1.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The interdependence between working conditions and productivity is increasingly
recognised. The first move in this direction came when people began to realise that
occupational accidents had economic as well as physical consequences, although at first
only their DIRECT COSTS (Medical Care that results from treating an injured,
Compensation for the injured person).
INDIRECT COSTS of occupational accidents (Working time lost by an injured
person, The witness and accident investigators, Production Stoppages, Material
Damage, Work Delays, Possible Legal and Other Costs, Reduced Output when the
injured person is replaced and subsequently when he/she returns to duty)

The reduction in productivity and increase in production in rejects and manufacturing

waste that results from fatigue due to excessively long working hours and bad working
conditions. Lighting & Ventilation have shown that human body is far more productive
when working under optimal conditions. Occupational safety & health and ergonomics
have not been given sufficient consideration in modern management techniques.
Hazardous working environments may not only be a direct cause of occupational
accidents & disease, but workers’ dissatisfaction with working conditions which are not
in line with their current cultural and society level may also be a root of a decline in
production quality and quantity, excessive labour turnover and increased absenteeism.

2. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH ORGANISATION

Def: Is procedures and regulations to ensure that workers work in a safety and
healthy working environment.
The most effective method of obtaining good results in the prevention of occupational
hazards includes the following:
2.1 To recognise the importance of the employer’s responsibilities for ensuring that
the workplace is safe and without risk to workers health.
2.2 To adopt an occupational safety & health policy that provides for the
establishment of a good occupational safety & health organisation within the
enterprise; and
 2.3 To encourage strong participation of workers in safety & health activities at the
workplace, including safety committees, inspections and accident investigation,
and the appointment of specialists.

3. SAFETY CRITERIA
Occupational Accidents
Def: Are unforeseen events that cause injury or death to a worker and occur in the
place where a worker must do his work?
The most common accidents are not caused by DANGEROUS MACHINES (1.circular
saws, 2.spindle moulding machines, 3.power presses) nor DANGEROUS
SUBSTANCES (1.explosives, 2.volatile flammable liquids, 3.chemicals), but rather quite
ordinary actions like 1. Stumbling, 2.Falling, faulty handling of tools, 3. Being struck by
a falling objects.
In modern industry there are a variety of both VISIBLE and INVISIBLE HAZARDS at
the workplace
VISIBLE HAZARDS
 Unfenced scaffoldings
 Openings in the floor
 Dripping or leaking of chemicals
 Unlocked working zone of a robot

INVISIBLE HAZARDS
 Inert gases
 Welding fumes
 Noise
 Vibration
 Unforeseen mixture of chemicals

An accident is often as a result of a combination of technical, physiological and

psychological factors: it depends on both the machine and environment (lighting, noise,
vibration, vaporising substances, oxygen deficiency) as well as workers posture and
work-induced fatigue; but it also conditioned by commuting circumstances and other
activities outside the plant and by illness temper, feelings of frustration, youthful
exuberance and other physical and mental states.

Occupational Disease
Def: Is an illness that may result from work situation.
Some examples are: Lung disease can be contracted from working mines (asbestos)
: Heart and headaches from doing stressful work (managers)
Work related disease; priority should be given to technical preventive measures with an
emphasis on the effective use of control technologies. Where impossible provide group
safety equipment, use should be made of supplementary work organisation measures,
which, may include a reduction of the duration of exposure to risk. Workers must be
provided with suitable protective equipment.

Hazardous Conditions
Def: Working conditions that can cause accidents, disease, or illness to a worker.
Examples:
 Major fires
 Explosions
 Dispersion of toxic chemicals
 Gases
 High heat
 Pressure
 Chemical reactions
4. THE PREVENTION OF INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS
The principles of fire prevention and protection:
 To design buildings, processes and storage facilities in such way as to limit the
possible combination of oxygen, fuel and an increase in temperature. (the
construction of facilities and processes should always strive to reduce the possibility
of a fire development and spreading. Fire exists in all workplaces, and good
housekeeping also considerably reduces risk)
 To eliminate or reduce sources of heat or ignition, thus limiting the rise of
temperature. (measures such as restricting open flames, for example welding torches
and banning smoking cigarettes.)
The preparedness for fire emergencies should always be organised by management
along the following lines:
4.1 Every worker should have an emergency plan with information detailing the
role of every worker in case of fire erupts
4.2 There should be at least two clear, properly marked, unobstructed exists
leading to areas of safety.
4.3 The must be a way of notifying personnel of a need to evacuate, such as an
alarm system
4.4 The right type of fire extinguisher should be provided in adequate numbers
for the given risk, and placed accordingly.
4.5 Every worker should have hands-on training concerning the proper use of
the extinguisher.
4.6 The provision of automatic fire protection such as sprinklers has proved to
be very effective in protecting escape route for workers as well as rapidly
controlling fire.
5. MAJOR HAZARD CONTROL
The basic components of major hazard control systems are:
A. Identifying major hazard installations (government authorities & management
should set up, on priority, a basis system to identify plants where major hazards
exist)
B. Information about the plant (once the plants have been identified, additional
information needs to be collected about their design & operation. The information
presented in a form of a report, should be gathered and arranged systematically,
and be accessible to everyone concerned in the industry)
C. Action inside the plant (management has the primary responsibility for operating
and maintaining a safe plant. A sound safe policy is therefore required. Technical
inspection, maintenance, plant modification, and training and selection of suitable
personnel must be carried out according to sound procedures. Accidents should be
investigated & reports be submitted to the authorities)
D. Emergency planning (all elements focus on the prevention of the occurrence of
major accidents. Emergency planning aims at mitigating the consequences of
major accidents. Management may need to : set up and train fire brigade, provide
alarm systems with a direct line to the fire brigade, draw up emergency plan, and
coordinate with the authorities regarding their contingency plan)

6. WORKING PREMISES or CONDITIONS

Def: Things that ensures a worker perform his/her duties in a safe, healthy, and
comfortable working environment.
1. In developing layout, emphasis should be placed on the principle of isolating
any operation, which is hazardous or constitutes a nuisance.
2. Work premise should be above ground level and equipment with windows
having a surface area of not less than 17 percent of the floor area.
3. Minimum ceiling height should not be less than 3m and each worker should at
least have 10 cubic metres of air.
 4. For purpose of accident prevention, it is important to ensure that every worker
has adequate minimum free-floor area which should not be less than
2m/person
5. Walls and ceilings should have a finish which prevents the accumulation of
dirt, avoids moisture absorption and where necessary reduces noise
transmissions
6. Floor coverings should not be slippery, non-dust forming & easy to clean type.
7. Have good electrical and thermal insulation properties.
8. The principles of good housekeeping should be applied.

7. GOOD HOUSEKEEPING
Def: Amounts to neatness of the work area and serviceability of equipment.
Good housekeeping involves certain basic elements:
7.1 Unnecessary items should be disposed of: those that will not be used should be
thrown away.
7.2 Tools & equipment should be arranged in a way that allows easy access and
return to their designated place.
7.3 Gangways and passages should be kept clear and the floor painted with lines at
least 5cm wide that distinguish them as such.
7.4 The work area should be clean.
7.5 Working clothes should also be kept clean in order to reduce the skin-absorption
hazard of certain toxic substances.
7.6 Workers employed on dirty jobs or exposed to dangerous substances should have
wash-rooms with a tap for every three or four workers.

8. LIGHTING
It is estimated that 80% of information required in doing a job is perceived visually.
Good visibility of the equipment, the product and data involved in the work process is
an essential factor in accelerating production, reducing number of defective products,
cutting down waste and preventing visual fatigue and headaches among workers.
It may also be added that inadequate visibility and glare are frequently causes of
accidents. Visibility depends on number of factors: size and colour of the work piece,
its distance from eyes, the persistence of the image, light intensity, colour contrast,
and lighting levels with the background.
Visibility means the ability of a worker to see all aspects of work environment in
which he/she works.

The use of natural light should be encouraged by installing windows that are open.
However, daylight varies with the season, time of a day, the absence & presence of
blinds. For this reason it is essential to have artificial lighting available all the time
should need to use it arise – the use of artificial light will enable people to maintain
proper vision & will ensure that lighting intensity ratios between the task.
Fluorescent lighting offers considerable potential for rational use. This type has a
good colour-rendering properties and annual costing in relation to incandescent
lighting as number of hours increase. Lighting can be measured by using light meter.

Uses of Colour
Experience shows that the careful choice of interior colour schemes makes valuable
contribution to good lighting. The colours used have psychological effects which
should not be overlooked. The colours of machinery & equipment are supplementary
safety factors.

Control of Lighting
In order to make the best use of lighting in the workplace, the following shoul be
taken into account:
I. For uniform light distribution, install an independent switch for the row of
lighting fixtures closest to the window.
II. To prevent glare, avoid using highly shiny glossy work surfaces
III. Use localised lighting in order to achieve the desired level for a particular fine
job.
 IV. Clean light fixtures regularly and follow a maintenance so to prevent
flickering of old bulbs
V. Avoid direct eye contact with light sources
VI. For work with visual display units (VDUs): (general light level should be
relatively low, not exceed 50 lux; avoid glare by suitable positioning of the
VDU; ensure that there’s no reflected light source by the user on screen;
contrast & luminance must be adjustable; if additional lighting is needed, it
must be adjustable and positioned)

9. NOISE
Def: It means any disagreeable or undesired sound. Sound-level are used to measure
the pressure variations producing audible sounds. The practical unit to measure noise is
DECIBEL (dB), and the frequency is Hertz (Hz)
Noise is the cause of various problems (1. it impedes sound communication, firstly by the
acoustical masking effect which sound has on other sounds of the same frequency, and
secondly by temporarily raising the acoustic threshold in the event of exposure to a noise)

Noise may cause sensori-motor, neuro-vegetative and metabolic disorders, it has been
named as a cause of industrial fatigue, irritation, reduced productivity and occupational
accidents
Noise environments such as: weaving mill, workshop full of automatic machines can
cause occupational deafness.
Intermittent noise from rams used for digging foundations for heavy machines, riveting
hammers, pile drivers large mechanical presses. Prolonged exposure to noise causes
permanent damage to hearing and results in occupational deafness.

Methods of Controlling Noise

 To reduce the noise at the source (for e.g. replacing noisy machines by less noisy
ones)
 Prevent noise transmission by the installations of noise-absorbent barriers between
noise sources
 Workers systematically exposed to noise level should be reduced to bring the
situation back within acceptable limits
 Provision of personal protective equipment that consists of earplugs, earmuffs.
 Workers should receive a periodic audiometric examination.
9. VIBRATION
Def: a force that makes a body move and shake unwontedly, may cause a
steady disease
Protective measures: The possibility of reducing vibration levels:
1. Dynamic balancing of rotating parts
2. Use of vibration-absorbing mountings
3. Providing heavy foundations
: Reducing the effect of vibrations:
1. Use vibrations damping handles for hand-held machines
2. Periodic medical examinations

11. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

11.1 Hot Environment: When source of heat such as furnaces, kilns or hot processes
are present, when physical workload is heavy, the human body may also have to deal
with excess heat. Hot conditions are due of hot weather in working environments
such as deep mines, textile mills, sugar refineries with less evaporation effective in
cooling down the body
11.2 Cold Environments : Exposure to cold can produce serious effects – the loss of
body heat is uncomfortable and quickly affects workers efficiency, these conditions
are due of rains, snows, and cloudy conditions they affect employee with illness,
arriving late for duty. Workers should be provided with sheds ,hot drinks, heaters, by
wearing suitable clothes such as footwear, gloves, hat, and dressing in layers traps
dead air
11.3 Wet Environment: Excess steam should be prevented from spreading in the
atmosphere by controlling the quantity of steam introduced and increasing air
velocity will provide a degree of comfort. Dry air can cause respiratory tract disease.
 11.4 Thermal Environment: Controlling the thermal environment one should take
the following principles to be applied:
 Regulating the workroom temperature by preventing outside heat & cold from
entering.
 Provision of ventilation in hot workplaces by increasing natural ventilation
through openings or installing devices
 Separation of heat sources from the working area, insulation of surfaces and
pipes
 Control of humidity with a view to keeping it low
 Provision of adequate personal protective clothing and equipment for workers
exposed to cold
 Reduction of exposure time, for e.g. remote control
 Insertion of rest pauses during work periods, with resting facilities
 Ensuring supply of cold-drinking for workers in hot climates

12. VENTILATION
Def: Is the dynamic parameter that complements the concept of air space, it replaces
contaminated air by fresh air. Circulation moves air without renewing it.
Work Ventilation:
 Disperses the heat generated by machines and people at work; consequently,
where machines and people are grouped together the must be ventilation
intensified.
 Dilutes atmospheric contamination
 Maintains the feeling of air freshness
Natural ventilation may be obtained through opening windows or wall or roof air-
vents
13. EXPOSURE TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Pollution of the work environment by airborne contaminants is caused by toxic
substances released during the work process in the form of dust containing slica,
 gases, vapours, or mists, solvents in cleaning work, and sulphur dioxide or chlorine
leaking from pipes, mineral oils, aniline, fumes.

Corrective Measures:
 Remove the hazard by controlling the release of toxic substances into the
work environment
 Preventing leaks joints of pipes
 Providing local exhaust systems to remove the airborne contaminants at the
source
 Introducing changes in the process itself
 Reduction of exposure time of workers
 Supply appropriate personal protective equipment to the task

14. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Neither technical prevention or administrative arrangements can ensure an adequate
degree of protection. It is therefore necessary to institute a third level of defence, i.e.
Personal Protective Equipment – this type is justified in emergency situations such as a
severe accident , a leak, fire eruption or under exceptional circumstances such as those
attending work in confined spaces.
Personal protective equipment include the following: gloves, hat, boots, glasses,
inhalation masks, jackets, and scarf.

15. ERGONOMICS
Def: Is concerned with the study of the individual operator or working team, and
the provision of data for design.
Ergonomics aims at:
 Enhancing functional effectiveness, while improving human welfare
 Ensuring workers well-being through appropriate working conditions
 Method of work
 Productivity implications
 Safety aspects
 To facilitate psycho-sensorial functions in reading instrument display
 To make handling machines levers and controls easier
 To avoid unnecessary information recall efforts
Electronics display requires specific guidelines for their selection, installations and
use. Singleton proposes some general principles concerning display, are as follows:
 Display must be based on a clear definition of task
 Three kinds of display: pictorial, qualitative, and quantitative displays are used only
when numbers are essential to task
 Most tasks operator receives information both real work process & from artificial
display representing it
 When information is to be presented artificially has been assessed, it must be
allocated. (between 3 sensory channels: visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic, between
dynamic and static display)
 In designing display for maximum speed and minimum attention – use the
kinaesthetic channel
 For maximum attention, use the auditory channel
 For maximum precision and agreement between operators, use visual channel.

16. WORKING TIME

 Hours of work
 Overtime
 Daily and weekly rest
 Night work
 Flexible working-time arrangements

Working – Time Arrangements in Practice

 Staggered hours (recording departure and arrival time)
 Flexitime (employees decide starting and finishing times)
 Compressed work-weeks (working days are longer, but weeks are shorter)
 Shift work
 Hours-averaging, annual hours and related schemes

17. WORK – RELATED WELFARE FACILITIES

 Drinking – water
 Sanitary facilities
 First – Aid & Medical facilities
 Rest facilities
 Feeding facilities
 Child care facilities
 Recreational facilities