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The Topic Sentence

A paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a single topic or idea. Usually, one sentence, called the topic sentence, states the main idea of the paragraph. All the other sentences are related to this topic sentence. They further explain or support the main idea.

The Topic Sentence's Function

The topic sentence of a paragraph is like a contract between writer and reader. The writer is saying, in effect, "I have an idea I want to explain to you." The reader is answering, "All right, explain it to me." For the writer to hold to the contract, he or she must explain the idea stated in the topic sentence. Therefore, the topic sentence controls the content of the paragraph.

Judging Topic Sentences

A topic sentence makes a general statement that is wider in its scope than the rest of the sentences in the paragraph. A good topic sentence is broad enough to be developed by specific details. However, if a topic sentence is too general, the remainder of the paragraph will have to be either extremely long in order to give an adequate explanation of the idea, or it will have to contain nothing but more general statements. A topic sentence can be evaluated by asking a few questions. 1. Does the topic sentence present one--and only one--topic? 2. Is the topic sentence an overgeneralization? 3. Does the sentence give strong direction to the whole paragraph? Usually, it is difficult to say that a topic sentence is "good" or "bad." It is possible, however, to say that one topic sentence is better than another.

Placement of the Topic Sentence

In general, a sensible plan is to tell readers what the paragraph is intended to discuss before it is discussed. Thus, the common practice in writing a paragraph is to begin with the topic sentence and to follow it with supporting sentences. The topic sentence serves the special purpose of announcing the paragraph's topic. Using this approach to placement of the topic sentence, the reader can more easily identify the central point that the writer is making.

Paragraph Development: Support

Writing Supporting Sentences
The body of every effective paragraph consists of ideas or details that support and explain the topic sentence. The number of supporting details required in a pargraph depends on what the writer is trying to show. Always strive to treat the topic thoroughly and convincingly.

by S. Marques, Kentridge High School

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Facts, Examples, and Reasons

The most common types of supporting details are facts, examples, and reasons. A fact is something that is known with certainty. Factual statements consist of simple descriptions, statistics, historical or technical information--in short, knowledge that is either obvious or verifiable. Facts may serve both as examples and as reasons. An example is something representative of a group. It is a sample, a typical case, an instance, or an event, that illustrates and helps to clarify a larger idea. A reason is a statement that explains or justifies another statement. Reasons attempt to show causes or to answer questions beginning with Why.

Connections Between Sentences

A good paragraph has unity: All the sentences have a relationship to one another and to the main idea. The connection between sentences in a paragraph can be shown in several ways, but principally by the use of transitional words and phrases. Transitional words and phrases may be conjunctions, such as and, but, and however, or explanatory expressions, such as for instance, on the other hand, and so on. Transitional words and phrases act as signals. They give directions. They tell where the paragraph is going. In this sense, transitional words and phrases also act to hold sentences together, achieving unity. Here are some of the most commonly used connecting words and phrases and the purposes they serve.

Purpose To add another idea To arrange ideas in order or time To add an illustration or explanation To conclude or sum up To connect two contrasting ideas; to differeniate ideas To emphasize or confirm

Connecting Word/Phrase furthermore, in addition, also, moreover, likewise, similarly first, finally, meanwhile, eventually, next, subsequently, ultimately, at the same time for example, for instance, in other words hence, therefore, thus, accordingly, in brief, in conclusion, consequently on the other hand, however, yet, conversely, nonetheless, nevertheless, rather, although, on the contrary indeed, naturally, of course, certainly, undoubtedly, admittedly, plainly

Logical Connectives
Additionally, the logical development chosen for the paragraph can be made very clear to the reader by the words used to connect one sentence to the next. These words are often referred to as logical connectives because they make clear not only the order but also the meaning of the writing.

by S. Marques, Kentridge High School

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Each organizational pattern has its own logical connectives. Order of importance may be emphasized with transitional words and expressions such as first, a second factor, equally important, furthermore, of major concern, finally, least important, and most important. Transitional expressions such as equally, similarly, just as, however, on the other hand, despite, and otherwise may be used to emphasize comparison or contrast. Words particularly suited to writing about causes and effects are as a result, because, consequently, and therefore.

Effectively Incorporating Quotations

General Principles
When integrating direct quotations into a paper it is important to move smoothly from the source information to your own thoughts. If quotations are simply dropped into a paper without significant warning, a reader may become confused as to the appropriateness and relevance of that particular quotation. Therefore it is necessary to introduce the quotation, usually with its author's name or the source from which it came, to give the reader adequate notice of the relevance and importance of the quotation. Here's a passage from an essay written to analyze five of Stephen Crane's short stories in relation to a uniting theme. The quotation lacks adequate introduction: The men in Stephen Crane's short story, "The Open Boat," are courageous; they want to live. "The idealistic virtues of bravery, fortitude, and integrity possess no meaning in a universe that denies the importance of man" (Stein 151). The ideals of their native environment, then, mean little when confronted with the harshness of the open ocean. These men finally realize that it is possible they will die. While the writer addresses the importance of the quotation, this discussion comes after it is "dropped into the paper." A better use of this particular quotation follows: The men in Stephen Crane's short story, "The Open Boat," are courageous; they want to live. As critic William Bysshe Stein points out, however, "the idealistic virtues of bravery, fortitude, and integrity possess no meaning in a universe that denies the importance of man" (151). The ideals of their native environment, then, mean little when confronted with the harshness of the open ocean. These men finally realize that it is possible they will die. In this passage, the quotation is well-introduced. The author of the quote is identified, as is the quote's relation to the previous statement. From the introduction, the reader can detect the contrast between the quote and the first sentence of the paragraph.

Achieving Variety when Introducing Quotes

While it is necessary to introduce direct quotations in order to qualify them in relation to the rest of a paper, it is also necessary to introduce these quotations using a varied wording. It becomes monotonous if all the quotes in a paper are introduced with stock phrases: "this critic states" or

by S. Marques, Kentridge High School

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"another critic says." A paper is much more interesting and cohesive if the introductory phrases, or "signal phrases," are varied. Here are some possible signal phrases: According to Jane Doe, "..." As Jane Doe goes on to explain, "..." Characterized by John Doe, the society is "..." As one critic points out, "..." John Doe believes that "..." Jane Doe claims that "..." In the words of John Doe, "..." Note that there exist fine shades of meaning between phrases such as "contend" and "argue" and large differences between ones such as "claim" and "demonstrate." Ask yourself questions as to whether the source material is making a claim, asserting a belief, stating a fact, etc. Then choose a verb that is appropriate for the source material's purpose.

A list of possible verbs for use in the introduction of quotations follows. Double-check meanings before using them! acknowledges, adds, admits, affirms, agrees, argues, asserts, believes, claims, comments, compares, confirms, contends, declares, demonstrates, denies, disputes, emphasizes, endorses, grants, illustrates, implies, insists, notes, observes, points out, reasons, refutes, rejects, reports, responds, states, suggests, thinks, underlines, writes

Using Paraphrases
Paraphrases restate another person's ideas using your own words and your own sentence structures. Like direct quotes, they must be credited to their sources; to fail to do so constitutes plagiarism. Remember, just restating another's original idea using different words does not make it your own! If something you read in a text is general knowledge, or could be gained from a number of sources, the idea is not "original" to your author. The following example presents such a fact: Source 1: "By late 1941, the Royal Air Force had effectively stopped the German bombardment of England. Except for Hitler's V-1 and V-2 attacks in 1944 and 45, England escaped further sustained air attacks." CAUTION: When you paraphrase material, put it in your own words and use your own sentence structure. Don't allow the wording to resemble the original, even if you cite the source.

by S. Marques, Kentridge High School

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Otherwise, you're plagiarizing the author's words without letting the reader know that the words aren't your own. The next quote reveals an original opinion by the author: Source 2: "During the Battle of Britain, Hitler made a serious mistake in switching the emphasis of his air attacks from the British airfields to British population centers. Fortunately for England and the rest of the world, Hitler's decision allowed the RAF to regroup and destroy more and more attacking German bombers" (Doe 100). In the paraphrase that follows, note that the first sentence recaps a general fact, whereas the second and third restate Doe's opinion (using MLA format). Note the substantial rewording of sources: Paraphrase: Although Hitler's buzz bombs and rockets fell on England late in the war, Germany's air offensive against the island effectively ended in 1941. Historians such as John Doe contend that the battle's turning point came when Hitler ordered his bombers to switch their attacks from military to civilian targets (100). This change in tactics proved a serious mistake for Nazi Germany, since the Royal Air Force, initially hard hit, gained enough breathing space to launch an effective counterattack (Doe 100).

by S. Marques, Kentridge High School

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