 . ) . m h . r
18
M h
2
1.
4
2 .
3
3 . . m h . r
16 2
M
h
2
3 mh
. r
( 3 . ) .
M h
. r
h
349
2. KU2 KU3
K U2( r , M )
ln
K
x
.ln n
_6( r , M )
mh
26
9
. r
h
4 .M
K U3( r , M ) ln ( 3 . )
2 .
ln n _6( r , M )
256
3.
( 3 . )
7 18
6.
256
26
9
. r
h
mh
5
7 18
6.
3. HU2 HU3, TU2 TU3

K U2( r , M )
H U3( r , M )
TL
7
5
7 18
5
6
2
ln ( 3 . ) .
256
.ln n
_6( r , M )
3.
mh
M
7 18
5
6
2
. r
h
26
ln ( 3 . ) .
.ln
3 . . m h
256
. r
h
mh
M
26
. r
h
7
7
1 . 18 . . 6 .
2 ( 3 ) ln
256
K U3( r , M )
ln
T U3( r , M )
T U2 H U3( r , M )
3
( 3 . ) . m h
. r
h
7
9
mh
M
26
. r
h
4. HU3 HU4, TU3 TU4

K U3( r , M )
H U4( r , M )
T U4( r , M )
TL
T U2 H U4( r , M )
5. HU4 HU5, TU4 TU5
H U5( r , M )
9
3
( 3 . )
.ln
7 . .
32
256
m
.
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
7 .
. r
h
4 3 1.
St T . .
3 4 c5 . 2
h
St T
4 . 3
3
4
2
7 .
mh
M
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
.1 .
c
x
. h
350
4 . 3
3
4
.1 .
c
x
. h
4 .1 . x
3 c5 . 2
h
6
h
x
H r 3, M 3
6
( 4 . ) .
.H . h
St T
1
c
St T
4 .1 . x
3 c5 . 2
h
1
c
1
.H
.
. 4
h
6
( 4 . ) .
2 .
.H . h
.
. 4
h
.H . h
.H . h
2 .
1
.H
T U5( r , M )
.H
.
. 4
h
KW
c
.ln
( 4 . ) .
6
( 4 . ) .
1.
1
.H
1
c
1
.H
.
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
.
. 4
h
.
. 4
h
2 .
2 .
1
.H
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
6. HU3, HU4, HU5, TU3, TU4, TU5

H U3 R o , M G
H U4 R o , M G
H U5 R o , M G
T U3 R o , M G
T U4 R o , M G
T U5 R o , M G
H U3 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
= 67.084304 67.095419
T U3 r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
= 2.724752 2.725 ( K )
67.084304 67.095419
67.084304 67.095419
2.724752 2.725
2.724752 2.725
1 . H
U4 R o , M G
H0
H U5 R o , M G
T U3 R o , M G
1 . T
U4 R o , M G
T0
T U5 R o , M G
H U3 R o , M G
km
.
s Mpc
5.515064 5.499409
1=
5.515064 5.499409 ( % )
5.515064 5.499409
1=
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
.
9.08391310
.
8.37394610
(%)
7. Time dependent characteristics

H H .H
. H5
T U3 H
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
1 .
d
K W .St T .ln
H .H
dH
H
H _min ,
2
5 .
H _max H _min
1 .10
H e
2
5 .
.. H _max
T U3 H
351
H _min
10
H _max
K W .St T .ln
1
H
. H .H

5 .
T U3 e
2
5 .
. 31 ( K )
= 3.19551810
2
5 . .
. 61
H = 1.39858410
km
s .Mpc
2
5 . .
= 2.206287 10
H U2 R o , M G
42 .
= 7.928705 10
T U2 H
61
T U3( 1 )
( K)
Computational environment initialisation value H 2 56.4503086205567

Given
T U2 10
H 2
10
H 2
273.( K )
.H
H 2 = 56.450309
Find H 2
H 2
.H
.
= 1.02858610
14
10
(s)
10
H 2
H 2
.H
km
.
s Mpc
.H = 2.99992310
. 5
6
= 3.259461 10 .yr
T U2 10
H 2
.H
= 273 ( K )
See Fig. 4.22, 4.23.

1
H .H
T U3 H
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
d
T U4( t )
dt
K W .St T .ln
t1
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
1 . 1
K W .St T .
2
5
t
t
dT2 dt2 ( t )
d t3
T U4( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
K W .St T .
. 5 . 2 . ln H .t . 5 . 2
ln H .t . 5 .
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
1 . 1
K W .St T .
3
5
t
t
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
.t
10 .
. 5 .
2
2.
5 .
1 . 1
K W .St T .
5
t
t
1 . 1
T U4( t ) K W .St T .
2
5
d t2
t
t
d
K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
1
t
1
2
5 . .
5 .
. H .H

5 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1
. 1
H
.t2
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
352
2
2
15. . 5 .
K W .St T .
1 . 1
t
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 5 . 2 .ln H .t . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2
dT2 dt2 t 2 = 0
4.196153
10
6.205726
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
. 114
2.02615310
. 112
8.77595210
dT2 dt2 t 3
K
3
. 72
1.05719310
. 71
9.25283810
dT3 dt3
. 116
7.65967810
. 74
1.32321810
dT dt t 3
dT dt t 2
t3
dT2 dt2
dT dt t 1
42 .
2
2
15. . 5 .
dT3 dt3 t 3 = 0
dT dt
0.364697
t2
K
s
2.206287
. 1
H
2
2
15. . 5 .
dT dt t 1 = 0
t1
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 . 3
2
K W .St T .
2
5 . . 3
t
t
dT3 dt3 ( t )
1
. 159
6.22716710
dT3 dt3 t 1
. 156
3.77545710
.
1.45285710
155
dT3 dt3 t 2
dT3 dt3 t 3
T U2 H
T U2
T U2
T U2
t1
=
1
t2
. 31
3.19551810
( K)
. 31
3.03432210
4
. 34 ( K )
T U2 10 .H = 7.41414610
. 31
2.83254210
1
t3
4
10 .H
= 0.364697 10
46 .
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
= 2.724752 ( K )
See Fig. 4.24 4.35.
353
H
. 2
d
d
.H5
K W .St T .ln
T U3( H )
dH
dH
H
. H5
5 .
H
. 2
d
.H5 K .St . H
K W .St T .ln
W T
dH
H
H
5 .
H
K W .St T .
d
d
T U3( H ) .
t
dH
d T U4( t )
5 .
5 .
( H .t )
2
5 . .
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
. 5 .ln
. 2
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
2
5 .ln H .t .
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
1 . 1
t t5
t . . 5 . 2 . . H . 2
(H t)
5 ln
H
H
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
. 5 .ln H .t . 2
. 2
1 . 1
t t5
. 5 .ln
d
H
dt
. 5 .ln
5 .
. 2
. 2
1 . 1
t t5
K W .St T .
. 5 .ln
. 5 .ln
1 . 1
K W .St T .
t t5
K W .St T .
d
H
dt
1
H .H
5 .ln H .
d
H
dt
H .
dH dt H
1
H .H
5 .
.
2
5 .ln
1
H .H
. 2
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
dH
H
5 .
H
1
. 2
.
H H
d
dH dt H
dH
2
H .H
d
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
dH
H
.
5
H
2
5 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
H
5 .
H
H
2
5 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2 . 1
H
5 .
H e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
354
1
1
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
dH2 dt2
d t2
d
dt
d t2
2
5 .ln H .t .
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
5 .ln
. 2
1
1
d
dt
.
. 2
5 .
( H .t )
t
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .ln
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
. 2
. 2
5 .2
( H .t )
t
5 .ln
2
H
H .
1
H .H
2
5 . . ln H .
5 .
.
2
1
H .H
H .H
d
. 5. 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
dH
H
5 .
H
3
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
Let:
H H
ln
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5. 2 . 5. 2 .ln 1
2
H
5 .
H
2 .ln
t5
ln
1
H
2 .ln
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
. 2
2
1
1
. 5 . 2
.
H H
5 .ln
3
H .H
. 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . 2 .ln 1
2
H
5 .
H
H e
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
.
5
H
dH2 dt2 H
. 2
d t2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
1
. 1
H
Computational environment initialisation value
4.595349
Given
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
H
H U2 R o , M G
Find( )
355
t1
2
5 . .
H
10 .
t2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2.206287 2.206287
4.196153 4.196153
2
2
= 6.205726 6.205726
. 1
H
t5 e
8.385263 8.385263
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
42 .
20.932666 20.932666
t4
10
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
2
. 1
H
1
dH dt t 1 .H
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
dH dt t 2 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt t 3 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt t 5 .H
= 4.595349
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
. 68
7.50137510
. 68
7.50137510
. 83
9.06689310
. 83
9.06689310
= 1.22575310
. 84
. 84
1.22575310
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.55351810
. 84
1.38436210
. 84
1.38436210
Hz
2
1
H U2 R o , M G
= 4.726505 10
36 .
Hz
356
dH2 dt2 t 1 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
5 .
10 .
dH2 dt2 t 2 .H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 3 .H
dH2 dt2 e
. 125
8.50679910
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 125
8.50679910
dH2 dt2 t 4 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 5 .H
dH2 dt2
dH2 dt2 e
. 125
1.16257810
. 124
8.2461110
. 124
8.2461110
. 125
1.33162810
. 125
1.33162810
Hz
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
.
1.16257810
125
H U2 R o , M G
= 0 Hz
See Fig. 4.36 4.45.

H
d
d 1
H
dt
dt t
1
t
1
t
d
H
dt
=1
dH dt 1
dH dt 1
H U2 R o , M G
dH dt
. 61
8.46094110
67.084257
km
.
s Mpc
See Fig. 4.46, 4.47.

d
H
dt
( H .t )
5 .
.
2
2
5 .ln H .t .
.t
5 .ln
5 .
. 5 .ln
. 2
2
5 .ln H .t .
1 dH
5 .
1
dt
.t
H
5 .
. 5 .ln
5 .
.ln
. 2
H
H
5 .
1 dH H
.ln
2
5 .ln H .t .
H
H
ln H .t
t
5 .
has the solution:
5 .
.t
1
dt
ln H .t
t
5 .
1
t
357
T U2
T U2
dH dt 1
dH dt
T U3( 1 )
T U3
dH dt
dH dt e
dH dt
T U2
dH dt
dH dt
T U3 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U3 e
0
2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
. 31 3.19551810
. 31
2.97174510
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
3
= 3.18632310
. 31 3.03432210
. 31 ( K )
. 31 2.83254210
. 31
3.18071410
5 .
10 .
T U3 e
T U3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
H U2 R o , M G
T U2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
( K)
T U3( 1 )
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
0 2.724752
H U2 R o , M G
2
5 .
10 .
0 2.724751
dH dt 1
T U2
T U2
T U2
H U2 R o , M G
2
3
2.724751
2.724752
H U2 R o , M G
H
2
5 .
1 = 7.002696 ( % )
T U3 e
5 .
See Fig. 4.48, 4.49.
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln
H
t7
t 7 = 2.206287 10
=1
t1
. 2
H e
2
5 .
42 .
H H
2
5 .
t7
2
5 . .
1
H
ln H
ln t 7 .H
ln H
ln t 1 .H
ln t 7 .H
ln t 1 .H
=1
2
H .e
. 5 .ln
2
5 .
1
5 .
5 .
. 2
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
5 .
358
2.
dH dt H
H H
4 .
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
H
2.
5.
H e
5 .ln
5 .
H e
. 68 Hz2
1 = 7.50137510
2.
. 2
5.
5 .ln e
5 .
. 2
5 .ln
1 = 0 Hz
. 1
3
1
1
5.
1 =0
10
42
t 1 .10
8
Scaled Derivative (Hz^2)
4
dH dt H
10
79
2
0
0
2.20624
2.20625
2.20626
2.20627
2.20628
2.20629
2.2063
2.20631
2.20632
H .H
2.20633
2.20634
2.20635
2.20636
2.20637
2.20638
.1042
Scaled Cosmological Age (s)
H
=
dH dt t 4 .H
H U2 R o , M G
H0
. 123
1.47916710
71
km
s .Mpc
km
s .Mpc
.
1.55351810
84
H
dH dt
H U2 R o , M G
2
H0
359
.
3.84599410
61
. 84
7.51858710
. 61
8.46094110
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt t 4 .H
. 123
7.15875210
67.084304
H
( Hz)
dH dt t 4 .H
.
1.24640210
42
= 2.199936
dH dt t 4 .H
H
. 42
2.74200410
km
.
s Mpc
Hz
t 4 .H
2
= 4.839718
1
. 3
4.50030410
3
5.041.10
km
s .Mpc
1
H
t1
3.646967
= 22.062867
10
43 .
9
= 14.575885 10 .yr
H U2 R o , M G
209.326658
t4
A U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h .H U2 R o , M G = 1
T U2 H
T U2 t 1
T U2 t 4
0
. 31
3.19551810
. 31
= 2.05994510
2.724752
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
T U3 H U2 R o , M G .H
c.
( K)
t1
t4
6.614281
10
62.754553
34 .
2.724752
2.725
T0
t
16.326238
c . 1
=
154.899031
h t4
c
H U2 R o , M G
9
= 14.575885 10 .Lyr
R U K .R o , x. h , K m.M G, m x.m h .H U2 R o , M G
=1
8. History of the Universe

T U2 H = 0 ( K )
T U2
10
T U2
10 .
T U2
. 15 ( K )
= 3.43308810
31
1
13 .
1
9.
5 .10 ( yr )
( K)
T U2
10
T U2
(s)
.
= 1.92400510
28
34 .
( K)
(s)
. 9 ( K)
= 1.01325410
2.
10 ( s )
= 978.724031 ( K )
10 ( s )
T U2
.
= 3.19551810
t1
T U2
1
9.
= 11.838588 ( K )
10 ( yr )
= 4.898955 ( K )
T U2 H U2 R o , M G
360
= 2.724752 ( K )
T U2
1
.
1 (s)
1
1 .( day )
T U2
T U2
1
31.( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( yr )
1
T U2
2
10 .( yr )
T U2
. 7 521.528169
2.52413210
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
. 4
2.29089210
3.35005
. 3
6.49496110
0.947724
( K)
10 .
( yr )
1
11 .
10
= 1.00307810
.
10
147.71262
8
10 .( yr )
T U2
1
.
116 ( day )
. 6
3.86401510
T U2
10 ( yr )
T U2
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
7.
T U2
4.
6
10 .( yr )
10 ( yr )
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
3.
T U2
5.
10 ( yr )
T U2
T U2
( yr )
. 6
1.87808710
.
3.98831410
( K)
TL
9. ML, rL, tL, tEGM

5
C _J1 r 1 , M 1
M1
C _J1 r 2 , M 2
26
r1
R EGM
M 2 M 1.
26
r2
. 71 ( kg )
M L = 4.86482110
tL
M2
rL
rL
.
t L = 7.6372910
19
M EGM
2
R EGM.c
=1
t EGM
ML
r1
K m.M G.
M EGM
r2
r1
R EGM
K .R o
5 5
R EGM
K .R o
2 .G
M EGM
5 5
. 19 109 .Lyr
r L = 7.6372910
R BH M L
9
10 .yr
r2
t EGM
=1
R EGM
c
2
R EGM.c
2 .G
t EGM
R EGM
c
M L M EGM
rL
tL
R EGM t EGM
361
ML
M EGM
. 18
5.23967510
rL
tL
= 5.23967510
. 18
R EGM
. 18
5.23967510
tL
. 6
= 1.86196810
TL
t EGM
10. Radio astronomy

9
9
M
St J .
St J .
26
r
St J .
26
St G.
St J .
5
26
St G.
_3
St J .
26
9
_3
26
St G
_3
26
_3
26
St G
26 9
M
M
St J . _3
St J .St G
45
26
52
26
.St 5
G
27
5
26
26
.St 5
G
5
St J . _3 .
27
26
.St 5
G
4
5
4
9 .c .
5.
5.
.
_3 St G M
.
4
3
5
.St 5
G
2
9 .c .
9
St G .St G
.
4
4
52
M
26
26 9
5
St J . _3 .
5
St J . _3 .
26
26
45
9 .c .
St G
4 .
4
4
5
9 .c .
4 .
4
C _J _3 , M
_3
4.
St G M
5
.
_3
5.2
C _J _3 , M
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S = 180.283336( nJy )
362
St J .
Test 1 _3 , M
St G.
_3
27
.M
45
Test 2 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
43 .
Jy
Test 3 3 .( EHz) , M S
Test 2 _3 , M
Test 1 _3 , M
C _J 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
.
1 = 5.70654610
43 .
12
12
(%)
C _J _3 , M
.
1 = 3.66373610
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S
(%)
Jy
.
1 = 2.0428110
Jy
43 .
Test 2 _3 , M
Test 5 _3 , M
C _J _3 , M
45
Test 1 _3 , M
Test 4 _3 , M
26
45 .
_3
Test 1 3 .( EHz) , M S = 5.438023 10
Test 3 _3 , M
St J .St G
Test 2 _3 , M
26
26
10
10
C _J1 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
12
(%)
= 0.999999999999968
ix. Gravitational Cosmology

G.M E G.M M
2
r4
r4
r5
r4
r4
r5
. 5
3.46028110
.
3.83719110
( km)
a EGM_ r 5 , M M
0 .( s ) ,
T PV 1 , r 4 , M E
500
a PV( r , M , t )
D E2M. M M .M E
i .
g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M
.
3.33165310
.
3.33165310
.. T PV 1 , r 4 , M E
C PV n PV, r , M .e
. 3
3.33165310
.
3.33165310
m
s
r5
M M .M E
MM
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
r 5 D E2M
m
s
g r 4, M E
r4
g r 5, M M = 0
m
s
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
D E2M
a EGM_ r 5 , M M = 0
m
s
21
n PV
N, 2
N .. N
.n PV . PV( 1 , r , M ) .t .i
n PV
363
Harmonic Acc. & Grav. Interference

T PV 1 , r 5 , M M
Acceleration
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
a PV r 4 , M E , t
a PV r 5 , M M , t
t
Time
Gravitational Acceleration due to The Earth

Gravitational Acceleration due to The Moon
Resultant Acceleration (Interference)
a g ( r , M , , t )
g av ( r , M )
0 .( s ) ,
.T r 5 , M M
200
.. .T r 5 , M M
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
2
T ( r, M )
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
0 .( s )
g av R E, M E = 9.809009
m
s
a g( r, M , 0 , t ) d t
r 4 , M E = 56.499573 ( YHz) r 5 , M M = 72.138509( YHz)
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Pairs
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
Acceleration
a g r 4, M E, 0, t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction From The Earth

-ve WaveFunction From The Earth
+ve WaveFunction From The Moon
-ve WaveFunction From The Moon
364
Conjugate WaveFunction Acc. Beats
Acceleration
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
a g r 4, M E, , t
a g r 5, M M, , t
t
Time
+ve WaveFunction Interference Beat

-ve WaveFunction Interference Beat (Conjugate)
x. Particle Cosmology
h
tL
m
5
m 2
r e.
r 2
m 2
m gg2
tL
m 2
2 .m 2
m gg2
r gg2
2
m e .c
r 2
4 .r 2
r gg2
r 2
r 2
2 .r 2
K . h
K . h
2 .r 2
h
r gg2
2 .r 2
0.178967
0.357933
0.236148
2 .r 2
(%)
7.250508
9.567103
246.127068
2 .r gg2
0.472296
K . h
211.731798
2 .r gg2
E ( r, M )
h . ( r , M )
Q r , m e
N ( r, M )
E ( r, M )
m
= 2.655018 10
eV
38 .
423.463597
r gg2
2 .r gg2
10
51 .
279.381783
0.406294
2 .r gg2
10
3.431956
324.766614
h
K . h
1.715978
558.763566
0.307913
30
Qe
365
Q ( r, M )
Q _PDG
Qe
N ( r, M )
5 .10
30 .
Qe
Q _PDG
= 1.883226
Q ( r , M )
tL
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
Q = 1.129394 10
Qe
T L m 2 Q 2
m 2
Q 2 = 6.065593 10
85 .
Q 2
78 .
Q ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
Qe
= 7.049122 10
60
Qe
.
= 1.86196810
= 3.785846 10
Q 2
66
Q
m
.m
2
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
E r ,me
Qe
E r , m e
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
r e, m e
h .m
1.525768
1.525768
10
46 .
eV
E r e, m e
h .m
0.165603
0.165603
( J )
Qe
r e,m e
2
E r e, m e
249.926816
249.926816
me
( YHz)
2.
c Q
. 11
1.7588210
198.286288
kg
NOTES
366
b. Calculation engine

ii. Standard relationships
1
A0
r0
H0
H0
m( r , M )
VL VL
9
A 0 = 13.772016 10 .yr
V( r )
M .c
E( M )
G.M
g( r , M )
VL
2 .G.M
R BH( M )
V( r )
4. . 3
r
3
E ( ) h .
9
r 0 = 13.772016 10 .Lyr
iii. Derived constants

4 . 2
6
3
3.
St G
mx
3 . h
4 . .h
. c
2
St J
10 .
t1
t2
t4
3
1
r3
. 1
H
x. h
= 3.646967 10
2
2
5 . . 5 .
245
10
5
m.s
t5
M3
43 .
St g = 1.828935
m x.m h
c.
St BH
6
3
3 . h
13 2
2 . .c
9
c .St G
( 2 .G)
. 1
H
t3
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
ng
St T
. 1
H
mx
3
9
10 .yr
224 .
St G = 8.146982 10
2
3
. 1
H
13
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
.
T L = 4.10173110
4. 3. 1 . x
3 4 c5 . 2
h
3
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
St g
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
TL
9 .c .
St G
4 .
1
2
5 . .
2. 9
kg s
367
t7
2.698709
1.349354
5 .
. 1
H
.
H = 8.46094110
61
km
.
s Mpc
.
T L.H 0 = 2.97830810
12
1 . St G
G
.
1 = 3.33066910
14
(%)
St g
146 . kg
St J = 1.093567 10
4 . 26
18
119
10 .
r 3 = 1.093333 10
kg
.
St BH = 4.83080210
.
M 3 = 7.36147410
ym
.
St T = 6.35557910
9
95
5
9
( kg )
t1
5 .
10 .
t2
. 1
H
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
t3 e
. 1
H
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2.206287 2.206287
2
3
. 1
H
4.196153 4.196153
=
t4
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
t5 e
. 1
H
6.205726 6.205726
10
20.932666 20.932666
t7
42 .
=1
t1
8.385263 8.385263
2.206287 2.206287
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 1
H
t7
2
5 . .
1
H
iv. Base approximations / simplifications
1( r , M )
6 .c
r . PV( 1 , r , M )
C _1( r , M )
G.M .
2
T _1( r , M )
3 .M .c
2
.
n _1( r , M )
_1( r , M )
1 R M,M M
1 R E, M E
R M, M M
R E, M E
1 R J, M J
1 R S, M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
n _1( r , M )
2 . .h . PV( 1 , r , M )
1 R NS , M NS
_1( r , M )
_1( r , M )
1=
1( r , M )
12
n _1( r , M ) . PV( 1 , r , M )
c
_1( r , M )
K Depp ( r , M )
1
. 14 4.44089210
.
6.66133810
14
. 14 6.66133810
.
4.44089210
14
2 .G.M
r .c
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
368
n _1 R M , M M
n _1 R E, M E
n R M,M M
n R E, M E
n _1 R J , M J
n _1 R S , M S
n R J, M J
n R S, M S
n _1 R NS , M NS
n R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
T _1 R E, M E
T R M,M M
T R E, M E
T _1 R J , M J
T _1 R S , M S
T R J, M J
T R S, M S
T R NS , M NS
_1 R E, M E
R M,M M
R E, M E
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
R J, M J
R S, M S
R NS , M NS
.
2.22044610
14
.
4.44089210
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
6.66133810
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
8.88178410
14
(%)
1=
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
5.55111510
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
7.77156110
14
.
2.22044610
14
.
6.66133810
14
.
7.77156110
14
(%)
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
14
1 = 0 (%)
T _1 R M , M M
T _1 R NS , M NS
.
6.66133810
1 = 0 (%)
_1 R M , M M
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
1=
K Depp R E, M E
1 = 0 (%)
K PV R E, M E
(%)
1.00000000069601
1.00000000069601
v. SBH mass and radius

3
m x. h , m x.m h
r S M BH
. 94 kg
m x. h , m x.m h = 1.34467810
3
m
3 .M BH
4 . . S
M BH r S
4. .
3
S .r S
3
. 87 ( YPa)
U m x. h , m x.m h = 1.20853710
369
r S m x.m h
m x. h , m x.m h
. 90
= 9.55041510
m R S, M S
rS MS
.
3.28046310
5.
r S 10 M S
1=
144.219703
.
4.21884710
(%)
13
r S mh
( am)
0.015227
0.706754
10
r S 10 .M S
r S mh
1 . r m .m
S x h
h
x
1 = 22.109851 ( % )
R BH m h
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 43 3.22881910
. 49 3.18519310
. 49 3.12378410
. 43
9.27104510
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 44 4.88723910
. 37 1.58452310
. 40 4.23240210
. 41
1.03305410
M BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 2.55332710
. 40 5.86600510
. 40 3.94279810
. 40 7.32116510
. 40
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
M BH r Z
. 40 4.52155110
. 40 1.19243610
. 41 6.74112410
. 40
6.91875410
M BH r H
M BH r e
M BH r Bohr
M BH r gg
. 40 1.26038310
. 51 8.34661610
. 63 1.64821910
. 9
4.68486410
( kg )
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
M BH r
. 13 1.62379510
. 19 1.60185510
. 19 1.57097210
. 13
4.66247210
M BH r
M BH r en
M BH r n
M BH r n
. 13 2.45782610
. 7
5.19529810
1 . M
BH r uq
M BH r dq
M BH r sq
M BH r cq
= 1.28408510
. 10 2.95005410
. 10 1.9828610
. 10 3.68186410
. 10
M BH r bq
M BH r tq
M BH r W
M BH r Z
. 10 2.27391910
. 10 5.99684310
. 10 3.39015710
. 10
3.47948910
M BH r H
M BH r e
M BH r Bohr
M BH r gg
. 10
2.3560510
MS
. 20
6.3385510
. 9 2.12850410
. 11
7.96867110
. 33
4.1975710
14.554628
. 6
5.06892810
R BH M BH r n
16.217926
.
7.67248410
R BH M BH r sq
R BH M BH r cq
= 4.00847210
.
R BH M BH r tq
R BH M BH r W
R BH M BH r Z
0.010862
R BH M BH r e
R BH M BH r Bohr
R BH M BH r gg
.
7.35477510
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r
R BH M BH r en
R BH M BH r n
R BH M BH r uq
R BH M BH r dq
R BH M BH r bq
R BH M BH r H
.
9.2090510
.
7.0983910
.
1.97867710
. 6
5.0004410
4.904034
.
2.48754410
0.066445
.
6.18980410
0.011494 ( Lyr )
0.01872
0.010583
.
1.31033610
21
vi. n
1
1
3 9
n _2( r , M )
n _4 M BH
n BH M BH
1. 3
2
.m h
M
. r
h
n _5 M BH
n _4 M BH
3
9
n _3 x
n _5 M BH
3.
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 r S m x.m h , m x.m h
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 R BH m x.m h , m x.m h
370
1=
.
3.33066910
13
. 14
4.44089210
(%)
n _2 r S m x.m h , m x.m h
n _2 x. h , m x.m h
n _2 r S M S , M S
n _2 R BH M S , M S
5
5
n _2 r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
5
5
n _2 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
n _2 r S 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
n _2 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
n _3
n _3
.
. 24
9.00254210
3.51086810
5
. 6 1.93953910
. 28
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31
1.06388810
1
3
0.248017
0.324994
2
=
n _3( 1 )
0.515897
0.818935
n _3( 2 )
n _3 x
1.073108
n _3( 3 )
n _4 m x.m h
n _5 m x.m h
n BH m x.m h
n _4 M S
n _5 M S
n BH M S
5
n _4 10 .M S
5
n _5 10 .M S
5
n BH 10 .M S
10
n _4 10 .M S
10
n _5 10 .M S
10
n BH 10 .M S
1
=
. 5 9.00254210
. 24 2.56419310
. 19
3.51086810
. 6 1.93953910
. 28 1.0035610
. 22
1.93265910
. 7 4.1786110
. 31 3.92767810
. 24
1.06388810
vii. , T,
2 .c .
n PV.
g( r, M )
2
.r
3
PV2 n PV, r , M
9 M
St G .
_7 M BH
PV_1 M BH
_4 M BH
St BH.
_5 M BH
1.
2
St g .g ( r , M )
r
_3( r , M )
_2( r , M )
_3 r S M BH , M BH
_4 M BH
n _5 M BH
_6 M BH
BH M BH
1
M BH
_5 M BH
n _4 M BH
_5 M BH
_4 M BH
_6 M BH
_7 M BH
371
PV2 1 , R M , M M
PV2 1 , R E, M E
PV 1 , R M , M M
PV 1 , R E, M E
PV2 1 , R J , M J
PV2 1 , R S , M S
PV 1 , R J , M J
PV 1 , R S , M S
PV2 1 , R NS , M NS
PV 1 , R NS , M NS
1=
.
3.14037710
.
6.96004310
.
1.9723310
.
2.12158610
1 = 7.117159 ( % )
PV2 n R M , M M , R M , M M
PV2 n R E, M E , R E, M E
_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
PV2 n R J , M J , R J , M J
PV2 n R S , M S , R S , M S
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
PV2 n R NS , M NS , R NS , M NS
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_1 R M , M M
_1 R E, M E
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
_1 R J , M J
_1 R S , M S
_1 R NS , M NS
1=
.
4.1871410
.
9.2800510
. 6
2.62977310
.
2.8287810
1=
.
1.04678510
.
2.32001510
.
6.57443310
.
7.07196310
(%)
1 = 2.491576 ( % )
_3 R M , M M
_3 R E, M E
_2 R M , M M
_2 R E, M E
_3 R J , M J
_3 R S , M S
_2 R J , M J
_2 R S , M S
1=
. 14
8.88178410
.
1.11022310
13
. 13
1.11022310
.
1.11022310
13
(%)
_4 m x.m h
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
.
1 = 6.66133810
14
(%)
1
_3 x. h , m x.m h
_5 m x.m h
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
.
7.88327910
_3 r 0 , M S
5
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
(%)
1 = 9.375146 ( % )
_3 R NS , M NS
_2 R NS , M NS
(%)
1
=
1
1
1
10
0.163994
( EHz)
2.118067
27.355887
372
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
_3 r 0 , m x.m h
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
_3 r 0 , M S
_3 r 0 , M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
5.
.
1.05183110
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
_3 r 0 , 10 M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
10
_3 r 0 , 10 .M S
VL( 400 ( nm ) )
VL( 750 ( nm ) )
. 3
5.29883310
. 4
3.64997710
. 4
6.84370610
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_4 M S
_5 M S
_6 M S
_7 M S
5.
410.269418
.
2.82604410
_5 m x.m h
5.
. 42 1.87219710
. 42 1.87219710
. 42 1.87219710
. 42
1.87219710
=
5.
_4 10 M S
_5 10 M S
_6 10 M S
_7 10 M S
10
_4 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
10
_6 10 .M S
10
_7 10 .M S
. 29 4.55727410
. 43 1.29804810
. 38 6.93112610
. 4
6.23977510
. 28 6.9805610
. 43 3.61189510
. 37
1.34431910
_5 m x.m h
_6 m x.m h
_7 m x.m h
_4 M S
_5 M S
_6 M S
_7 M S
5
_5 10 .M S
5
_6 10 .M S
5
_7 10 .M S
10 .
10 .
_5 10 M S
BH m x.m h
PV_1 m x.m h
BH M S
PV_1 M S
5
BH 10 .M S
5
PV_1 10 .M S
10
BH 10 .M S
10
PV_1 10 .M S
_4 10 M S
10 .
0.253004
14
.
6.158585 1.75414910
.
1.81667910
15
.
9.433354 4.88102410
.
14.44945 1.35817410
_7 10 M S
.
7.30358710
. 33
1.8727810
13
0.253004
.
8.43227510
10 .
_6 10 M S
0.253004
0.253004
( Hz)
0.693113
. 26 1.06924110
. 44 1.00503110
. 37 6.93112610
.
2.89624710
_4 m x.m h
1 .
5
h _4 10 .M S
_4 m x.m h
5.
.
1.97218410
218.810356
5.
. 15 5.21112310
. 37
5.19263810
. 17 1.45002610
. 42
3.69181510
viii. Gravitation
r .
9
_2( r , M )
St g
a EGM_( r , M )
a g ( r , M , , t )
g av ( r , M )
MM
g ( r , M ) . .sin 2 . . ( r , M ) .t
2
2
T ( r, M )
D E2M. M M .M E
r4
r5
M M .M E
D E2M r 4
1.
T ( r, M )
2
.
0 .( s )
a g( r, M , 0 , t ) d t
a EGM_ R M , M M
a EGM_ R E, M E
g R M,M M
g R E, M E
a EGM_ R J , M J
a EGM_ R S , M S
g R J, M J
g R S, M S
1=
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.49880110
12
.
1.5432110
12
.
1.57651710
12
373
(%)
a EGM_ R NS, M NS
.
1 = 1.65423210
g R NS, M NS
g r 4, M E
g r 5, M M
. 3
3.33165310
. 3
3.33165310
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
a EGM_ r 5 , M M
g av R E, M E = 9.809009
r5
. 5
3.46028110
. 4
3.83719110
g r 5, M M = 0
.
3.33165310
m
s
a EGM_ r 4 , M E
( km)
m
s
r4
( %)
g r 4, M E
.
3.33165310
12
a EGM_ r 5 , M M = 0
r 4 , M E = 56.499573 ( YHz) r 5 , M M = 72.138509 ( YHz)
ix. Flux intensity

5
r _3 , M
St G.
_3
C _J ( r , M )
2 d
( r , M ) . U m( r , M )
dr
C _J1( r , M )
St J .
5.2
C _J _3 , M
26
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
1 . VL
r 0 r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
0.239057
0.741144
( Lyr)
.
1.73581410
11
.
5.38152510
11
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
5
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
. 5
2.2445.10 6.95860210
= 2.2445.107 6.95860210
. 7
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , M S
1 . r ( 400 ( nm ) ) , 105 .M
VL
S
r0
10
r VL( 400 ( nm) ) , 10 .M S
r 30.( PHz) , M S
4
9 .c . _3
4 . St 0.8 .M 0.6
G
5
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
10
r VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , 10 .M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
9
10 .Lyr
9
. 9
2.2445.10 6.95860210
. 4 5.05271110
. 4
1.62975410
= 1.62975410
. 6 5.05271110
. 6
. 8 5.05271110
. 8
1.62975410
21.2751776034345 8.46980075872643.10
= 2.12751776034345
.103 8.46980075872643.10
.105
2.12751776034345
374
0.846980075872643
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
. 6
2.95234410
r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h

1 .
r 0 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
3
10 .km
11.753495
r 30.( PHz) , M S
r 30.( EHz) , M S
5
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
r 30.( PHz) , M S
1 . r 30.( PHz) , 105 .M
S
r0
10
r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
. 5
2.93002110
= 2.93002110
.
5
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
.
21.275178 8.46980110
= 2.12751810
. 3 8.46980110
.
. 5
2.12751810
0.84698
C _J 100.( km) , M M
C _J R S , M M
C _J 100.( km) , M E
C _J1 100.( km) , M J
.
2.95903310
.
9.40034410
1=
C _J 100.( km) , M J
C _J1 R S , M E
C _J R S , M E
C _J1 R S , M J
(%)
C _J1 R S , M S
0.979587
C _J 100.( km) , M S
C _J R S , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M NS
C _J1 R S , M NS
C _J 100.( km) , M NS
C _J R S , M NS
C _J VL( 400 ( nm) ) , m x.m h

C _J 30.( PHz) , m x.m h
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h
C _J 30.( PHz) , M S
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , M S , M S
C _J VL( 750 ( nm) ) , m x.m h

C _J 30.( EHz) , m x.m h
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , m x.m h , m x.m h
C _J 30.( EHz) , M S
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , M S , M S
5
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
5
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
5
5
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
5
5
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
10
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 r 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S , 10 .M S
C _J1 r 0 , m x.m h
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
1=
.
3.57491810
12
.
4.23150410
10
.
1.35061710
.
1.41439110
.
1.41439110
(%)
.
1.90958410
12
.
1.92068610
12
.
1.9428910
12
.
1.93178810
12
.
1.58761910
12
.
1.59872110
12
.
1.50990310
12
.
1.50990310
12
.
1.48769910
12
.
1.50990310
12
(%)
C _J1 r 0 , M S
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
1=
C _J R S , M J
0.979587
C _J1 100.( km) , M S
6
10 .Lyr
116.646228
C _J1 R S , M M
14
1.166462
C _J1 100.( km) , M M
.
3.63872410
.
2.2659710
. 9 1.16646210
. 4
2.93002110
r 30.( EHz) , M S
C _J1 100.( km) , M E
.
1.48429110
.
8.89809310
10
20 .
yJy
5.334267
375
1
C _J1 r 0 , m x.m h
. 26
2.24315810
10
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S .
C _J1 r 0 , M S
= 3.59381410
. 5
599.48425
1
5
C _J1 r 0 , 10 .M S
C _J VL( 400 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
C _J VL( 750 ( nm ) ) , m x.m h
28.979765
1.102778
10
16 .
yJy
C _J 30.( EHz) , m x.m h = 2.479532 ( fJy )
7
C _J 30.( PHz) , m x.m h = 6.228302 10 .yJy
C _J 30.( PHz) , M S
5.
2.164916
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 M S
.
= 2.16491610
10
C _J 30.( PHz) , 10 .M S
.
2.16491610
C _J 30.( EHz) , M S
5.
10
29 .
10
14 .
yJy
8.618686
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 M S
.
= 8.61868610
10
C _J 30.( EHz) , 10 .M S
.
8.61868610
10
10
C _J _4 10 .M S , 10 .M S
10
10
C _J1 R BH 10 .M S , 10 .M S
yJy
= 0.999999999999968
x. Photon and Graviton populations

g( M )
M .c
2 .h
n gg ( M )
g m x.m h
. 18
4.99252510
g MS
. 56
1.34855310
5
g 10 .M S
10
g 10 .M S
. 61
1.34855310
T L. g ( M )
n ( M )
2 .n gg ( M )
( YHz)
. 66
1.34855310
376
g m x.m h
_4 m x.m h
g m x.m h
_5 m x.m h
g MS
g MS
2.666667
50
_5 M S
. 36
2.95912210
. 57
1.0031510
5
g 10 .M S
. 63
4.65620810
5
_5 10 .M S
2.666667
_4 M S
.
2.1612210
5
g 10 .M S
5
_4 10 .M S
. 46
1.26122510
10
g 10 .M S
10
g 10 .M S
10
_4 10 .M S
10
_5 10 .M S
n gg m x.m h
. 72
6.46222510
n m x.m h
n gg M S
. 110
1.7455410
n M S
. 115
1.7455410
5
n 10 .M S
. 120
1.7455410
10
n 10 .M S
5
n gg 10 .M S
10
n gg 10 .M S
. 41
1.93186910
. 73
1.29244510
. 110
3.4910810
. 115
3.4910810
. 120
3.4910810
xi. Hubble constant and CMBR temperature

r 2( r )
K .r
K m.M
M 2( M )
K U( r , M )
A U( r , M )
ln
.ln n
_2 r 2( r ) , M 2( M )
TL
K U( r , M )
R U( r , M )
K T( r , M )
n g .ln
T U( r , M )
K T( r , M ) .T W ( r , M )
M U( r , M )
H U5( r , M )
T U5( r , M )
KW
c
( 3 . )
7 . .
256
32
.
.ln
. 4
H U5( r , M ) h
H
2 .
r3
1
.H
H U( r , M )
1
A U( r , M )
KW
_1 R U( r , M ) , M 3
3 .H U( r , M )
8 . .G
K W .St T .ln
T U2( H )
. m
.ln ( 3 ) . h
4
M
r 2( r )
c .A U( r , M )
U( r , M )
V R U( r , M ) . U( r , M )
M 2( M )
T W( r, M )
H U( r , M )
1 .
ln
TL
M3
3.
26
. 2
.H5
H
7 .
. r
h
2 .
2
7 .
mh
M
5 .
. r
h
2
26 .
. 2
.H ( r , M ) 5
U5
377
K W .St T .
dT dt ( t )
2
5 .ln H .t .
5 .
K W .St T .
dT2 dt2 ( t )
2
2
5 . . ln H .t . 5 .
.t
dT3 dt3 ( t )
2
2
2
5 . .ln H .t . 5 . . 5 . 3
2
K W .St T .
2
5 . . 3
t
t
dH dt H
2
H .H
. 5 .ln 1 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
2
2
15. . 5 .
dH2 dt2 H
5 .
.t2
3
2
H .H
. 5 . 2 . ln 1 . 5 . 2
2
H
5 .
H
Given
T U2 H U r x1.R o , M G
T U2 H U R o , m g1 .M G
T 0
T0
T0
T 0
r x1
r x2
m g1
m g2
Given
T U2 H U r x1.R o , m g1 .M G
T 0
T0
T0
T 0
r x3
r x4
m g3
m g4
Given
r x5
m g5
T0
Find r x1, m g1
T U2 H U R o
T U2 H U R o
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
1
R o , .K m.M G
3
r x1
=
2.733025
2.741859
r x2
( K)
m g1
m g2
378
0.989364
=
1.017883
1.057292
0.911791
2.724
=
2.726
2.724
m g3
7.914908
8.143063
( kpc )
1.063645 5.729219
1.788292
(%)
8.820858
2.724
2.726
( K)
0.977007
r x3
r x4
r x5
7.879647
8.106786
1.052361
MG
. 11
M G m g3
5.8620410
.
=
M S m g4
. 11
5.8620410
( kpc )
1.013403
m g5
m g5 .
0.977007
m g4
R o.
1=
r x2 m g2
1.013348
r x2
r x1 m g1
0.984956
r x4
r x1
2.726
. 11
M G m g1
6.34375310
.
=
M S m g2
. 11
5.47074910
r x3
R o.
( K)
r x5
. 11
= 6.31416710
m g5
MS
1=
r x3 m g3
r x4 m g4
5.236123
( %)
1.50441 2.29934
1.334822 2.29934
( %)
r x5.R o = 8.107221 ( kpc )
= 2.725 ( K )
1.340256
1=
H U r x5.R o , m g5 .M G = 67.095419
km
.
s Mpc
Given
dH dt
H U R o,M G
H U R o,M G
Find( )
9
A U R o , M G = 14.575885 10 .yr
U R o , M G = 8.453235 10
33 .
9
R U R o , M G = 14.575885 10 .Lyr
kg
3
.
M U R o , M G = 9.28458610
52
( kg )
cm
H U R o,M G
1
H U R o , .M G
3
67.084304
67.753267
km
.
s Mpc
T U R o,M G
1
T U R o , .M G
3
379
2.724752
2.739618
( K)
H U R o,M G
T U R o,M G
H0
T0
H U R o,M G
T U R o,M G
1
H U R o , .M G
3
1
T U R o , .M G
3
T U2 H U R o
.
5.515064 9.08391310
0.987352
(%)
0.542607
R o , M G
2.720213
T U2 H U R o , M G
T U2 H U R o
1=
2.724752
R o , M G
H U5 R o , M G
= 2.729021 ( K )
1
T U2 H U R o , .M G
3
2.739618
67.084304
km
67.095419
s .Mpc
2.810842
T U2 H 0
T U5 R o , M G
2.724752
2.725
H0
( K)
1=
5.499409
.
8.3739910
(%)
T0
T U2 H
T U2 t 1
dT dt
.
3.19551810
31
T U2 t 2
T U2 t 3
T U2 t 4
. 31
2.05994510
T U2 t 5
. 31
2.65086510
dT2 dt2
.
3.03432210
.
2.83254210
dT2 dt2 t 2
. 114
2.02615310
dT2 dt2 t 3
dT2 dt2 t 4
dT2 dt2 t 5
0
.
8.77595210
112
dT3 dt3 t 3
. 112
1.612210
dT3 dt3 t 4
. 112
7.1945910
dT3 dt3 t 5
380
1
. 159
6.22716710
dT3 dt3 t 2
.
9.25283810
. 71
7.47950610
. 156
3.77545710
dT3 dt3 t 1
K
. 71
3.03728910
dT dt t 5
dT3 dt3
. 72
1.05719310
71
dT dt t 4
. 116
7.65967810
dT dt t 3
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT dt t 2
( K)
31
. 74
1.32321810
dT dt t 1
31
1
H
. 155
1.45285710
. 153
1.48902210
. 153
9.53337910
dH dt ( 1 )
dH dt e
0
1
dH dt t 1 .H
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
dH dt t 2 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt t 3 .H
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH dt t 4 .H
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt t 5 .H
dH dt e
dH2 dt2 e
. 123
7.15875210
. 107
7.14236410
. 107
7.14236410
. 122
8.63295710
. 122
8.63295710
. 123
1.16708910
. 123
1.16708910
. 123
1.47916710
. 123
1.47916710
. 123
1.31810810
. 123
1.31810810
km
s .Mpc
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 ( 1 )
. 123
7.15875210
0
1
dH2 dt2 t 1 .H
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
10 .
dH2 dt2 t 2 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 3 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
3
dH2 dt2 t 4 .H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH2 dt2 t 5 .H
dH dt
H U R o,M G
H
dH2 dt2 e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
. 3
= 4.50029710
km
.
s Mpc
. 186
1.27869510
. 186
1.27869510
. 184
2.49929710
. 184
2.49929710
.
3.41565310
.
3.41565310
. 183
2.42270610
. 183
2.42270610
. 183
3.91232210
. 183
3.91232210
183
183
km
s .Mpc
2
1
dH2 dt2
H U R o,M G
H
=0
km
.
s Mpc
=1
dH dt 1
381
dH dt 1
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 61
2.55267410
2
2
15 . . 5 .
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
km
.
s Mpc
. 60
4.13447210
. 60
9.11289510
67.084257
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
= 1.16926910
. 61
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 61
1.59787310
dH dt e
. 61
8.46094110
2
1
H U R o,M G
. 61
8.46094110
dH dt t 4 .H
. 61
= 3.84599410
67.084304
H U R o,M G
dH dt t 4 .H
km
s .Mpc
H U R o,M G
71
H0
H0
. 123
7.15875210
1
2
. 123
1.47916710
. 3
4.50030410
km
s .Mpc
3
5.041.10
1
H .
dH dt t 4 .H
H
dH dt t 4 .H
2.199936
4.839718
382
T U2
dH dt 1
T U2
5 .
dH dt e
10 .
T U2
2
2
5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 31
2.97174510
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U2
2.724751
2
3
H U R o,M G
dH dt
. 31
3.18071410
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
. 31
2.72300610
2
2
15 . . 5 .
T U2
= 3.18071410
. 31 ( K )
T U2
. 31
3.18632310
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt e
1
T U2 t 1
.T
U2
dH dt e
5 .
10 .
1
T U2 t 2
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
15 . . 5 .
1
T U2 t 3
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
T U2 t 4
.T
U2
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
T U2 t 5
.T
U2
1
T U2 H U R o , M G
dH dt e
.T
U2
(%)
32.18827
.
3.90264410
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
dH dt
12.291857
19.987768
2
2
15 . . 5 .
5.00939
1=
1
7.002696
2
3
H U R o,M G
383
T U2 H
T U2
13 .
10 ( s )
1
T U2
10
10
10 .
(s)
T U2
T U2
1
.
31 ( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( yr )
1
T U2
2
10 .( yr )
T U2
3.
. 9
1.01325410
2.724752
( K)
1
6.
10 ( yr )
. 10 1.84076810
. 3
1.2497710
. 7 521.528169
2.52413210
7.
. 6
3.86401510
147.71262
= 1.00307810
. 6
41.823796
. 4
8.07751510
11.838588
9
10 .( yr )
.
2.29089210
3.35005
.
6.49496110
0.947724
1
8
10 .( yr )
( yr )
11 .
10
1
116.( day )
( K)
T U2
4.
T U2
4.898955
5.
10
10 ( yr )
T U2
. 15
3.43308810
10 .
10 ( yr )
T U2
9
5 .10 .( yr )
10 ( yr )
T U2
11.838588
10 ( yr )
1 .( day )
T U2
T U2
1 .( s )
1
T U2
T U2 H U R o , M G
2
10 .( s )
T U2
T U2
T U2
.
1.92400510
28
9
10 .( yr )
(s)
T U2
T U2
34 .
978.724031
T U2
( yr )
. 6
1.87808710
.
3.98831410
( K)
TL
xii. SBH temperature

Th
T BH( M )
Th
( 4 . )
.
2
mh
M
. 30 ( K )
= 1.66667410
2
8 . . x
T SPBH
.
1. mh c
h . h
c.
U m x. h , m x.m h
. 32
3.55137410
. 32
3.55137410
T BH m x.m h
. 30 ( K )
T BH m x.m h = 1.66667410
h .c
( K)
=1
2
16. . .G.m x.m h
10
T BH 10 .M S
h .c
T U2
=1
1
t1
T BH m x.m h
T U2
= 19.173025
1
t1
6 . .T BH m x.m h
1 = 1.716054 ( % )
2
10
16. . .G.10 .M S
384
T U2
1
t1
3 .T h
T SPBH
. 31 ( K )
T SPBH = 5.02766910
1 = 1.716054 ( % )
T BH m x.m h
= 30.165887
4 . . x
T SPBH
T U2
. 31 ( K )
K T SPBH = 3.20071410
= 1.57335
T U2
t1
4
T U2
3
K .T SPBH
3.
6 .c
. 31 ( K )
= 3.20071410
. .G
t1
2 K
W
.c .
5 G.
1 . 15 .
h .c
x 4 . .K W
15 .
h .c
= 2.659782
4 . .K W
1 = 0.248248 ( % )
1 = 1.442436 ( % )
T BH m e
T BH m p
T BH m n
T BH m
T BH m
T BH m en
T BH m n
T BH m n
T BH m uq
T BH m dq
T BH m sq
T BH m cq
T BH m bq
T BH m tq
T BH m W
T BH m Z
T BH m H
T SPBH
t1
2
c . KW
. 31 ( K )
= 3.18758510
5 G.
1 = 0.162602 ( % )
. 47
6.01617410
. 31
5.02766910
. 53 7.33529610
. 49 7.32519910
. 49 6.51392110
. 50
1.34687210
=
. 49 2.29416810
. 58 3.6223710
. 53 3.78159510
. 51
3.87312710
. 52 9.81839510
. 51 6.04208910
. 50 5.81830810
. 49
1.96367910
( K)
. 49 3.8570310
. 47 8.55766610
. 47 7.54763110
. 47
1.67121610
( K)
xiii. ZPF
EGM
U r x5.R o , m g5 .M G
3 .c .
ZPF .
H U R o,M G
8 . .G
2
U ZPF
EGM
PDG
PDG
U R o,M G
= 0.997339
U ZPF = 251.778016
U ZPF = 842.934914
yJ
3
ZPF
1.003
.
ZPF = 3.31400710
U ZPF = 251.778016( fPa )
U ZPF = 2.51778 10
13 .
U ZPF = 0.251778
mJ
U ZPF = 251.778016
km
EJ
. 12
U ZPF = 7.39723510
AU
EGM
EGM = 1.000331
mm
fJ
3
YJ
pc
385
Pa
. 41
U ZPF = 6.60189810
YJ
R U R o,M G
xiv. Cosmological limits

M U R o,M G
M EGM
ML
R EGM
K m.M G.
K .R o
R U R o,M G
R EGM
5 5
R EGM
rL
K .R o
. 71 ( kg )
M L = 4.86482110
t EGM
R BH M L
. 19 109 .Lyr
r L = 7.6372910
A U R o,M G
rL
tL
. 19 109 .yr
t L = 7.6372910
ML
M EGM
M EGM
2
R EGM.c
t EGM
=1
2 .G
. 18
5.23967510
rL
=1
R EGM
R EGM
tL
tL
= 5.23967510
. 18
. 6
= 1.86196810
TL
. 18
5.23967510
t EGM
xv. Particle Cosmology

5
m 2
h
tL
E ( r, M )
m gg2
h . ( r , M )
Q r , m e
Q _PDG
5 .10
2 .m 2
r 2
N ( r, M )
Q ( r , M )
30 .
Qe
r e.
m 2
m e .c
m gg2
1.715978
3.431956
4 .r 2
Q ( r, M )
N ( r, M )
r gg2
E ( r, M )
Q ( r, M )
m 2
10
386
51 .
eV
Qe
N ( r, M )
Qe
Q 2
r 2
r gg2
Q
m
.m
2
7.250508
9.567103
10
38 .
r 2
r 2
2 .r 2
K . h
K . h
2 .r 2
0.178967
2 .r 2
h
r gg2
0.357933
0.236148
558.763566
0.307913
324.766614
2 .r 2
(%)
279.381783
423.463597
0.406294
r gg2
246.127068
2 .r gg2
0.472296
K . h
211.731798
K . h
2 .r gg2
2 .r gg2
2 .r gg2
= 2.655018 10
Q _PDG
30
Qe
Q = 1.129394 10
= 1.883226
= 7.049122 10
60
Qe
.
= 1.86196810
Q 2
Q 2 = 6.065593 10
m 2
m
= 3.785846 10
r e, m e
.m
r , m e
Qe
E r e, m e
m
85 .
E r , m e
66
78 .
1.525768
1.525768
10
46 .
eV
r e,m e
=
0.165603
0.165603
( J )
h .m
249.926816
249.926816
( YHz)
Qe
me
2.
c Q
. 11
1.7588210
198.286288
kg
387
NOTES
388
MathCad 12
c. High precision calculation engine
Convergence Tolerance (TOL): 10-14.

Constraint Tolerance (CTOL): 10-14.
ii. Astronomical statistics
H0 := 71
s Mpc
H0 := 2
s Mpc
km
km
T0 := 0.001( K)
T0 := 2.725 ( K)
H0 H0 = 69
s Mpc
km
T0 + T0 = 2.726( K)
iii. Derived constants
:=
x := 4
Stt := 2 h
4

3
2
H :=
TL :=
h
m
iv. Algorithm
7
2
2
2
2
2
5
7
m
7
26
m
(
)
(
)
1
h
3 32 ln 3 h r
r
HU5( r , M) :=
ln
4 M M
TL
256
h
h
H
(
r
,
M
)
U5
KT ( r , M) := 8 ln
TU( r , M ) := KT ( r , M ) TW( r , M )
TW( r , M) :=
KW
HU5 ( r , M)
x
2
mh
H 9
5
Stt H
H
TU2( H) := KW ln
HU5( Ro , MG) 67.084134 km
HU5( Ro , M G) 67.753095 s Mpc
TU( Ro , MG) 2.724749
=
( K)
TU( Ro , MG) 2.739614
HU5( Ro , M G)
2.776618 ( %)
1=
H0 H0 HU5( Ro , MG)
1.807108
1
TU( Ro , M G)
0.045904 ( %)
1=
T0 + T0 TU( Ro , MG)
0.499413
1
389
TU2( H0 H0)
TU2( H0)
TU2 H0 + 0
2
2.767146
= 2.810842 ( K)
2.832481
H0 H0
H0
H
H0 + 0
2
69
km
= 71
s Mpc
72
d. Various forms of the derived constants
2.698709 2.698709
=
6
2 2.698709 2.698709
4
6
2
1
1 4
c3 H h
7
9
4 2 2
2 h c
5
7
1 4 2
4 c
3
h
6.355579 1095
5
s
= 6.355579 1095
9
6.355579 1095 m
NOTES
390
Periodic Table of the Elements
391
NOTES
392
Quick Reference Graphs
8.1.5.1 TU3 vs. H: Figure 4.22

Av. Cosmological Temperature
31
3.5 .10
e
5 .
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
0.1
0.01
1 .10 3
H
Dimensionless Range Variable
1 .10 4
1 .10 5
1 .10 6
Average Cosmological Temperature

Maximum Av. Cosmological Temperature
393
8.1.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.23

31
3.5 .10
1
H
5 . . 1
H
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
31
2 .10
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
1.5 .1031
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
394
8.2.5.1 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.24

1
H
31
3.5 .10
t1
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
395
8.2.5.2 TU3 vs. t = (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.25

t2
31
3.5 .10
t3
3 .1031
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
T U3 e
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
2 .10
2
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
1.5 .1031
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
396
8.2.5.3 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (i): Figure 4.26

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
397
8.2.5.4 TU3 vs. H = (HH) (ii): Figure 4.27

31
3.5 .10
1
1
t2 t3
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
2
2
1.5 .10
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
H .H
398
8.2.5.5 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (i): Figure 4.28

c
H
31
3.5 .10
t 1 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
399
8.2.5.6 TU3 vs. r = (HH)-1c (ii): Figure 4.29

31
3.5 .10
t 2 .c t 3 .c
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
2
5 .
2 .1031
2
T U3 e
T U3 e
10 .
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
1
31
1.5 .10
2
2
2
15 . . 5 .
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
3
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
1 .10 29
1 .10 28
1 .10 27
1.
c
H .H
400
8.2.5.7 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.30

1 .1072
t1
t2
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
401
8.2.5.8 dTU4/dt vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.31

1 .1072
t2
t3
71
8 .10
6 .1071
4 .1071
71
2 .10
dT dt
H .H
1
0
(K/s)
dT dt t 1
dT dt t 2
dT dt t 3
2 .1071
4 .1071
71
6 .10
71
8 .10
1 .1072
72
1.2 .10
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
H .H
402
8.2.5.9 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.32

113
5 .10
t1
t2
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
403
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
8.2.5.10 d2TU4/dt2 vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.33

113
5 .10
t2
t3
113
5 .10
(K/s^2)
dT2 dt2
H .H
1
1 .10114
dT2 dt2 t 1
dT2 dt2 t 2
dT2 dt2 t 3
114
1.5 .10
2 .10114
114
2.5 .10
114
3 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
404
1.1 .10 41 1.2 .10 41 1.3 .10 41 1.4 .10 41 1.5 .10 41
8.2.5.11 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.34

157
1 .10
t1
t2
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
405
8.2.5.12 |d3TU4/dt3| vs. t = (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.35

157
1 .10
t2
t3
156
1 .10
(K/s^3)
dT3 dt3
H .H
1 .10155
1
dT3 dt3 t 1
dT3 dt3 t 2
1 .10154
153
1 .10
152
1 .10
2 .10 42
3 .10 42
4 .10 42
5 .10 42
6 .10 42
7 .10 42
8 .10 42
9 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
1.1 .10 41
1.2 .10 41
1.3 .10 41
1.4 .10 41
1.5 .10 41
H .H
406
8.3.6.1 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.36

1.6 .1084
t1
t4
84
1.4 .10
84
1.2 .10
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
dH dt e
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
1
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
8 .1083
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
83
6 .10
83
4 .10
2 .1083
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
407
8.3.6.2 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.37

2 .1084
1
H
t1
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
408
8.3.6.3 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.38

2 .1084
t2
t3
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
409
8.3.6.4 dH/dt vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.39

2 .1084
t5
t4
84
1 .10
0
0
dH dt H
(Hz^2)
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1 .1084
84
2 .10
1
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
3 .1084
2
dH dt e
1
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
1
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
2
84
4 .10
5 .1084
6 .1084
84
7 .10
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
H .H
410
8.3.6.5 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.40

1
H
4 .10127
t1
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
411
8.3.6.6 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.41

t2
4 .10127
t3
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
412
8.3.6.7 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iii): Figure 4.42

t5
4 .10127
t4
127
3.5 .10
3 .10127
(Hz^3)
2.5 .10127
dH2 dt2 H
127
2 .10
127
1.5 .10
1 .10127
5 .10126
0
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
H .H
413
8.3.6.8 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (iv): Figure 4.43

125
8 .10
t1
t2
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
414
1 .10 40
8.3.6.9 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (v): Figure 4.44

125
8 .10
t3
t4
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
415
1 .10 40
8.3.6.10 d2H/dt2 vs. (HH)-1 (vi): Figure 4.45

125
8 .10
t5
7 .10125
125
6 .10
dH2 dt2 H
(Hz^3)
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
dH2 dt2 e
5 .
1
2
125
5 .10
1
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4 .10125
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
.
.
.
.
.
2
5 5 5
1
125
3 .10
2 .10125
1 .10125
0
0
1 .10125
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1
H .H
416
1 .10 40
8.3.6.11 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (i): Figure 4.46

2.5 .1042
1
H
t1
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
417
8.3.6.12 |H| vs. (HH)-1 (ii): Figure 4.47

2.5 .1042
1
H
t4
42
2 .10
dH dt H
dH dt e
5 .
1
2
1
1.5 .1042
(Hz)
1
dH dt e
dH dt e
2
2
5 . . 5 .
2
2
5 . . 5 .
4
2
2
2
2
2
5 . . 5 . . 5 .
1
42
1 .10
5 .1041
0
1 .10 43
1 .10 42
1 .10 41
1 .10 40
1 .10 39
1 .10 38
1 .10 37
1 .10 36
1
1 .10 35
1 .10 34
1 .10 33
1 .10 32
1 .10 31
1 .10 30
H .H
418
8.3.6.13 TU2,3 vs. |H|: Figure 4.48

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
T U3 H
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
, H .H
419
8.3.6.14 TU2 vs. |H|: Figure 4.49

31
3.5 .10
1
t1
H
31
3 .10
2.5 .1031
T U2
dH dt H
2 .1031
1
T U3 e
5 .
2
31
1.5 .10
31
1 .10
5 .1030
1 .1043
1 .1042
1 .1041
1 .1040
1 .1039
1 .1038
1 .1037
1 .1036
dH dt H
420
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Quinta Essentia: A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering - Part 4
ISBN 978-1-84753-403-3

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A Practical Guide to Space-Time Engineering

1.2.8.9.2.1 The mass-energy of a Graviton mgg ........................................................ 74

Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................. 93

Critical Mode NC..................................................................................................... 94

Reduced Average Harmonic Similarity Equations (HSExA R) ...................................... 99

Super-Massive-Black-Hole SMBH........................................................................ 105

Glossary of Terms ............................................................................................................. 107

Derivation Processes.......................................................................................................... 125

Characterisation of the Gravitational Spectrum ............................................................. 129

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 129

Computing errors ................................................................................................. 133

Formulation of a generalised cubic frequency expression in terms of g: g PV3 .... 134

Determination of the gravitationally dominant EGM frequency: S cUm............... 134

Derivation of Planck-Particle and Schwarzschild-Black-Hole Characteristics ...... 137

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 137

Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 152

6.7.2.2.3 Simplifications ............................................................................................... 167

Fundamental Cosmology................................................................................................... 175

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 175

TU as a function of a generalised Hubble constant TU TU2 .................................... 186

Advanced Cosmology ........................................................................................................ 195

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 195

Cosmological evolution process ...................................................................................... 241

Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 250

Gravitational Cosmology .................................................................................................. 253

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 253

Particle Cosmology........................................................................................................ 263

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 263

Derivation of the Photon and Graviton mass-energies lower limit.................................... 264

Derivation of the Photon charge threshold ....................................................................... 264

Derivation of the Photon charge upper limit..................................................................... 265

Derivation of the Photon charge lower limit..................................................................... 266

Other useful relationships ................................................................................................ 266

Equation Summary ....................................................................................................... 269

11.1 Gravitation ...................................................................................................................... 269

11.2 Planck-Particles............................................................................................................... 270

11.4.15 dHdt, dH2dt2 ........................................................................................................... 274

Other useful relationships ................................................................................................ 276

Quick symbol guide......................................................................................................... 277

APPENDIX 4.A......................................................................................................................... 281

1st Form................................................................................................................. 282

2nd Form ................................................................................................................ 284

MathCad 8 Professional: calculation engine .............................................................. 291

Units of measure (definitions) ..................................................................................... 291

Quinta Essentia Part 4 .............................................................................................................. 321

MathCad 8 Professional ............................................................................................ 321

r RBH ............................................................................................................ 336

MathCad 12 .............................................................................................................. 389

Periodic Table of the Elements ................................................................................................. 391

1.1.2.2 Derivation process

where, n_2 denotes the non-refractive form of n defined in [4].

1.1.2.2.2 CMBR temperature TU

where, MBH denotes SBH mass.

vi. Derive an expansive scaling factor KT incorporating ng, H and HU:

where, _3 has a generalised definition according to,

vii. Derive a thermodynamic scaling factor TW incorporating Wiens displacement constant

1.1.2.2.3 HU HU2, TU TU2 TU3

where, K = Km = [ / 2](1 / 3) 1.162447 as defined in [13].

For brevity in future applications, let: H = h / x.

xv. Transform TU to TU2: (see: Ch. 7.5),

where, H denotes a generalised reference to Hubble constant and StT is a constant

xvi. Transform TU2 to TU3: (see: Ch. 8.1.3),

where, = 1 / 3 and H denotes a dimensionless range variable such that 1 H > 0.