A compaction test is a soil quality test used to assess the level of compaction which can occur in the soil

on a site. Compaction tests are commonly performed as part of a geotechnical profile of a building site. They may also be performed to learn more about a soil in a particular area, whether or not the area is slated for development. A geotechnical engineer, geologist, or soil scientist may conduct a compaction test. The goal of a soil compaction test is to find the maximum practical density of the soil. For thetest, a sample of soil is packed into a mold and subjected to pressure to force the soil to compact. The test is repeated several times, with the moisture level of the soil being adjusted to achieve a range of values. The test results can be used to determine how much the soil can compact, what the optimum moisture level on the site is, and what the maximum dry density of the soil is. The more moisture in the soil, the more it can be compacted. Compaction tests provide important information about the soil quality at a site which can be used to determine where the best building sites are, how much weight the soil can withstand, and whether or not the site is even appropriate for building. These tests are on Soil Compaction Tests Posted in Soil Engineering | Email This Post There are many types of Soil compaction tests which are performed on soil. Some of these are :1) The Sand Cone Method One of the most common test to determine the field density of soil is the sand-cone method. But it has a major limitation that this test is not suitable for saturated and soft soils The formula used are Volume of soil, ft3 (m3)=[weight of sand filling hole, lb (kg)] /[ Density of sand, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)] % Moisture = 100(weight of moist soil weight of dry soil)/weight of dry soil Field density, lb/ft3 (kg /m3)=weight of soil, lb (kg)/volume of soil, ft3 (m3) Dry density=field density/(1 + % moisture/100) % Compaction=100 (dry density)/max dry density Maximum density is found by plotting a densitymoisture curve.

2) California Bearing Ratio The California bearing ratio (CBR) is used as a determine the quality of strength of a soil under a pavement. It also measures the thickness of the pavement, its base, and other layers. CBR = F/Fo where F = force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a 3-in2(1935.6-mm2 ) circular piston (about 2 in (50.8 mm) in diameter) at the rate of 0.05 in/min (1.27 mm/min) F0 = force per unit area required for corresponding penetration of a standard material. 3) Soil Permeability Darcys law is applicable in determining the soil permeability. Darcy law states that V = kiA where V = rate of flow, cm3 /s, A = cross-sectional area of soil conveying flow, cm2 k = Coefficient of permeability which depends on grain-size distribution, void ratio and soil fabric. The value varies from 10 cm/s for gravel to less than 107 for clays. A compaction test is a soil quality test used to assess the level of compaction which can occur in the soil on a site. Compaction tests are commonly performed as part of a geotechnical profile of a building site. They may also be performed to learn more about a soil in a particular area, whether or not the area is slated for development. A geotechnical engineer, geologist, or soil scientist may conduct a compaction test. In some cases, the test may be performed in situ, in which case the testing options may be more limited, and the profile will not be as complete. Compaction tests can also be performed in a lab environment with soil samples taken from a site. The lab allows for more controls and more finesse of the test. Soil often needs to be taken back to the lab anyway for the performance of additional soil quality tests which are designed to provide more information about the characteristics and composition of the soil. he goal of a soil compaction test is to find the maximum practical density of the soil. For the test, a sample of soil is packed into a mold and subjected to pressure to force the soil to compact. The test is repeated several times, with the moisture level of the soil being adjusted to achieve a range of values. The test results can be used to determine how much the soil can compact, what the optimum moisture level on the site is, and what the maximum dry density of the soil is. The more moisture in the soil, the more it can be compacted. Compaction tests provide important information about the soil quality at a site which can be used to determine where the best building sites are, how much weight the soil can withstand, and whether

or not the site is even appropriate for building. These tests are one among many assessments performed when evaluating sites to create a complete picture. The development of the soil compaction test is credited to Ralph R. Proctor, and it is sometimes known as the Proctor Test. Proctor developed the test in the 1930s, and the mechanism of the test has not changed much since; for testing, a mold of standardized size is used, with a mallet of standardized weight dropped from a standard height to achieve the desired level of pressure. Like other scientific tests, the compaction test is designed to be repeatable by anyone with a knowledge of the procedure and the standard equipment. Proctor compaction test From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Proctor compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining the optimal moisture content at which a given soiltype will become most dense and achieve its maximum dry density. The term Proctor is in honor of R. R. Proctor, who in 1933 showed that the dry density of a soil for a given compactive effort depends on the amount of water the soil contains during soil compaction.[1] His original test is most commonly referred to as the standard Proctor compaction test; later on, his test was updated to create the modified Proctor compaction test. These laboratory tests generally consist of compacting soil at known moisture content into a cylindrical mould of standard dimensions using a compactive effort of controlled magnitude. The soil is usually compacted into the mould to a certain amount of equal layers, each receiving a number blows from a standard weighted hammer at a specified height. This process is then repeated for various moisture contents and the dry densities are determined for each. The graphical relationship of the dry density to moisture content is then plotted to establish the compaction curve. The maximum dry density is finally obtained from the peak point of the compaction curve and its corresponding moisture content, also known as the optimal moisture content. The testing described is generally consistent with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards, and are similar to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) standards. Currently, the procedures and equipment details for the standard Proctor compaction test is designated by ASTM D698 and AASHTO T99. Also, the modified Proctor compaction test is designated by ASTM D1557 and AASHTO T180. Theory of Soil compaction Compaction is the process by which the bulk density of an aggregate of matter is increased by driving out air. For any soil, for a given amount of compactive effort, the

density obtained depends on the moisture content. At very high moisture contents, the maximum dry density is achieved when the soil is compacted to nearly saturation, where (almost) all the air is driven out. At low moisture contents, the soil particles interfere with each other; addition of some moisture will allow greater bulk densities, with a peak density where this effect begins to be counteracted by the saturation of the soil. Objective of Standard Compaction test - To determine relation between water content and dry density of soil - To determine optimum water content and corresponding maximum dry density for soil - To determine relation between penetration resistance and water content for compacted soil. Importance of Standard Compaction test -Compaction increases the shear strength of the soil. -Compaction reduces the voids ratio making it more difficult for water to flow through soil. This is important if the soil is being used to retain water such as would be required for an earth dam. -Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil to liquefy during earthquakes.

CONCLUSION:The primary values determined in a compaction test are, of course the optimum moisture content andmaximum dry unit weight, however, the written report would normally also include the compactioncurve data form. In addition, the origin of the material tested, as well as a description of it, wouldnormally be included, together with an indication of the method used (A, B, or C) and the preparation(moist or dry).Type of soil is the primary factor affecting maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content fora given compactive effort and compaction method. Maximum dry unit weights may range from around60lb/ft 3 for organic soils to about 145 lb/ft 3 for well graduated, granular material containing just enoughfines to fill small voids. Optimum moisture contents may range from around 5% for granular material toabout 35% for elastic silts and clays. Higher optimum moisture contents are generally associated withlower dry unit weights. Higher dry unit weights are associated with wellgraded granular materials.Uniformly graded sand, clays of high plasticity, and organic silts and clays typically respond poorly tocompaction.DISCUSSION:To carry out a laboratory compaction test, a soil at a selected water content is placed in three layers intoa mold of given dimensions, with each layer compacted by 25 or 56 blows of a 5.5-lb (24.4-N) rammerdropped from a distance of 12 in. (305mm), subjecting the soil to a total compactive effort of about12,400ft-lb/ft 3(600kN-m/m

3). The resulting dry unit weight is determined. The procedure is repeated fora sufficient number of water contents to establish a relationship between the dry unit weight and thewater contents to establish a relationship between the dry unit weight and the water content for thesoil. These data, when plotted, represent a curvilinear relationship known as the compaction curve. Thevalues of optimum water content and standard maximum dry unit weight are determined from thecompaction curve.

Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences (commonly symbolized as , or k) is a measure of the ability of a porous material (often, a rock or unconsolidated material) to allow fluids to pass through it.

Applications
The concept of permeability is of importance in determining the flow characteristics of hydrocarbons in oil and gas reservoirs, and ofgroundwater in aquifers. For a rock to be considered as an exploitable hydrocarbon reservoir without stimulation, its permeability must be greater than approximately 100 mD (depending on the nature of the hydrocarbon gas reservoirs with lower permeabilities are still exploitable because of the lower viscosity of gas with respect to oil). Rocks with permeabilities significantly lower than 100 mD can form efficientseals (see petroleum geology). Unconsolidated sands may have permeabilities of over 5000 mD. The concept has also many practical applications outside of geology, for example in chemical engineering (e.g., filtration).

[edit]Description Permeability is part of the proportionality constant in Darcy's law which relates discharge (flow rate) and fluid physical properties (e.g.viscosity), to a pressure gradient applied to the porous media:

Therefore:

where: is the superficial fluid flow velocity through the medium (i.e., the average velocity calculated as if the fluid were the only phasepresent in the porous medium) (m/s) is the permeability of a medium (m2) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas) is the applied pressure difference (Pa) is the thickness of the bed of the porous medium (m) In naturally occurring materials, permeability values range over many orders of magnitude (see table below for an example of this range). [edit]Relation

to hydraulic

conductivity
The proportionality constant specifically for the flow of water through a porous media is called the hydraulic conductivity; permeability is a portion of this, and is a property of the porous media only, not the fluid. Given the value of hydraulic conductivity for a subsurface system, , the permeability can be calculated as:

where

is the permeability, m2 is the hydraulic conductivity, m/s is the dynamic viscosity, kg/(ms) is the density of the fluid, kg/m3 is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s2.

[edit]Determination Permeability is typically determined in the lab by application of Darcy's law under steady state conditions or, more generally, by application of various solutions to the diffusion equation for unsteady flow conditions.[1] Permeability needs to be measured, either directly (using Darcy's law), or through estimation using empirically derived formulas. However, for some simple models of porous media, permeability can be calculated (e.g., random close packing of identical spheres). [edit]Permeability

model based on

conduit flow
Based on HagenPoiseuille equation for viscous flow in a pipe, permeability can be expressed as: where: is the intrinsic permeability [length2] is a dimensionless constant that is related to the configuration of the flow-paths is the average, or effective pore diameter [length].

[edit]Intrinsic

and absolute permeability

The terms intrinsic permeability and absolute permeability states that the permeability value in question is an intensive property (not a spatial average of a heterogeneous block of material), that it is a function of the material structure only (and not of the fluid), and explicitly distinguishes the value from that of relative permeability. [edit]Permeability

to

gases
Sometimes permeability to gases can be somewhat different that those for liquids in the same media. One difference is attributable to "slippage" of gas at the interface with the solid[2] when the gas mean free path is comparable to the pore size (about 0.01 to 0.1 m at standard temperature and pressure). See also Knudsen diffusion and constrictivity. For example, measurement of permeability through sandstones and shales yielded values from 9.0x1019 m2 to 2.4x1012 m2 for water and between 1.7x1017 m2 to 2.6x1012 m2 for nitrogen gas.[3] Gas permeability of reservoir

rock and source rock is important in petroleum engineering, when considering the optimal extraction of shale gas, tight gas, or coalbed methane. [edit]Tensor

permeability

To model permeability in anisotropic media, a permeability tensor is needed. Pressure can be applied in three directions, and for each direction, permeability can be measured (via Darcy's law in 3D) in three directions, thus leading to a 3 by 3 tensor. The tensor is realized using a 3 by 3 matrix being both symmetric and positive definite (SPD matrix):

The tensor is symmetric by the Onsager reciprocal relations. The tensor is positive definite as the component of the flow parallel to the pressure drop is always in the same direction as the pressure drop.

The permeability tensor is always diagonalizable (being both symmetric and positive definite). The eigenvectors will yield the principal directions of flow, meaning the directions where flow is parallel to the pressure drop, and

the eigenvalues representing the principal permeabilities. [edit]Ranges

of common intrinsic permeabilities

These values do not depend on the fluid properties; see the table derived from the same source for values of hydraulic conductivity, which are specific to the material through which the fluid is flowing. Permeability Pervious

Wel Well Sorted UnconsolidatedSand & Gravel Sand o Gravel G Unconsolidated Clay & Organic Consolidated Rocks (cm2) (millidarcy)

Highly Fractured Roc

0.001 0.0001 105 10 10+8 10+7

10+6 10

Source: modified from Bear, 1972

9. SOIL PERMEABILITY
9.0 Why is it important to determine soil permeability?

Soil permeability is the property of the soil to transmit water and air and is one of the most important qualities to consider for fish culture.

A pond built in impermeable soil will lose little water throughseepage.

The more permeable the soil, the greater the seepage. Some soil is so permeable and seepage so great that it is not possible to build a pond without special construction techniques. You will learn about these techniques in a later volume in this series.

Soils are generally made up of layers and soil quality often varies greatly from one layer to another. Before pond construction, it is important to determine the relative position of the permeable and impermeable layers. The design of a pond should be planned to avoid having a permeable layer at the bottom to prevent excessive water loss into the subsoil by seepage.

The dikes of the pond should be built with soil which will ensure a good water retention. Again, soil quality will have to be checked with this in mind.

9.1 Which factors affect soil permeability?

Many factors affect soil permeability. Sometimes they are extremely localized, such as cracks and holes, and it is difficult to calculate representative values of permeability from actual measurements. A good study of soil profiles provides an essential check on such measurements. Observations on soil texture, structure, consistency, colour/mottling, layering, visible pores and depth to impermeable layers such as bedrock and claypan* form the basis for deciding if permeability measurements are likely to be representative.
Note: you have already learned that soil is made up of a number of horizons, each of them

usually having different physical and chemical properties. To determine the permeability of soil as a whole, each horizon should be studied separately.

9.2 Soil permeability relates to soil texture and structure

The size of the soil pores is of great importance with regard to the rate of infiltration (movement of water into the soil) and to the rate of percolation (movement of water through the soil). Pore size and the number of pores closely relate to soil texture and structure, and also influence soil permeability.

Permeability variation according to soil texture

Usually, the finer the soil texture, the slower the permeability, as shown below:
Soil Texture Permeability

Clayey soils

Fine Moderately fine

Loamy soils

Moderately coarse Coarse

From very slow to very rapid

Sandy

soils

Example Average permeability for different soil textures in cm/hour Sand Sandy loam Loam Clay loam Silty clay Clay 5.0 2.5 1.3 0.8 0.25 0.05

Permeability variation according to soil structure

Structure may greatly modify the permeability rates shown above, as follows:
Structure type Permeability
1

- Greatly overlapping Platy - Slightly overlapping Blocky Prismatic Granular From very slow to very rapid

This may vary according to the degree to which the structure is developed.

It is common practice to alter the soil structure to reduce permeability, for example, in irrigated agriculture through the puddling of rice fields and in civil engineering through the mechanical compaction* of earthen dams. Similar practices may be applied to fish-ponds to reduce water seepage.

9.3 Soil permeability classes

Example

Permeability is commonly measured in terms of the rate of water flow through the soil in a given period of time. It is usually expressed either as a permeability rate in centimetres per hour (cm/h), millimetres per hour (mm/h), or centimetres per day (cm/d), or as acoefficient of permeability k in metres per second (m/s) or in centimetres per second (cm/s).

For agriculture and conservation uses, soil permeability classes are based on permeability rates, and for civil engineering, soil permeability classes are based on the coefficient of permeability

(see Tables 15 and 16). For fish culture, two methods are generally used to determine soil permeability. They are:
The coefficient of permeability; The seepage rate.

For the siting of ponds and the construction of dikes, the coefficient of permeability is generally used to qualify the suitability of a particular soil horizon:
Dikes without any impermeable clay core may be built from soils having a coefficient of permeability less than -4 K = 1 x 10 m/s; Pond bottoms may be built into soils having a coefficient of permeability less than K = 5 x 10 6 m/s.

For pond management, the seepage rate is generally used:

In commercial pond culture, an average seepage rate of 1 to 2 cm/d is considered acceptable, but corrective measures should be taken to reduce soil permeability when higher values exist, particularly when they reach 10 cm/d or more.

9.4 Measurement of soil permeability in the laboratory

When you take an undisturbed sample to a testing laboratory, to measure permeability, a column of soil is placed under specific conditions such as water saturation and constant head of water. The result will be given to you either as a permeability rate (see Table 15), or as acoefficient of permeability (see Table 16).
TABLE 15 Soil permeability classes for agriculture and conservation TABLE 16 Soil permeability classes for civil engineering

Soil permeability classes

Permeability rates1 cm/hour cm/day Soil permeability classes

Coefficient of permeability (K in m/s) Lower limit Upper limit 2 x 10-1

Very slow Slow Moderately slow Moderate Moderately rapid Rapid Very rapid

Less than Less than 3 0.13 Permeable 0.13 - 0.3 0.5 - 2.0 2.0 - 6.3 6.3 - 12.7 12.7 - 25 3 - 12 Semi-permeable 12 - 48 Impermeable 48 - 151 151 - 305 305 - 600

2 x 10-7

1 x 10-11 1 x 10-5 1 x 10-11 5 x 10-7

More than More than 25 600

Saturated samples under a constant water head of 1.27 cm

9.5 Measurement of soil permeability in the field

To measure soil permeability in the field, you can use one of the following tests:
The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons; A simple field test for estimating soil permeability; A more precise field test measuring permeability rates.

The visual evaluation of the permeability rate of soil horizons

The permeability of individual soil horizons may be evaluated by the visual study of particular soil characteristics which have been shown by soil scientists to be closely related to

permeability classes. The most significant factor in evaluating permeability is structure: its type, grade, and aggregation characteristics, such as the relationship between the length of horizontal and vertical axes of the aggregates and the direction and amount of overlap. Although neither soil texture nor colour mottling alone are reliable clues, these soil properties may help to estimate permeability when considered together with the structural characteristics. To evaluate visually the permeability of soil horizons:
Examine a fresh soil profile in an open pit; Determine the soil horizons present; Using Table 17A, evaluate the permeability class to which each horizon belongs, carefully studying the structural characteristics of the soil; Confirm your results through the other soil properties shown in Table 17B; Ranges of permeability rates may then be found in Table 15. TABLE 17A Visual indicators of permeability: structural characteristics of soil

TABLE 17 B Visual Indicators of permeability: texture, physical behaviour and colour of soil

A simple field test for estimating soil permeability

Dig a hole as deep as your waist; Early in the morning, fill it with water to the top;

By the evening, some of the water will have sunk into the soil;

Fill the hole with water to the top again, and cover it with boards or leafy branches;

If most of the water is still in the hole the next morning, the soil permeability is suitable to build a fish-pond here;

Repeat this test in several other locations as many times as necessary, according to the soil quality.

A more precise field test for measuring permeability rates

Carefully examine the drawings you have made when studying your soil profiles; On the basis of texture and structure, determine which soil horizons seem to have

Note: you could also use the visual method (see Tables 17A and 17B) to estimate

the slowest permeability;

permeability.

Mark the soil horizons on your drawings which seem to have the slowest permeability. Use a coloured pencil;

Note:

water seeps into the soil both horizontally and vertically, but you need only be concerned with the vertical water seepage because this is mainly what happens in ponds.

Dig a hole approximately 30 cm in diameter until you reach the uppermost least permeable horizon;

Thoroughly smear the sides of the hole with heavy wet clay or line them with a plastic sheet, if available, to make them waterproof;

Pour water into the hole to a level of about 10 cm;

At first, the water will seep down rather quickly, and you will have to refill as it disappears. When the pores of the soil are full of water, seepage will slow down. You are then ready to measure the permeability of the soil horizon at the bottom of the hole;

Make sure that the water in the hole is about 10 cm deep as before. If it is not, add water to reach that level;

Put a measuring stick into the water and record the exact water depth, in millimetres (mm);

Check the water level in the hole every hour for several hours. Record the rate of seepage for each hourly period. If the water disappears too rapidly, add water to bring the level up to 10 cm again. Measure the water depth very carefully;

When your hourly measurements become nearly the same, the rate of permeability is constant and you may stop measuring; If there are great differences in seepage each hour, continue pouring water into the hole to keep the level at 10 cm until the rate of seepage remains nearly the same;

Note: a soil horizon with suitable permeability

for a pond bottom should also be at least 0.71 m thick, unless lower horizons exist with suitable permeability and thickness.
Now compare your results following values: with the

Permeability rate in mm/h

Suitability of horizon for a pond bottom

Slower than 2 2-5

Acceptable seepage: soil suitable Fast seepage: soil suitable ONLY if seepage due to soil structure which will disappear when pond is filled Excessive seepage: soil unsuitable unless seepage can be reduced as described below

5-20

If the permeability rate is faster than 5 mm/h, this may be owing to a strongly developed structure

in the soil. In such cases, you try to reduce the permeability rate by destroying the structure, as follows:
Puddle the bottom soil of the hole as deep as you can; Repeat the more precise permeability test until you can measure a nearly constant value for seepage.

If this new permeability rate does not exceed 4 mm/h, you may consider this soil horizon as suitable for a pond bottom. However, the entire bottom of the pond will have to be puddled before filling it with water; If this new permeability rate exceeds 4 mm/h, this may be owing to the presence of a permeable soil horizon under the horizon you have tested. Such a permeable layer is often found between layers of soil which are semi- permeable or even impermeable; Check this with the following test Dig a new hole 30 cm in diameter through the uppermost least permeable layer (A) to the top of the next least permeable layer (B); Repeat the permeability test until you measure a nearly constant value for seepage; If this permeability rate does not exceed 3 mm/h, you may consider this soil horizon as suitable for a pond bottom. However, remember that such slow permeability should be found in a layer at least 0.7-1 rn thick to ensure limited seepage through the pond bottom.

Note: when building your pond, you do not necessarily need to remove a shallow permeable

layer if there is a deeper layer of soil which is not permeable and will serve to hold the water. You must, however, build the pond dikes down to the deeper non-permeable layer to form an enclosed basin and to avoid horizontal water seepage (see Section 9.0).

9.6 Determining coefficients of permeability

To obtain a more accurate measurement of soil permeability, you can perform the following test in the field which will give you a value for the coefficient of permeability:
Using a bucket auger, drill a hole about 1 m deep in the soil at the location where you wish to determine the coefficient of permeability; Fill the hole with water to the top;

Every five minutes, for at least 20 minutes, refill the hole to the top to be sure that the soil is fully saturated; Top the water in the hole and start measuring the rate at which the water surface goes down, using a watch to measure time and a centimetre-graduated ruler to measure the distance P between the water surface and the top of the hole. Stop measuring when the rate becomes nearly constant; Example Rate becomes constant

Measure exactly the total depth of the hole (H) and its diameter (D). Express all measurements in metres (m): for example H = 1.15 m and D = 12 cm or 0.12 m

For each of the above two consecutive measurements of time/distance, calculate the coefficient of permeability K using the following formula: K= (D2) x In (h1 h2) / 2 (t2- t1)

where (D 2) is the radius of the hole or half its diameter in metres; In refers to the Napierian or natural logarithm; h1 and h2 are the two consecutive depths of water in metres, h 1 at the start and h2 at the end of the time interval; (t2 - t1 ) expresses the time interval between two consecutive measurements, in seconds; Note: the h-values may be readily calculated as the differences between the total depth of the

hole H and the successive P values. Be careful to express all the measurements in metres and seconds so as to obtain K in m/s.

Now compare your K values (in m/s) with those in Table 16.

Example If (D 2) = 0.12 m 2 = 0.06 m and H = 1.15 m, calculations of the various K values are made progressively according to the formula (see Table 18). Note: for obtaining the natural logarithm of (h1 h2), you will have to use either a logarithmic

table or a pocket calculator. Remember that 10 - 6 = 0.000001 and 6.8 x 10-6 = 0.0000068, the negative exponent of 10 reflecting the decimal place to be given to the multiplicant. If you wish to compare a K value (m/s) with permeability rates (cm/day) , multiply K by 8 640 000 or 864 x 104 such as for example:
K = 1 x 10 m/s = 86.4 cm/day TABLE 18 Successive steps for the calculation of coefficients of permeability on the basis of field measurements (for a test hole with H = 1.15 m and D = 0.12 m)
-5

NOTE: The formula for calculating coefficients of permeability is K = [(D 2) x In (h 1 h2)] / 2

(t2 or A B (see Section 9.6).

t1)

Hydraulic conductivity
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hydraulic conductivity, symbolically represented as

, is a property of vascular plants, soil or rock, that

describes the ease with which water can move through pore spaces or fractures. It depends on the intrinsic permeability of the material and on the degree of saturation. Saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ksat, describes water movement through saturated media.