Words and Deeds: The Ladinos of Chiapas Author(s): Julian Pitt-Rivers Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 2, No.

1 (Mar., 1967), pp. 71-86 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2798655 Accessed: 13/12/2010 11:55
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WORDS

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JULIANPITT-RIVERS

A2cole Pratique desHautes Atudes, Paris

Early anthropologists inquiringabout morals and customswere generally thenorm content once they weregivena ruleof conduct, a stated norm.Whether was followedor notwas a matter theywereunlikely to examine, giventheideas of their timeand theconditions underwhichtheyworked.Customwas thought to commandan obeisance whichmade further investigation unnecessary. Today we are awarethatother peoples,like ourselves, do not alwaysdo what to clistheysay theydo, nor even whattheybelievetheydo. We have learned and the tinguish between thenormaland thenormative, between themechanical statistical, betweenaction systems and ideology.A whole scale of 'degreesof implementation' could be appliedto rangenormative rulesfrom thosewhichare obeyed withoutquestion, passingthrough thosewhose violationevokes some punitive sanction and those, honoured moreoften in thebreach, whosefulfilment accords prestige, to those whichareadmittedly beyond hopeofhuman compliance, but whichendow witha specialgracethosepersons who aspireto followthem. Most prescriptive rulesare laid in abeyance at some pointand we are no longer surprised by thedivergence betweenword and deed. Yet we possess scanttheoreticalequipment with which to view thisdivergence, so thatauthors tendto concentrate theirattention on either the conceptual system or theactionsystem rather thanon therelation between thetwo. The idea that peoplecan aspire to be otherthantheyare and proclaim do notobserve their attachment to norms they has stalked thefield-worker eversincecustomwas revealed to be, not King but Tyrant, and a distinction emerged between thedesirable and thedesired; normativesystems werefoundwhichcontained butconflicts. not merely contradictions is a Thereis no need to enforce a normto whichno opposition arises, but there difference to be marked between norms enforced bya coherent system ofsanctions only against individual deviations and thosewhichfindthemselves opposedby counter-norms We deriving froma schism in the ideologyof the community. mightargue thatsimpletraditional societies stilllive in ideologicalunity;but wherecultures come into contactconflicting demandsarisebetweenwhichthe individual is caught.He is no longerpresented with the choice betweenconand deviation formity but rather witha choiceof normsto which to conform. No longer a consistent whole, custom becomes fragmented into incomplete systems which offer the individualonly rulesthat are disregarded and ideals thatremain unattained. Sucha situation is to be found, forexample, in thehighlandsof Chiapas,the mostsoutherly stateof Mexico, whereI shallattempt to examineit.
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In Chiapas as in many otherpartsof Latin America,two different cultural Indianand Hispanic, a single whichadmits traditions, arecombined within society

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two distinct identities and two different norms. Thus,whilefrom certain points of view-the economic area single forexample-theChiapashighlands from society, others-aboveall thatof values and beliefs-this regionappearsto containtwo ofthe different systems. The knowledge which thepeopleofonesector haveofthose otheris extremely limited:Indiansdo not understand muchabout 'ladinos' (as non-Indians arecalledtoday).Thesethey consider-even in townswherethey live nextdoor to one another-as the Devil himself, mero pukuh, formed by Godaccording to themyth-notfrom honest claylikeIndians butfrom thedroppings of horses:beingsof a different substance, createdonly as a punishment forthe Indians' sins. In another myth ladinos aretheprogeny ofan actofbestiality between a ChamulaIndianand his bitch.The fantasies are at of ladinosregarding Indians leastas great.While theyknow a certain amountabout what Indiansdo, their reasons fordoingso,theideologybehind remain their customs, uncomprehended. The differences between thetwo traditions havesometimes beendealtwithas an historical problem bytracing thecultural features foundtodaybackto theheritage of theancient Maya or thecolonialSpanish. Yet suchan approach faces methodologicaldifficulties, sinceit assumes thattraditional cultures are,somehow, natural unities which can continueto be used as termsof reference once the changes in fromcontacthave begun. Thus the earlystudies resulting of 'acculturation' and Central America as Mayanor Spanish weredevoted to labelling cultural traits the 'the degreeof acculturation' of a givenIndianpeopleby counting estimating whichhad numberof pre-Columbian and thenumber traits whichhad persisted was established. been replaced. Fromthiscalculation the degreeof acculturation Thismethod that there was no single provedquestionable onceitbecameapparent in a path of acculturation, thatone Indianpeople changedin one way, another and retained theirIndianlanguage, quite different way; some becamebilingual while others abandonedit once theyhad learnedSpanish;some learnedSpanish butcontinued butretained their dress traditional dress, whileothers changed their to useonlytheir In other of change were native ofculture thepaths tongue. spheres equallydiverse. The degreeof acculturation therefore dependedin large part on the weight whichtheinvestigator another choseto giveto one feature rather than andtheway in whichhe choseto define thefeatures. After morethanfourhundred yearsof to label a custom contact is a fairly sincewe Mayan or Spanish arbitrary matter, finda fusion of either of elements whichno longercorrespond to thestereotype forexample, 'culture',thatis to say,culture as it once was. In Chiapaswe find, a of religious of the CatholicChurch. system beliefcentred on the divinefigures in religious The cultof thesaints their is organised fraternities; imagesare taken candles and out in procession as in Spain; theyare prayed to and offered burning incense.Yet, beliefs which containinterpretations themnevertheless regarding from ofMayanantecedents. arefar orthodox reminiscent The and,at manypoints, sun and moon are treated as havingidentity with God and the VirginMary in Catholicimagery whichshowsthe respectively (an identification at leastlatent Saviourwith a halo behindHis head and the Holy Virginstanding upon the and is treated crescent moon); 'Holy Cross' is a separate image in the churches rainand theone who controls amongthedivine hierarchy as a separate personage, thewatersupplies; saidto be thesupreme and theArchangel Michael,sometimes

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a quality or animal which himindeed nahuales makes hasthirteen being, spirits, since is performed inmatters ofwitchcraft, this ofa witch. supreme by thenahual badspiritual Itisalsotobenoted that the distinction between goodand power is not tothe Christian tradition. made according duality ofthe Legitimate punishment and areconceptually thesame. evilwitchcraft Theyaredistinguished only according ofthevictim. thesupernatural is or guilt to theinnocence Moreover, hierarchy inaddition tothe toinclude, other towild expanded saints, spiritual beings relating no equivalents inEuropean nature andagriculture andhaving Christianity. of theIndians hadtaken a new Oncesucha fusion formed placetheculture from bothancient or orthodox different which tookno unity, Mayan Catholic, ofthecharacteristics ofhistorical that account define origins. Indeed, many today inopposition to a ladino, were under theinfluence ofSpanish anIndian, adopted inthe sixteenth while elements ofpre-Columbian monks havebeen century, origin for theChristian theculture oftheladinos. into integrated Thus, example, names but ladinos from the Catholic aresometimes arealways ofIndians calendar, named is common ofculture Aztec heroes. Thiskindoftransposition after throughout Forinstance, andhasbeenremarked on elsewhere. America theReichelLatin thosedespised as "unprogressive write:'In reality Indians" Dolmatoffs stand closer to Western civilization thanthelocal "Spaniards" or the ideologically Creoles' lowland (I96I: 462). in addition ofacculturation to confusing Thistheory a culture therefore, as an culture inits with alsocommitted historical the error unity contemporary function, that a cultural in thetwentieth encountered of anachronism by supposing trait, beequated with resembled could that which itinthe fifteenth orsixteenth century, to itssignificance within a changed without social century regard system. ofcultural studies American Indians haveattempted Somerecent change among for a volume into account: its social edited totake setting example, byEdward Spicer andhisco-authors ofcultural viewthe as determined (I96I). Spicer process change insocial situation' andthesubsequent are bythe'contact changes structure; they within which thetotality of thesociety takes with concerned change placeand Indians in which lived'(4). Theyare in thecommunities 'therolerelationships and 'non-directed between 'directed' led to differentiate thus change'and to I amconcerned ofcultural with twoofthese which distinguish processes change. ofcultural orsynthesis, that toas 'fusion, traditions arereferred is,a combination cultural in a new,emergent resulting system' or (7) and 'compartmentalisation, within a realm ofmeaning ... a keeping ofelements isolative integration separate from thedominant taken over culture' andpatterns (533). of Chiapas of theIndians thehistory we find In reviewing that themonks, active fewinnumbers, wereexceedingly thesixteenth in though during century to Christianity; theIndians held converting yet,theIndian aristocracy (which survived until nevertheless theeighteenth this priestly functions) century. During ofChristianity were elements which period many adopted bytheIndian religion on the inspite ofperiodic tobe followed oftheSpaniards continued attempts part onvarious occasions insecret. Indian tosuppress it,being practised though largely discovered hidden sometimes behind a baroque reredos godswere bythemonks which shows at leastthat theimageofa saint: theIndians still discontaining it desirable between thetwo.Evenif they or expedient to tinguished thought

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totreasure thefact that continued to the'paganidol' testifies associate them, they rebellion of thegreat Indian somedegree of 'compartmentalisation'. Following the andpriesthood andsubsequently aristocracy disappeared I7I2, however, Indian in their isolated of theorders villages, the endeavours declined; themissionary nowcontrived the 'fusion' oftheir ideas bydogmatic religious unmolested Indians side. authorities on either offusion areuseful andcompartmentalisation Itappears tomethat theconcepts of suchsituations thehistory as these. Yet they posea theoretical in explaining do twocultural isworth under what which conditions tradiexamining: problem andhis whatconditions do they fuse? Spicer tions andunder compartmentalise inpointing ofalltothe ofpolitical arehelpful first authority importance colleagues of rolesbetween to thereciprocity of thetwo groups. members and,second, of fusing two different ultimately thepossibility traditions depends However, themcan be and whether between incompatibilities upontheir compatibility canbefused which determine whether Thelimits ofinconsistency they reconciled. inthe andconduct. between Thisisa ornotaretobe found relationship ideology is better in thepresent. which examined problem
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thousand of areinhabited twohundred TheChiapas persons bysome highlands asIndians. Indians livein rural twothirds areclassed communities whomabout andusually from other aredifferentiated each dress which bydialect bya traditional andreligious toeach. Thesocial, ofeach community organisation particular political Eachhasa strong sense ofidentity which centres upona separate is quite separate. within Some live in dispersed settlements their whose saint. territory patron whileothers is occupied centre live ceremonial by no permanent population, all subsistence in their town. farmers. Ladinos concentrated live Theyarealmost ofthe LasCasas, inthe SanCristobal inrural inthe either towns, capital highlands, oronranches nucleus ofIndian inthe There are communities, countryside. central which areentirely Indian andothers which areentirely communities ladino;but aremixed. ofthepopulation in close The twoelements livemostly themajority butseparated andcultural gulf proximity, bya moral as superior Theladinos themselves to Indians andderive this superiority regard in thefirst andpower from wealth butalsoandaboveall(since some their place, from areno wealthier than their which identifies them ladinos Indians) culture, A ladino is onewhospeaks ofthecountry. with therulers correctly (or Spanish tobe correctly); heis civilised. inhisviewis onewho is thought AnIndian what isobsessed andisnotcivilised. uncouth Atthe confollows bywitchcraft customs, is perfectly levelthe distinction its application involves clear, though ceptual aremany whohavechanged their since there culture andtheir status. ambiguities, inphysical distinction. Theladinos from to Itisnota physical European vary type of Indianwhilethe Indianpopulation includes individuals who show traces arefound features descent. both. However, theupper among European Negroid in type and commonly classes aremarkedly more themselves believe European aretherefore descent. features a rough correlate to be ofpurely Physical European a determinant nota criterion ofit,andareinno sense ofethnic affiliation. ofstatus, andknows whoclaims is to be a ladino toplaythepart enough Spanish Anyone

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hisback assuch inface toface situations. Behind itmay beexplained accepted that he is 'really an Indian' relates to known descent andcultural butthis assertion ofcourse, itis only notto phenotype. saidofthose accomplishments, Moreover, thesocial whodo notoccupy Indian status ofthespeaker status. The higher the he regards as 'really Indian'. more people Indians are commonly referred to by thepatronising diminutive indito. The ofethnicity. word indio isused ladinos without Itis literally among anyimplication inofficial aninsult rather than a designation. Theterm used andalsoby language, isindigena, tone ofindito, whowish toavoid the the those while Indians patronising when useanother term naturales themselves, speaking Spanish, altogether: (natives). Indian whomthey as uncivilised refer to another Theyoccasionally as an regard indio oftheladinos, butthecommon bruto, theexpression borrowing is to usage as inferior as Chamulas, from thenameof one of the refer to those they regard theinhabitants havea reputation for communities where andstupid. being dirty as a socialbarrier. is notdefended The ethnic distinction Ladinos do notfeel ranks of former threatened intotheir Indians. by theingress the Theyapplaud Indian that is to say, whohasbecome 'civilised', ladino. Theladinos ofTeopisca that intheir andwhen proudly denied there were town anyIndians itwaspointed somestill as Indians andmany outthat dressed thelanguage, spoke they replied didnotcount nowthat that these as Indians were people civilised. Seenfrom they is praiseworthy theladino ofview,theaspiration to change point anda signof The expression indio intelligence. atzado(rebellious Indian)refers onlyto an for to show ladino Indian whofails while proper respect superiority an remaining ladinos. notto onewhoemulates Indian, in no sense a 'colourbar'. The status is therefore The distinction ofIndian is as and as with dress with in Indian associated, well language, participation fiestas a manfrom which excludes certain crafts andina wayoflife andfrom entrepreon anyscale.The ladino's evaluation of theIndian neurial activities as inferior inmany him ata material he canbeintimidated, places disadvantage situations; he be cheated is served last in shops andcanoften with There impunity. are, neverin whichbothparticipate, eachmaking theless, religious hisowninterfiestas of the ritual. Diaz de Salas has described in his field theceremonies pretation diary of he studied, where theprocession HolyWeekin thetownwhich oftheladinos isinterpreted the oftheSaviour accompanying Indians image as a represenbythe ofthe Christ himoff tation andleading to thecrucifixion. Jews capturing Forthe Indians with'Devil'. To giveanother theword'Jew'is synonymous example: to themayordomos on PalmSunday served isfor thefeast a representation them of inwhich the role of the theLastSupper and they play Apostles thepriest, whom topreside over this A newpriest they expect occasion, represents Jesus. ignorant of oftheIndians-and unconscious of the thecustom quite for significance them of to evadetheinvitation and thereby hisparticipation-attempted caused a deep fortheir The Indians havea most resentment. unorthodox part understanding of ofthecelebration ofHolyWeekin which thedogmatic significance thedivine ofSanto Entierro andSe-nor personages (HolySepulchre) Cruz(Lord Santa Holy to their entrusted with the Cross) are,according interpretation, ofthe protection ofrain. We havetherefore seed andthe assurance inthis sown aninstance example in a common ritual who understand of co-participants itsimport in two quite

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different ways; one mighteven say thatmutualmisunderstanding is the basisof their co-operation. Though fused in commonaction,the two systems of belief remain ideologically distinct. In spiteof their in various different statuses Indians and ladinosco-operate other ways: in commerce and employment in politicaland agrarian and on occasions activities. The socialinferiority of theIndiandoes notsuffice to excludehimfrom ladinosociety;there are evensituations in whichladinosareemployed by Indians as musicians or artisans. Intermarriage is notinfrequent and ladinos often recognise their Indiankinfolk. Even a ladyof theupperclassonceputon mourning forthe death ofher Indian-illegitimate-half-sister. Therearebonds which cutacross status distinction at certainpointsand which bind Indiansand ladinos together in relations ofpatronage and clientship. The socialstructure is therefore one in wlhich the ethnic distinction is,forall itsimportance, notalwaysclearcutand theethnic barrier is nothardto breach forthosewho succeed in acquiring sufficient Hispaniic culture. One maywonderthen whyanyIndians in thesubordinate determine to remain status to whichtheladinosrelegate themand why we findmen likeJuanPerez Jolote who,after living for years as a ladino, return totheir native and way of village life(Pozas I962). The answeris thatthe traditional Indian does not acceptthe valuesof theladinos norhisinferiority in ladinoeyes.He is a bats a ' true 'ilwvinik, man', and his languageis the 'true language'. He lives in a numerically small community whichis morally integrated in the sensethatthe normsof conduct relate coherently to thesystem of belief. Indianideologybothvalidates thesocial organisation and provides a system whichpunishwith of supernatural sanctions witchcraft and the castigations of the saints its and spirits thosewho transgress norms.The coherence betweenthe normsof conductand the system of belief which characterise the Indian-in conltrast to the ladino-community is well illustrated by thefact that, as CalixtaGuiteras Holmeshasobserved, whenIndians praytheyprayfor justice;whenladinospraytheyprayformiracles.
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The material worldoftheIndians is dominated byspiritual forces. The traditional political organisation centres upon whatis usually referred to as thecivil-religious hierarchy, which isorganised in a series ofcargos, posts, of ascending importance, in different religious brotherhoods whichare responsible forfinancing and running thefiestas and fortheperformance of ritualduties, but whichalso have political functions. Theyinvolve theexpenditure ofrelatively borrowed large sums ofmoney and savedby theoffice holders. When a man has passedthrough theseposts,his is established prestige andhe remains as a principal, an elder. The poweroftheelders is reinforced by a belief in thestrength of their spirit. Events in thematerial world are interpreted as theresult of events upon thespiritual level,and the eldersare believednot onlyto watchover thecommunity as suchand defend it fromevil, but to watchover theindividual's actions, protecting and punishing him. Ailments are caused, whentheyarelessserious, by psychical conditions suchas anger, shame or fright, whichalienate thesoulfrom thebody.But themoreserious illnesses, whichmayresult in death, are causedby witchcraft whichis intimately

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connected withcuring since, as elsewhere, thepower to do theoneimplies the which arethought isfirst revealed indreams power todo the other. Thispower to ofa person's be revelations of thespirit worldandit derives from thestrength lossof hisspiritual for the spirit; strength ismanifest inhisgoodfortune orhealth, which either is interpreted as being dueto theaction of a morepowerful spirit case wishes him isonaccount owntransgression harm. Whether this ofhis (inwhich he maybe punished bytheelders with some affliction) oron account oftheenvy in doubt; to be or hostility he mayhaveinspired remains always butit is likely canonly-according to theIndian connected with hisownfault, since witchcraft In practice, witches are theory-be performed with thepermission oftheelders. permission, them continually getting outofhand, abusing theelders' overruling through thestrength of their spirit andin anycasetheelder mayhimself be a witch. In addition, arealsoprompt God,theSaints, theAncestor andHolyEarth or ritual to castigate them anyfailure to propitiate or anymoral shortcoming. Illness andits isnormally comes therefore tobe equated with fault, delito, persistence attributed the hasatoned for offence only towitchcraft when sufferer anypossible reflects towards anyofthe spiritual powers. Thejustice for which the Indian prays inthe thecoherence ofthesystem from ofsanctions which devolves these beliefs, sense an explanation anda justificathat thehierarchy ofspiritual power provides for allthe tion events with which a person hastocontend a guide to and, therefore, interms conduct both ofethics andexpediency. Itisjustice earth upon and, indeed, isno situation thehereafter a negligible inthebeliefs ofIndians. There plays part in daily life which cannot be interpreted in terms ofthis system ofbelief andat ofthecommunity. every point itreinforces the norms ofconduct Ifwe turn to theladinos different To begin we find a very situation. the with, a few moral horizon ofthe individual isnotconfined toa community of,atmost, of a universal church. Indians thousand souls.First, he is a member (Though believe themselves tobe Catholics, for the more traditional communities the priest hasonly is much a ritual andlimited importance.) Theladino's Catholicism more nearly orthodox, though it includes deviant elements of belief andhisconduct at many to be desired he is a points leaves something by theChurch. Second, member ofa national Itspolicy runs counter to theideasoftheladinos, at state. least ofthe upper class. Foronething, ithasbeen anti-clerical ever since theRevolution the Church. Foranother, fifty years ago,andhasinthe past actively persecuted thecentral landreform dogmaof theRevolution concerns and,in accordance withtheagrarian law, landcan be confiscated from thelargeproperties and handed over to thelandless as ejidos, while theRevolution wasalsocommitted to eradicate Indians thesystem ofdebt peonage bywhich were attached to theland. Thefirst in this attempt to impose thenewlegislation in a rebellion arearesulted which lasted andended in a peace forfour years (I9I6-I920) inwhich therebel, General his terms. Sincethenthelegislation of the Pineda, virtually dictated Revolution andwith Thisis hasbeen imposed gradually a certain circumspection. tobeunderstood interms ofthe wisdom ofavoiding also notonly further strife but ofanother doctrine oftheRevolution: theautonomy of thelocalcommunity. Political control is exercised through theParty ofthe Institutionalised Revolution -the ruling political party-which provides the structure of power,selects candidates forelections (notwithout careful and consultation of localopinion)

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with thelocalcommunity makes keyappointments. Officials interfere as little as canandinthis their views coincide with that who show a ofitsinhabitants they attitude towards all outsiders. highly suspicious ladinos ofChiapas areloyal Mexicans andas such Whilethe arecommitted by their ofthe Mexican which istaught inthe patriotism tothe ideology Revolution run itcanbeseen aims schools, that their aspirations atseveral points counter tothe ofthefederal state. I have isa great pointed outthat there difference ofstatus andofculture between Indians andladinos andthat, while there is little fellow-feeling between thetwo, there is a great dealofinteraction inthetowns andnucleated villages. Thefact of contact implies a certain community of values;common notions of reciprocal as to conduct rights andduties or,ifnotexactly rights, at least expectations and in all thefields common understandings oftheir interaction. Moreover, theoffspring of mixedunions (usually of a ladinowithan Indianwoman) join the ranks oftheladinos in many cases andaugment thenumber ofthose whohave crossed theethnic frontier. Thus, iftheculture oftheIndians shows a mixture ofelements ofboth Spanish a number of theladinos shares and ancient that withIndians of Mayanorigin, Thisis noticeable in language, features which to theSpanish. in owe nothing andin certain inreligious festal activities. This witchcraft andcuring, conceptions iscertainly notduetoa conscious adoption ofIndian customs. On the contrary, the isenough, the ofa custom as 'Indian' onoccasion, toinduce ladinos identification inthe to abandon in onetown theladinos it.Forexample, gaveup participating in which a mounted mansnatches a chicken degallos, theraces jalada suspended from a cord, this wasanIndian custom. were onthegrounds that notaware They that oncea custom it is practised or in Spainto thisday.On theother hand, to be identified as Indian. itceases intoladino conception hascrept culture,
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canbe seen, to be on theonehand associated with theIndian Theladinos then, ofthecommunity inherited from element their (which they despise) bytraditions oftheir roles which individual pastandbytherequirements reciprocal together in certain a fusion of thetwo cultures andon theother haveeffected regards, oftheir social andbytheir status from itbytheconsciousness ambitions separated outside world but which andinterests inthe sophisticated (which they distrust, they oflocalindigenous both alsoemulate). to theinfluence tradition Theyaresubject between inan I shall call'metropolitan culture', which stand andalsoofwhat they nearer to oneorother to their social intermediary position, according standing, I mean the ofcustoms andbeliefs ofthe culture educated By metropolitan body is taught in schools that which classes andthelarger andinofthecapital cities, andthe ofhigher andpropagated the radio education stitutions the through press; runmodern businesses and so forth, in ideasof thosewho teach, administer, Thetwooverlap, to thefused ofthelocalladino contrast culture of community. from and a certain the uneducated onecandiscern course, progression ranging poor, whose holdon metropolitan is slight ladino ofrecent antecedents culture Indian thelocal community and who go to thosewho weresentto schooloutside

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ofbusiness, to thestate or Mexico Cityforreasons medical care periodically capital commits him to a concern or pleasure. The middleclassladino whose status in himself at thecruxof theconflict culture therefore finds between its metropolitan and thoseof thelocal community. valuesand beliefs, manifests levels:as an inconsistency Sucha conflict itself at two different between ofthosecultures, of two theideologies different cultures whichwe, as students can normswhichconfront and as a contradiction betweentwo different perceive the in order and whichhe mustsomehowreconcile to adopta course sameindividual are what determine of action.The termsof thisreconciliation the spheres of of the two cultures in contact. and How do the 'compartmentalisation' 'fusion' of belief fareat thehandsof socialinteraction? two conflicting To begin systems whichwe perceive we cannot assume that the with, itself inconsistency presents in the same way to the consciousness of the individual unlesswe have already That whichthe theway in whichhe interprets thenormin question. examined of all to be integrated of metropolitan culture has first ladinohas learned intohis to thesameas in theminds frame ofthought whereit maynotamount traditional Whiletheinconsistency ofthemetropolitans. thetwosystems goesunapprehended as we saw in thecase of theceremonies of thought can coexistin interaction of Holy Week described by Diaz de Salas. On occasionthe same happybarrier of from theladino'ssystem conflict ofthought withmetropolitan ignorance preserves is a conflict between thepatriotic To givean example, there culture. attachment to values of the upper class. This is the Mexican Revolutionand the traditional in thefollowing is a prestigeous resolved way: 'revolution' word; Mexican history in theMexicanRevolution; ofnoblerebellions is a series theprototype culminating The heroic who dominates oftheheroistherevolutionary. therecent figure history in therebellion ofhighland Chiapasis General of Pineda,who led thelandowners whichat thetimewas attempting thecentral to impose I9I6 against government of theRevolution.The General is commonly thenew legislation referred to as a a local man,refers and his biographer, his book greatrevolutionary throughout cause' of hishero.The difference (Moscoso I960) to the'revolutionary a between and a counter-revolutionary is a finepoint, relevant to a discussion revolutionary butnotto thedailylifeofChiapas.Rebellionis heroic ofpolitical in itself, theory, and thatis all thatmatters. To giveanother exampleofan unperceived inconsistency, this unperceived time of thedoctorin taking thepulseof the by poor ladinosand Indians:theactivities are interpreted of medicalscience patient by thosewho have beentaught nothing withtheir notionsof curing. in conformity established The first act of a cureris of thepatient and thereby to diagnose to hold thewrist whether pulsear, thecause of the maladyis witchcraft and, if so, who is the witch,a factwhichthe curer knows but never reveals.He acquiresthisknowledgesince the blood of the in one townwas attributed ofthelocal doctor patient 'speaksto him'. The success he knewhow to listen unlike scientific other to thebelief to the that, practitioners, of scientific the inconsisblood. But, with a greater understanding medicine, to compartmentalise. and it is necessary tencybecomesapparent fora bilingual Just as it is possible personto speaktwo different on languages can be held by thesame beliefs so two logically separate occasions, incompatible in which theyare thought to apply can be person, providedthatthe contexts

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In the folklore of Mexico thereis a beliefwhich relatesto the distinguished. or of foodsintohot and cold,not on thebasisof their temperature classification ofthehumours from theclassical whichderives theory taste butofan innate quality to takeat certain and in certain times dangerous and whichmakesone or theother as a signof is, needless to say,regarded combinations (Currier I966). This belief medicine, but it is held generally by the ladino unsophistication by professional of Chiapas.When questioned aboutit,a ladywho runsa restaurantpopulation ofa leading in hertown-deniedanyknowledge ofitsexistence. a member family of hercustomers observe itsrulesshe could hardly have Sincethegreatmajority to know Shewas sufficiently believe. informed ignored it,evenifshedidnotherself scoff at such ideas (and the investigator thatmetropolitans appearedto her as a to dissimulate rather and shepreferred thanappearuneducated. She metropolitan) Another memberof her profession, however,was less well compartmentalised. who declinedto put ice in his drinkon tourist informed: facedwith a foreign he of about its thatto takeice in theevening his doubts account origin, asserted is harm it classified as a hot food: and onlycold foods no since do could possible He interpreted thetourist's anxieties in accordance withhis at night. aredangerous to allaythem. of thought and foundsoundreasons own system claimto believe, believewhatthey norevenwhatthey Peopledo notnecessarily A certain believetheybelieveat a givenmoment. lady of the upperclassonce witchcraft and gave an accountof the quaintbeliefsof the Indiansregarding entertained that theladinos notions. Sheadded, denied anysuchsuperstitious firmly however,a telltalephrase: 'Formerly,they say, therewere ladino witches'. names.A fewweekslater, sheremembered their it transpired Questioned further, thatat about thistimea ladino livinga few streets away had narrowly escaped as a witch. beingmurdered in fact, thislady'ssister out that, laterit turned was thechief Six months curer 'Indian' techniques, suchas diagnosis ofthetownand usedall theclassical through and makingofferings with pulseando, curingthrough blowingalcohol,soplando, in orderto expelevil.The latter riteinvolvedherin a to thehousespirit prayers floors now thatconcrete are fashionable technical among thewell-todifficulty in the centre of the house; instead do: she could no longerburya chicken she buriedtwo eggsin theadobe walljust above theconcrete, saying:'well, it's the sameearth, anyway'. it cannot be claimed to suchbeliefs that there is no scepticism-any Withregard thepossibility of doubt-and there of magicoffers arepeoplewho believe system who believesomethings andothers butnotothers. Thosewho noneofthese things have enoughmoneygo to thestate capitalor Mexico Cityto be curediftheyare ofthelocal curers. Offered two systems seriously ill,butmanyalso usetheservices to whichthey thelocal community ofbelief and belong, by thetwo communities of theeducated, to context. thecommunity theytendto believebothaccording The doctor theother. ofexplanation doesnotinvalidate can cure,and One system can also causesickness and killsincehe is also a witch. The curer so can thecurer. The doctordeniesthatthewitchcan do thisand one would liketo believehim. the moment of witchcraft the matter alwayscomeswhen the Yet, in discussing creo','I don't verymuchbelievein it', and this is told: 'yo no muy investigator is commonly followed by a wealthof anecdotegivingincontrovertible assertion

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of theeffects of witchcraft. Torn between testimony an inner conviction nurtured and the desireto conform to thestandards of the sophisticated, the by tradition ladinosendeavour to eat their cakeand haveit,believing one thing at thelevelof statements whilesubscribing to quitedifferent viewsat thelevelofatiecdote general and conduct. The degreeto whichpeople doubt or disbelieve in witchcraft dependsupon of awareness metropolitan ladinos aremuch their beliefs. Therefore, unsophisticated lessself-conscious in discussing it thanthosewho have pretensions to education, forthey arenotcommitted their traditional beliefs withthetenets of to reconciling Ladinobelief in this themetropolitans. hasmuchin commonwiththeideas regard A fusion of Indians, some of whichit appearsto have absorbed. has takenplace whichcombines oftheIndianandHispanic traditions elements intoa single system of thought. Thus ladinosbelievein an animalspirit thenahual, resembling yetit in their character view.It morenearly hasa different resembles thewitch's familiar in theEuropeantradition, forwhileIndians believethatevery person hasa nahual a victoror victimin the struggle for spiritual which can be either power, the ladinos normally believe that onlywitches possess one andthat they useituniquely A similar forperpetrating witchcraft. distinction can be made withregard to the thepermission ofpermiso, to bewitch. conception This is held to be necessary by andladinos. itis still a verydifferent in the Nevertheless bothIndians phenomenon sinceit belongs in each case to a different two communities, conceptualsystem in a different In theIndiancommunity whichoperates kindof society. thisperis believedto be givenby theelders and thebelief to reinforce mission serves the whichregulates itsmoralconduct;in theladinocommunity of sanctions system to be merely theprerogative of the chief it is thought witch-since witches are to havesomekindoforganisation-it doesnotrelate thepowerofwitchbelieved of offence and punishment and to themoralsystem, butto the craft to thenotions thepolitics of theladinoworld. notionof personal power whichdominates has a different We can see fromthisexamplethata givenitemof belief signiin whichit is placed.But theconto theconceptual framework ficance according in itsturndepends framework For theIndians ceptual upon a socialbackground. a consistent ofthetraditional forthe thesocialbackground villageprovides setting but forladinosit is different: the social background varies Indianbeliefsystem, in theclassstructure to theplace of theindividual and according to the according in whichhe confronts themetropolis. The uncertainty of hisbeliefs socialcontext Indiansthe ideological relates to this.Hence we can see thatfor the traditional whichthe Conquestimposedhas been resolvedby the fusionof past conflict worldwherethenormis clearand thesanctions livein a consistent centuries; they The tenacity oftheir conservatism is related it arepowerful. to this and supporting itssanctions can depart. thatthosewho reject The ladinos, on theother to thefact are also today a preyto the hand, whose cultureis the productof a fusion, in thetwentieth whichhave arisen between theancient conflicts tradition century and thatof modemMexico. whichtheyrepresent a third betweenlocal and metroThereis, finally, way to resolvethe conflict nor fusion whichis neither butwhichconpolitanculture compartmentalisation thecredentials ofthemetropolitan to accept as itwere,in refusing sists, representatendto blame the individual tives.In thisway thosewhose land is confiscated

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official rather thanthelaw. The law is quiteright, shouldbe they say,thelandless givenland,but there is plenty of national land availableforthemand it was due or incompetence of theofficials thattheir own was concerned to themalevolence confiscated. in somewhat in onetown,is sometimes thesamewaywhenhe treated The priest, For example, to reform customs. theChristmas festivities attempts local,religious foran imageof theHoly Child. This is first roundhousehold shrines born centre is clothed thenin a secondfiesta, a week or two later, in onefiesta (la nacida), and seatedupon a throne(la sentada). During the eveningthe image is sometimes inorder that a furtherfiesta whenthey stolen (la robada) maybe givenbytherobbers it (la parecida). Some of these to be verypowerful, return imagesare thought muy sincetheycastigate castigador, withfireand diseasethosewho failto providean In thistheyrecalltheIndian ofliquorand rockets fortheirfiesta. adequatesupply as a smallchildandis greatly ancestral who is pictured divinity amongother things to punish ancestral theHoly forhiscapacity theIndians' feared but,unlike divinity, foractions whichdogmawould Child hasneverbeenknownto punish anybody to restrain such defineas a sin. The priest,understandably enough,attempts has littleeffect of the faithful. His customs but his interference upon the beliefs toheart to an uncharitable arenottaken butareattributed remonstrances disposition.
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to showhow certain beliefs oftheladinos contain I havegivenexamples elements be supposed withtheIndians from whomit mayreasonably whichareshared that how theycome into conflict withthe beliefs of moderneducated theydiffused, is resolved;it mayremain Mexicansand how thisconflict in the unapprehended it lendsitself to a compartmentalisation first to place; if apprehended according as in thepast,or to a refusal or it maylead to a fusion socialcontext; on thepart from of theladinosto accepttheideaswhichemanate thecapital. But Mexico is a and a body of administrators national to imposeitsinstatewitha legal system itis notonlya question ofhow theladinos Therefore junctions. adapttheir ideasto butalsoof how thelaw is accommodated metropolitan influences, bylocalcustom thesocialorganisation which within ofthe transforms legaldispositions community, of theChurchintooccasions thefestivals of whichthepriest just as it transformed oftheRevolution intoan occasion and thecelebrations to honour the disapproved A certain is indeedachieved of thecounter-revolution. memory degreeof fusion in these transformations. which collectstaxes,suppresses The Fiscalla(the organisation illicitstills etc.) thepowerto imposeheavyfines Other possesses upon thosewho evadeitsagents. officials on thosewho also possessthe power to controland to exertsanctions to grantpermits and favoursof varioussorts:free default. They are entitled thehealth to cutdowntrees medicine from service, permits necessary or to receive loansfrom bankand so forth. theagricultural Theseareamongthemanymatters The legal background whichare controlled to these by Mexicanadministrators. is required but in all casestheofficial's to do somepowersis varied, permission or he is requested he might otherwise to grant somefavour thing prevent, he might A favouris something whichmustbe returned and to the otherwise withhold. evenifit is perceived, uneducated of indifference, it is a matter thatin somecases

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andin some the charge which hemakes islegally authorised cases not.Moreover, is regarded is fora federal or state as a tyrannical thepayment where tax,this willatleast imposition andtheofficial, ifhehasanyhumanity, make a reduction inthe tocollect half custom therefore imposable amount. Itiscommon the amount the ofthepayer andtohalve theremainder for benefit andthe chargeable private oftheFiscalla a controller collector. A one-time employee gavehisopinion that thefull amount wouldnotholdhis to extort whoattempted job for long.Diffihim andhewouldbe denounced as drunken ormad, culties would be made for so hewouldbe dismissed. that where criticism isopenly ofanofficial Itissignificant that expressed for taking a a 'bite',it is normally notbecause he demanded mordida, one,butbecause the wasexcessive. caninfact be considered amount demanded Themordida as a right, inreturn topayment for ofoneendowed the recognised bycustom, goodwill with toinflict ornegative. Gifts arenecessary the tosecure power sanctions, positive the inmany Thisisequally ofthe ofa person contexts. true Indian favour community the for hand ofany the ofa girl inmarriage where they accompany making request: is presented whena pleafor or theservices of an artisan, justice to the judicial is implored or whenprotection of thedeities. The mordida authorities, maybe likened therefore to theofferings madeto saints in order to obtain benefits and inthat from avoidreprisals. It differs to thesaints them, however, offerings arean isno enjoyment togiving for whereas there attached a mordida occasion to afiesta, butthe is enjoyed an official. Theofficial themordida; pockets fiesta bytheofferer It differs alsoin that, while custom this andhisfriends. approves wayofdealing as necessary or desirable itdoesnotregard these in themselves. with theofficials, theviewsoftheuneducated; of moreeducation Thissummarises are persons theexistence of theofficials, which and they awareof thetheory are justifies modesof thought therefore to accommodate forced two, to us conflicting, Whentherecipient is a member ofthemordida. theinstitution ofthe regarding an official theproblem in its legalprofession holding appointment, posesitself lawon theonehand, tothe ideals ofthe heisbound heis also for acutest form, yet ofladino for raised inthe traditions a localman the Chiapas. Thus, example, judge wasthecurse ofMexico maintained that andasserted ofonetown that corruption heconsidered him before butthe a case wasbrought when of nothing legal weight andmost'indifferent' andtheruling of law. He gaveonlythepurest evidence itnatural that forsuch he found On theother justice. hand, goodjustice people wish to itintheform and that should ofa gift. should feel gratitude they express is to offend. andto refuse arecustomary Suchmanners in which the the oflawadjusts of to thecustoms Another example way theory in theexplanation a is found clerk of ofthecommunity theCourtof given by the in which of cases First Instance (secretario deJuzgado) regarding way assassination he says, The law ofMexico, doesnotrecognise arehandled. forwitchcraft the is likemurdering a witch existence ofwitchcraft; else.Yet,in murdering anyone relates to themotives thegravity ofthecrime ofthemurderer. cases ofmurder the witch is that him a witch believes man who A murders harming orhisfamily; is an factor This toMexican in law is self-defence. he acting extenuating according to useitsdiscretion inevaluating therefore is entitled it. andthelocalcourt
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to outline ofthis article twosystems I attempted at thebeginning ofbelief, the andtheladino, andto putthem intorelation to their social Indian backgrounds. in this oftheIndian andthen I thecoherence I first showed community regard, to theinfluences ofmetropolitan aresubject culture showed howthe ladinos and thedispositions oforganisations that extend far beyond their horizons andpossess law or dogma.Whereas a bodyof codified theIndian faces onlya problem of belief-isit witchcraft within a single or not?mal of interpretation system witch? wasthe isaware of bueno ormal whoisthe what motive?-the ladino echado, an alternative ofbelief which is foreign to histraditional system wayofthought, is atthesame time andisinanycaseimposed butwhich prestigious uponhim by from outside thecommunity. He is abletofuse this thesanctions with emanating culture extent. histraditional He must therefore onlyto a limited compartmenthat thesysteml tothecontext. talise andrecognise changes according Suchcompartmentalisation to bearuponthe necessarily brings qualifications ofethical andtheabsoluteness andefficacy ofbelief is a certainty there precepts; This berelated tosome ofthe ofnorms. fact choice which have may characteristics of Chiapas in theladino communities to those ofthe beenobserved by contrast is therelative First of all there Indians. weakness of thesanctions of traditional There is no lackofgossip andmuch ofit is critical, butthefirst public opinion. ofconduct istoavoid butthey rule personal antagonism. People may fight, rarely is considered butthevictim one another. of theft is reproach Stealing wrong content if he can recover his possessions without thethief. usually censuring oneisstruck licence which accords to Correspondingly, bythe great public opinion adult men.Strong individuals, areregarded especially feelings as an explanation for ofaction almost andthewish anda validation to do something is anycourse for reason it.'Astloquiso', a sufficient considered doing that's howhe wanted it, intothewisdom almost terminates or propriety of an individual's anyenquiry relations andattachments conduct. Personal anddesires provide allthemotives of ofanethical statements While action. nature toelicit, general arenothard are they onceitis a question ofpersonalities, no longer volunteered for here, as in Tzintofpersonal thestructure relations is composed zuntsan, of a network of dyadic I Judgements ofpeople contracts. tend tobeexpressed interms ofpersonal relations rather than to anymoral with them normative rule:a characteristic byreference ofChiapas makes which free from theladinos to moralise. happily anytendency this unsullied It has, however, corollary: that, bythe wearandtear ofdaily usein ofconduct, ethical thedetermination statements retain all thepurity ofthehighwhich them. minded Therefore feelings inspired these statements often appear to to to rather than relate aspirations andto be indulged reality in,likea daydream, which forthesakeof thepleasure afford in themselves and without they any concern for their possible application. It wouldseem that do notconsciously people conceptualise thedistinctions of whichof theconflicting context thatdetermine norms they should obeyand to thispsychological thanks compartmentalisation theyare able to evade the thestated norm ofcustom that is so often recognition notborne outinpractice. This would the which explain predicament induced oneanthropologist toreport of a poor inChiapas ladino that community 'sixty cent. ofmarriages areirregular per Custom demands andexceptional'. that girls should be requested in marriage of

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their parents andtheir union sanctified in church, rather than 'robbed', butonly a minority achieves conformity withthis custom. Peopleknowthatthemetropolitans approve ofparental consent andchurch marriages andthey wouldliketo think oftheir community as representative oftheideals of theMexican nation. Butthey arealsoaware ofthe elaborate system ofpedidas, requests for the hand ofa girl inmarriage, which isfollowed bytheir Indian neighbours whom they have no wish to emulate. Moreover, other considerations cometo thefore: theeconomic in formal expense involved marriage andthewisdom ofnotsubmitting to legal restrictions uponone'sfuture freedom. The claimto conform to metropolitan ideals andbeliefs isqualified when itcomes topractice, ashas been shown inprevious examples. Thisobservation brings into question the general problem ofthe social function of normative tojustify or to induce a statements. Theymaybe madein order certain course ofaction or to establish a basis ofagreement fortheevaluation of conduct. Theyareselected from among theaccepted values ofthecommunity in inthe order toplead a cause court ofpublic opinion; they establish rights toaction andcounter-action. Butthey arealsomadefor another reason; they validate the ofthe image speaker orofhiscommunity andthey canachieve this endmerely by do notrequire to be implemented. be saidto being stated; they Theymight then rather situation haveritual than significance. Given thestructural ofthe political ofhighland ladinos itisunderstandable this Chiapas that 'ritual' function should not andthat so often be neglected thenormative should failto express the bythem norm. not mean areinany intheir Yet,this does that they wayinsincere beliefs, nor do notappreciate ofthose that thevalour whodetermine to overcome the they to theimplementation obstacles oftheir stated norms. To incarnate theideals of is notthelotofordinary butis reserved forthose heroic society mortals, figures their ofpeople. whoearn this charismatic command overtheallegiance through manrecalled of Belisario themartyred heroof the As an elderly Dominguez, in Chiapas: 'hiswordandhisdeeds wereone'. revolutionary period
NOTES

on thissubjectI am indebted to the University of Chicago Project For my research 'Social, Culturaland Linguistic Change in the Chiapas Highlands'and to the National it. who supported of MentalHealthand theNationalScienceFoundation Institute myown,is that ofCalixtaGuiteras The field-work on which this article is based, other than Esther Charles E. Mann, JohnC. Hotchkiss, MarceloDiaz de Holmes,Lilo Stern, Hermitte, to thehistorical research ofEdward Salas and thelateRobertMontagu. I am also indebted fortheconCalnekand VicentaCortes.Needless to add, theyneed takeno responsibility work. which I havedrawn from their clusions thatI haveleanedheavily on thepublished workof colleagues in It will also be apparent a great to covera widegeographical ofethnography to variety attempting spanandto reduce all andinvidious to make simple generalisations. Sinceitwouldbe impractical to acknowledge I havegivenno bibliographical references to ethnographical a selection sources, butI do not to them. meanin this wayto conceal myindebtedness I Foster haselaborated this Indian Tarascan inhisanalysis oftheformerly and village concept that than solidary obligations (I963: I,I74). He notes has stressed this implies individual rather whichan anthroof society thatit is 'consonant withtheatomistic or particularistic quality feels so strongly whenliving in thevillage'(I96I: I,I9I). pologist
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balancein Mexicanand and symbolic Currier, RichardL. I966. The hot-coldsyndrome 5, 3. folkmedicine. Ethnology Spanish-American

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a modelforthesocialstructure of a Mexicart contract: Foster, GeorgeM. I96I. The dyadic village. Am.Anthrop. 63, I,173-92. Las Casas:published enChiapas. San Cristobal MoscosoPastrana, Prudencio I960. El pinedismo privately. anethnological theChamula: oftheifeofa Mexican Indian. re-creation Pozas,Ricardoi962.Juan Press. Los Angeles: Univ. of California Berkeley, I96I. The people of Aritama. Chicago: & AliciaReichel-Dolmatoff Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo Univ. ofChicagoPress. change.Chicago: in American Indiancultural Spicer, Edward H. (ed.) I96I. Perspectives Univ. of ChicagoPress.