Reading as a Process

Reading is a selective process. It involves partial use of available minimal language cues selected from perceptual input on the basis of the readers expectation. As this partial information is processed, tentative decisions are made to be confirmed, rejected or refined as reading progresses ( Goodman, 1970, p.260). According to Mackay and Mountford (1979), from this statement, inferences can be drawn which are important in the preparation and use of second language reading materials: First, the definition assumes that reading is an active process. The reader forms a preliminary expectation about the material, then, selects the fewest, most productive cues necessary to confirm or reject that explanation. This is a sampling process in which the reader takes the advantage of his knowledge of vocabulary, syntax, and the real world. The second inference, closely tied to the first, is that reading must be viewed as a twofold phenomenon involving process comprehending- and product-comprehension. Third, reading involves, an interaction between thought and language. The reader brings to the task a formidable amount of information and ideas, attitudes and beliefs. This knowledge, coupled with the ability to make linguistic predictions, determines the expectations the reader will develop as he reads. Skill in reading depends on the efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world. Widdowson (1979), mentions that recent studies of reading have represented it as a reasoning activity whereby the reader creates meaning on the basis of textual clues. This view of how meanings can be negotiated in discourse is consistent with Goodmans comments on the reading process. Furthermore, what Goodman is describing is a general discourse processing strategy of which reading is simply a particular realization. Accordingly, reading is an act of participation in a discourse between interlocutors. It seems to follow from this that reading efficiency cannot be measured against the amount of information contained in a text. This is incalculable since it depends on how much knowledge the reader brings to the text and how much he wishes to extract from it. Rather, reading

efficiency is a matter of how effective a discourse the reader can create from the text, either in terms of rapport with the writer or in terms of his purpose in engaging in the discourse in the first place. In fact, in this view, reading is regarded not as reaction to a text but as interaction between writer and reader mediated through the text. Alderson and Urquhart (1984) assert that it is possible to view reading both as product and as process. Research has tended to focus upon the product rather than the process. But this is inadequate because of the unpredictable and normal variation in product, and because knowing the product does not tell us what actually happens when a reader interacts with a text. The process underlies the product (which will vary from reader to reader, purpose to purpose, time to time and so on). The value of concentrating on process in research and teaching is that if processes can be characterized, they may certain elements that are general across different texts, and learners can learn in order to improve their reading. The basic rationale behind attempts to describe process is that an understanding should lead to the possibility of distinguishing the processing of successful and unsuccessful readers. This view is dynamic rather than static- that is, it emphasizes a readers progression through a text rather than as a product. As Alderson and Urquart (ibid) point out, a product view relates only to what the reader has got out of the text while a process view investigates how the reader may arrive at a particular interpretation. Wallace (1992) reports that researchers into both first and second language reading have argued against the view that texts are selfcontained 3objects, the meaning of which it is the readers job merely to recover. Texts do not contain meaning; rather they have potential for meaning. This potential is realized only in the interaction between text and reader. That is, meaning is created in the course of reading as the reader draws both on existing linguistic and schematic knowledge and the input provided by the printed or written text.

UNIT I: TEXT ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS

Identifying Topics, Main Ideas, Secondary ideas and Supporting Details
Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw conclusions, evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or passages all have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It is what some call the subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, topic, main idea, point(s) the writer between these will where, why, how much, or how many. Locating the and supporting details helps you understand the is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship increase your comprehension.

Applying Strategy
The successful communication of any author's topic is only as good as the organization the author uses to build and define his/her subject matter.

Grasping the Main Idea:

A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or central theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most important piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that paragraph. When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across. This is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's main idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports the paragraph preceding it.

Supporting ideas
These are simply the ones that work as the main idea complementary phrase, hence giving to the latter more details. Descriptions tend to be usually supporting ideas.

Something important to consider when making differences between main and supporting ideas is to know the fact that main ideas have meaning and sense on their own, while supporting ideas do not. If you erased a whole paragraph and kept just the main idea, the sole resulting phrase would have indeed a meaning. Nevertheless, it is not the same with supporting ideas since they are subordinated to main ideas.

Topic sentence. What it is, how to identify it

A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in which the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph. The topic sentence announces the general theme (or portion of the theme) to be dealt with in the paragraph. Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is usually first - and for a very good reason. This sentence provides the focus for the writer while writing and for the reader while reading. When you find the topic sentence, be sure to underline it so that it will stand out not only now, but also later when you review.

Identifying the Topic:

The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a paragraph is to identify the topic - the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a wheel with the topic being the hub - the central

core around which the whole wheel (or paragraph) spins. Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question, "What is this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a word or two that repeat. Usually you can state the topic in a few words. Let us try this topic-finding strategy. Reread the first paragraph on this page - the first paragraph under the heading Grasping the Main Idea. Ask yourself the question, "What is this paragraph about?" To answer, say to yourself in your mind, "The author keeps talking about paragraphs and the way they are designed. This must be the topic paragraph organization." Reread the second paragraph of the same section. Ask yourself "What is this paragraph about?" Did you say to yourself, "This paragraph is about different ways to organize a paragraph"? That is the topic. Next, reread the third paragraph and see if you can find the topic of the paragraph. How? Write the topic in the margin next to this paragraph. Remember, getting the main idea of a paragraph is crucial to reading. The bulk of an expository paragraph is made up of supporting ideas (major and minor details), which help to explain or prove the main idea. These sentences present facts, reasons, examples, definitions, comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent details. They are most important because they sell the main idea. The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to be a concluding sentence. It is used to sum up a discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all or part of the topic sentence so as to bring the paragraph to a close. The last sentence may also be a transitional sentence leading to the next paragraph. Of course, the paragraphs you'll be reading will be part of some longer piece of writing - a textbook chapter, a section of a chapter, or a newspaper or magazine article. Besides expository paragraphs, in which new information is presented and discussed, these longer writings contain three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and summarizing.

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the chapter or section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the writer's attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole function is to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come - to set the stage for succeeding ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from these ideas, or speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented. All three types should alert you: the introductory paragraph of things to come; the transitional paragraph of a new topic; and the summarizing paragraph of main ideas that you should have gotten.

Exercise:
Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea. Write down in your own words what you are able to conclude from the information. The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books, calculators or papers are allowed in the test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test. Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken. The incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test period, all materials will be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by these rules will result in a failing grade for this test.

Answer:
You should have underlined the first sentence in the paragraph - this is the stated main idea. What can be concluded from the information is: If you do not follow the rules, you will automatically fail the test. This concluding information is found in the last sentence.

You can't comprehend the subject matter if you haven't identifyied the topic, the main idea, and the supporting details.

Referential Elements: Pronouns, cognates & false cognates What are cognates?
Cognates are words in two languages that share a similar meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. While English may share very few cognates with a language like Chinese, 30-40% of all words in English have a related word in Spanish. For Spanish-speaking ELLs (English Language Learners), cognates are an obvious bridge to the English language. Not surprisingly, researchers who study first and second language acquisition have found that students benefit from cognate awareness. Cognate awareness is the ability to use cognates in a primary language as a tool for understanding a second language. Children can be taught to use cognates as early as preschool. As students move up the grade levels, they can be introduced to more sophisticated cognates, and to cognates that have multiple meanings in both languages, although some of those meanings may not overlap. One example of a cognate with multiple meanings is asistir, which means to assist (same meaning) but also to attend (different meaning).

False cognates
There are literally thousands of words that are the same or similar in appearance in English and Spanish, and have the same meaning in both languages (cognates). There are also, however, many instances where appearances are deceiving and words that look alike are quite different in meaning (false cognates). The following list includes some of the most common false cognates, also known as false friends: la accin In addition to meaning action in Spanish, it is also used in business to mean share, stock. Las acciones de la compaa = the companys stock (or shares). actual In Spanish, means present, current, and not actual as we use it in English, which in Spanish is instead real, verdadero. e.g. El presidente actual no ejerce el verdadero poder = The current presidente does not

exercise the actual power. Notice how Spanish uses verdadero = true, instead of actual, which instead of meaning real as it does in English, would only have the meaning of present or current in Spanish. e.g. actualmente: at the present time; en realidad, de veras, realmente = actually. asistir In Spanish, means to attend, not to assist, and requires the preposition a before a noun. e.g. Casi nunca asiste a sus clases = He almost never attends class. To assist, with the meaning in English of to help, is ayudar. el colegio General term for school, or often, high school. Does not mean college, which in Spanish is la universidad. una conferencia This may mean conference as we know it in English, with the meaning of a convention; it has another, often-used meaning in Spanish, which in English would be a lecture by a professor or a public speaker. la decepcin Means disappointment and sometimes a feeling of having been deceived; deception in Spanish, however, is usually translated as engao. una desgracia Means misfortune, not necessarily disgrace. Qu desgracia! = What a misfortune! desgraciadamente: unfortunately. A disgrace = una deshonra. un disgusto Means unpleasantness, annoyance as opposed to disgust, which is translated into Spanish as asco. Me da asco = It disgusts me. e.g. Tuve un disgusto con mi cuado. = I had an unpleasant incident with my brother-in-law. embarazada Does not mean embarrassed, which in Spanish is avergonzado/a, desconcertado/a, or turbado/a. Est embarazada is one way of saying Shes pregnant in Spanish.

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el xito Means success. e.g. Su nueva comedia tuvo un gran xito. = His new play was a great success. Not to be confused with an exit, which in Spanish is salida. fastidioso Annoying, fastidies. = fastidio. Es difficult to possibilities

bothersome. Fastidiar is a commonly used verb; e.g. No me Dont bother (annoy) me. Likewise, the noun is (un/el) un fastidio. = Its a bother (nuisance, inconvenience). It is find an equivalent for fastidious in Spanish. Several are melindroso, quisquilloso, exigente, difcil de complacer.

una firma Signature. A business firm is compaa or casa (comercial). una grosera The adjective grosero means rude or course and a grosera is rudeness or coarseness. Not to be confused as a translation of the English word grocery, which is known by a various terms depending on the country/region of the Hispanic world where it is used. Usually una tienda de ultramarinos in Spain, it is una tienda de abarrotes in Mexico; una bodega in Cuba and Venezuela; un almacn in Argentine, Uruguay and Chile; un colmado in Puerto Rico. el idioma In English, translates as language. What we call an idiom in English, on the other hand, is modismo in Spanish; e.g. Hay muchos modismos en cada idioma. = There are many idioms in every language. un indiano This is a special term used to refer to a Spaniard who went to the Spanish colonies in the New World and returned to Europe with great wealth. A (North/South/Central)-American Indian is most frequently referred to as un indgena or un indio; a person from the Indian continent is also referred to as un indio. introducir Means introduce in the sense of to bring up a topic in conversation (= introducir un tema) or to stick in, to put into, to insert, all physical actions. To introduce a person in Spanish is presentar. largo Means long in English. Large is instead grande.

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una lectura Means reading, in English, not lecture. The word for lecture in Spanish, as mentioned above, is conferencia. la librera = bookstore. Library is instead la biblioteca. molestar May mean to molest but more often is the equivalent of the English to bother, disturb, annoy. e.g. Siento molestarlo = Im sorry to bother you. Another common phrase is No es ninguna molestia = Its no trouble (or bother). Oficio = trade, occupation. Office is el despacho or la oficina. el/la pariente This is the general word for a relative. The word in Spanish for parent is padre (father) or madre (mother). parents = los padres pretender = to attempt, to try to. To pretend = fingir. la propaganda Not only propaganda as we use it in English but also advertising, publicity. regular In addition to having the meaning of regular in English, may also mean average, so-so, O.K. In answer to the question Cmo ests?, means so-so, O.K. sano Healthy rather than sane, which is cuerdo/a. Note the expression sano y salvo = safe and sound. sensible = sensitive in English. Sensible in English may be sensato, cuerdo, razonable, de buen sentido. e.g. Es una persona muy sensible. = He is a very sensitive person. una sentencia Means a sentence only in the judicial sense. May also mean a saying or proverb. Sentence in the grammatical sense is (una) frase.

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simptico This is one of the finest compliments that can be given to a person. It is roughly the equivalent of pleasant, charming, congenial. Sympathetic = compasivo, simpatizante.

un suceso = event, occurrence, happening. The verb suceder means to happen to, to occur. Remember, as we have mentioned, success= xito. sujeto Means subject only in the grammatical sense. It may also mean, colloquially, fellow, guy, with a derogatory feel. A subject in school is (la) asignatura, (la) materia, (el) curso. When it is the equivalent of topic, subject = (el) tema. When it refers to a citizen of a country, subject is sbdito or ciudadano. tipo Not only type as in category, but also used colloquially, with a derogatory feel, for guy or character. e.g. No me gusta ese tipo. = I dont like that guy. Note the economic/financial term tipo de cambio = exchange rate (of currency).

Rethorical patterns
A rhetorical pattern is a mode in which an articles details are organized. The rhetorical patterns include: 1) Examples 2) Definition 3) Comparison and contrast 4) Sequence of Event 5) Cause and Effect 6) Description 7) Narration 1) Examples: - Writers often include examples of various kinds in order to sound convincing while writing about a subject. Examples help the writer to be persuasive and to sound convincing; they help him gain authenticity and increase believability of his/ her arguments and of the subject being talked about.

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2) Definition: - Definition is a necessary strategy for all kinds of writing. Autobiographers occasionally define objects, conditions, events and activities for research. This unfamiliarity with defining is certain because the autobiographers write about something extremely readers is completely unknown, if they do not define those very personal conditions and terms, it will not be easy to understand them. Thus to convince the audience of a position a writer most often defines concepts that are important to an argument. 3) Comparison and Contrast: - Comparison brings similar things together for examination to see how they are alike. Contrast is a form of comparison that emphasizes their differences. Comparison and contrast are generally taken as more than writing strategies. They are basic ways of thinking and leaving. We attain new perceptions more readily if we can see how things are similar to or different from the perception we have already achieved. For professional writers, comparison and contrast are basic strategies of writing. Some writing may have extended comparison but for all kinds of writing comparison and contrast are necessary to be vivid in presenting information. 4) Sequence of Events: - After sufficiently analyzing the events they are supposed to talk about writers, concentrating on presenting them in an effective and coherence so that the whole composition becomes concrete, clear and effective. Any break in the loose stinging of or an unnecessary inclusion of event may distort the whole comparison. It should be effective combination of events that holds the attention of the reader tightly and helps him to get in to the intended meaning, motive or purpose of the writer. 5) Cause and Effect: - When the writers talk about something or states an issue, problem or argument, he should clarify what caused him to say so and simultaneously he must state the possible effect. 6) Description: - Description helps the writers to create some dominant impression, a mode or atmosphere that helps him/ her to reinforce his/ her purpose. While describing something in one way or other, the writer always assumes a point of view or the writer selects a position from which to describe the scene. This point of view of the writer brings difference on the level of description. 7) Narration: - Narration is a basic way of presenting action taking place over a period of time. One can use narration for a variety of purpose: to illustrate and support ideas with anecdotes, entertain readers with suspenseful or revealing stories. The most common way of ordering narrative is to present the action chronologically, beginning with the first action and going straight through to the last.

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Writers also bring complication in the narrative sequence by referring to something that occurred earlier using the techniques of flashback or to one that will occur later using the technique of flash forward. Writing of narrative creates a structure to give a sound the central conflict, tension by manipulating the narrative place. While narrating something the writers takes a point of view to describe the action which is important when one as a reader detects the position assumed by the writer or his/ her point of view and it will be easier to get in to the real meaning of the narrative.

Transitional words and phrases

The prefix "trans" indicates movement from one place to another. When we translate, for instance, we take words from one language to another. When we apply the word "transition" to our lives, such as the transition from being a high school student to being a college student, we are referring to our movement from one situation to another. Transitions in writing do the same thing: they take the writer and the reader from one place to another. They also indicate the logical relationship between where we have been and where we are going. Transitional words and phrases are like sign posts that help lead readers through an essay. The simplest transitions are coordinating conjunctions, also known as the "FAN BOYS" words: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. These common words help us connect not only our words but our ideas. For example, when you use the word "so," you are saying, "here's something that we can conclude from what I just said." When you use "or," you are saying, "here's another possibility." The most commonly used coordinating conjunction, "and," is also the weakest in terms of the meaning it conveys, indicating only that "here's something else." Coordinating conjunctions do act as transitions, but they are not enough to give an essay a strong sense of cohesion. Because transitional words and phrases show logical relationships between sentences and ideas, they are often organized according to the kinds of relationships that they convey, as they are below. Below are some common transitional words and phrases that can help you demonstrate logical relationships between sentences and ideas in your writing.

Common transitional words and phrases

1. To give examples: for example, for instance, such as, specifically

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2. To show cause and effect: therefore, hence, thus, as a result, resulting in, so, consequently

3. To contrast: nevertheless, however, but, on the other hand, in contrast, on the contrary, conversely, at the same time, still, although, even though,despite, in spite of

4. To show similarity: likewise, similarly, just as, equally

5. To concede: although, even though, of course, granted, while

6. To elaborate: in addition, additionally, moreover, also, furthermore

7. To emphasize: more importantly, most importantly, chiefly, indeed, in fact, primarily, no doubt

8. To restate: again, in other words, in effect, that is, in short

9. To indicate time: last, at last, eventually, before, after, afterwards, finally, during, then, when, as

10. To indicate place: to the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground, in the distance

11. To conclude: thus, finally, in the end

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The difference transitions can make

You might be surprised by how much the effective use of transitional words and phrases can strengthen your writing. Transitions can act as "glue" that helps holds your ideas and your sentences together, and they can help take you and your readers smoothly and logically from one part of your essay to the next.

Example

Original Sentence: Succeeding in college often is a challenge for students. Most colleges provide services designed to help students. They include peer tutoring and personal counseling. Colleges need to provide more services to help students succeed. Revised with transitions: Succeeding in college often is a challenge for students. Therefore, most colleges provide services designed to help students, such as peer tutoring and personal counseling. However, colleges need to do more to help students succeed.

The addition of just a few transitional words in the passage above helps the writer indicate how the different parts of the passage are logically related and strengthens the "flow" of the sentences.

Three problems to avoid

Transitional words and phrases help strengthen writing, but they can be misused. Below are three things to be wary of as you bring transitional words and phrases into your essays.

Make sure the logical connections are clear as you use transitions. Because transitions indicate relationships between words and ideas, they can be misused if the relationship indicated by the transitional words is unclear or does not exist.

Example 1: George's wife stands at the window and looks out at the rain falling on the empty streets. For example, she sees a cat huddled under a table in the rain. ("For example" does not make sense here because the woman seeing the cat is not a clear "example" of anything in the first sentence.)

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Example 2: George's wife decides to go out into the rain to get the cat. Consequently, George sits in bed reading his book. ("Consequently" does not make sense here because it is unclear how George sitting in bed reading is a consequence of the woman deciding to get the cat.)

Avoid the overuse of transitions. Transitions are supposed to guide readers through your writing, but overuse of transitional words and phrases can have the opposite effect and can make your writing confusing.

Example: Writing an essay can be challenging. However, there are techniques that can make the process a little easier. For example, taking plenty of notes on the subject can help the writer generate ideas. Therefore, note-taking is an important "pre-writing" strategy. In addition, some people "free-write," writing quickly for ten or twenty minutes to see what ideas arise. However, taking notes and freewriting is only the beginning. Ideas must eventually be organized in a logical way. Consequently, an outline can help the writer make sense of the rough material generated through the note-taking and freewriting process. Therefore, writing an outline is another important step in the writing process. However, some writers are able to conceptualize a sense of logical order for their ideas without actually writing an outline. Nevertheless, these writers seem to have some kind of outline in their minds. In addition, an outline should help the writer formulate a thesis for the essay. Consequently, an outline can help give focus to the essay. (This passage could be stronger with fewer transitional words and phrases. Especially when the transitions are used at the beginnings of sentences, they can become annoying or even confusing to readers if they are overused.)

Avoid errors that can occur with the use of transitions. Just like any other words, transitional words and phrases must be used carefully so that they do not cause errors. Both sentence fragments and comma splices sometimes occur when transitional words are added to an essay. These two errors are illustrated below. Sentence Fragment: Resulting in the woman's search for companionship elsewhere. Corrected Sentence: George seems to ignore his wife, resulting in the woman's search for companionship elsewhere.

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Comma splice: The woman sees the cat out in the rain, however the cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside. Corrected Sentence: The woman sees the cat out in the rain; however, the cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside. Corrected Sentence: The woman sees the cat out in the rain. However, the cat is gone by the time the woman goes outside.

You can avoid these problems if you are particularly aware of the possibility of sentence fragments and comma splices occurring with the use of transitions.

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UNIT II: CONTEXTUAL REFERENCES

The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but not the actual pauses made in speaking. Very often the points used to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the passage is written. Nevertheless, several of the punctuation marks serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are: 1. The Comma [ , ] 2. The Semicolon [ ; ] 3. The Colon [ : ] 4. The Period or Full Stop [ . ] 5. The Interrogation or Question Mark [ ? ] 6. The Exclamation Mark [ ! ] 7. The Dash [ ] 8. The Hyphen [ - ] 9. The apostrophe [ ' ] 10. The Parenthesis [ ( ) ] 11. The Quotation Mark [ " " ] 12. The Ellipses []

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1. The Comma: The comma is a punctuation mark (,) which is used to indicate the separation of elements within the grammatical structure of a sentence.

,
We use the comma when:

A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by commas:

, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to him." "The brave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If the series is in pairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor, learned and unlearned, Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through the
"Lying same gate."

A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry who said 'Give me liberty or give me death.' "

When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the God I love

, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a Christian."

An expression used parenthetically should be enclosed by commas: "The old man as a general rule takes a morning walk."

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Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley President was assassinated.

the

Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book which is the simplest is often the most profound."

In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma: "Electricity lights our dwellings and streets drives the engines of our mills and factories."

pulls cars

trains

When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a great statesman; Grant a great soldier."

The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John good man."

you are a

In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three figures: "Mountains 25 000 feet high; 1 000 000 dollars."

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2. The Semicolon: The Semicolon is a punctuation mark (;) which is used to connect independent clauses indicating a closer relationship between the clauses than a period, or full stop, does.

;
When to use the semicolon: "Gladstone was great as a statesman he was sublime as a man."

The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is different from that of the first: "The power of England relies upon the wisdom of her statesmen navy."

the power of America upon the strength of her army and

The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as, namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc.: "He had three defects namely, carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his ideas." "An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by water

as Cuba." "The names of cities should

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always commence with a capital letter; e.g., New York, Paris." "The boy was proficient in one branch i.e., free from all blemish."

viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect

3. The Colon The colon is a punctuation mark (:) which is used to direct attention to matter (such as list, an explanation, a quotation, or amplification) that follows.

:
When to use the Colon: It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as follows " It is also placed before an explanation or illustration of the subject under consideration: "This is the meaning of the term "

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A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by a colon "The great orator made this funny remark:"

The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the conjunction or is omitted: "Acoustics the Science of Sound."

It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters: "Sir My dear Sir Gentlemen Dear Mr. Jones " etc. In this connection a dash very often follows the colon.

It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late were firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on an errand, thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the wayside."

4. The Period or Full Stop The period, or full stop, is a punctuation mark (.) which is used to mark the end of a sentence.

.
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When to use the Period:

After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly " "Plants grow " "Man is mortal "

In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt Alexander, D D , L L D

Rev

. T. C.

. . .. .

A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint: American Trails Company :

By Theodore Roosevelt

New York

Scribner

5. The Interrogation or Question Mark The interrogation or question mark is a punctuation mark (?) which is used in at the end of a sentence to indicate a direct question.

?
When to use the Question Mark: The Mark of Interrogation is used to ask or suggest a question.
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 Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not expected,

of Napoleon

should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has not heard

?"

When several questions have a common dependence they should be followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series: "Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the laughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I loved

?"

This is also often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In 1893 (

?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule f or Ireland."

6. The Exclamation Mark The exclamation mark is a punctuation mark (!) which is used used especially after an interjection or exclamation to indicate forceful utterance or strong feeling.

!
When to use the Exclamation Mark - the Rules The Exclamation point should be sparingly used, particularly in prose. Its chief use is to denote emotion of some kind.

It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as interjections: "Alas I am forsaken." "What a lovely landscape "

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Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge, Chester, charge On, Stanley, on "

When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be used: "Assist him

!! I would rather assist Satan!!"

7. The Dash The dash is a punctuation mark (-) which is used especially to indicate a break in the thought or structure of a sentence.

_
When to use the Dash: The Dash is generally confined to cases where there is a sudden break from the general run of the passage. Of all the punctuation marks it is the most misused.

It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War, "He was a fine fellow

how we cherish them."

in his own opinion."

When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, dashes are used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the greatest

28

of all poets Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean whose waves washed the continents of all thought."

The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it: "He is an excellent man but

"

It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden treasure

a button. n Js

It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures: "J

for John Jones; 1908 9 for 1908 and 1909; Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.

When an ellipsis of the words, namely, that is, to wit, etc., takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in three branches

arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."

A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it is undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a r This is especially the case in profane words.

l (rascal).

Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a dash: "All the world's a stage."

Shakespeare.

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When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes, Sir. Do you "love study? I do."

8. The Apostrophe An apostrophe is used to used to indicate the omission of a letter or letters from a word, the possessive case, or the plurals of numbers, letters, and abbreviations.

'
Examples of the apostrophe in use include: Omission of letters from a word: An issue of nat ' l importance. Possesive case: Sara ' s dog bites. Plural for numbers: Sixteen people were born on dates with 7 ' s in them.

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9. The Hyphen A hyphen (- ) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different usage rules. Use a hyphen between the parts of a compound word or name or between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.

Examples of this in use include: Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds Within a compound word: back - to - back Between syllables of a word when text is on divided: The thought ful girl brought cookies to her ailing neighbor.
10. The Parenthesis

The parenthesis is a punctuation mark [ ( ) ] which is used to amplify or explain a word, phrase, or sentence inserted in a passage.

()
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When to use the Parenthesis: Marks of Parenthesis are used to separate expressions inserted in the body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the meaning, but have no essential connection with the sentence, and could be done without. They should be used as little as possible for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that does not belong to it.\ When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar and Jones is one , even when he speaks the truth."

In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes hear, hear ,

(groans), that they cannot ride rough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman from
we must show the trust magnates Ohio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select another. A voice,Get Robinson ." When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no stop should come before it, but a comma should be put after the closing parenthesis.

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11. Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are a pair of punctuation marks (" ") which are used chiefly to indicate the beginning and the end of a quotation in which the exact phraseology of another person, or of a text, is directly cited.

""
When to use the Quotation Marks: A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation marks: Abraham Lincoln said, I shall make this land too hot for the feet of slaves.

"

" "Most
men come to believe

When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, 'honesty is the best policy.'

"

When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation marks should precede each paragraph Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are quoted. Often the names of ships are also quoted though there is no occasion for it.

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12. The Ellipses The ellipses is generally represented by three periods:

The ellipses should be used in writing or printing to indicate an omission, especially of letters or words. Ellipses are frequently used within quotations to jump from one phrase to another, omitting unnecessary words that do not interfere with the meaning. Students writing research papers or newspapers quoting parts of speeches will often employ ellipses to avoid copying lengthy text that is not needed. Examples:

"To indicate the omission of a word, phrase, or sentence, use ellipsis dots-three periods with spaces between them. . . . Since the dots stand for words omitted, they always go inside the quotation marks or block quotation. Leave a space between the last quoted word or punctuation mark and the first ellipsis dot and another space after the last dot before the next word or punctuation mark." (Kate L. Turabian, et al. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers, 7th ed. Univ. of Chicago Press, 2007)

"Staff and family members often have very strong stereotypes about one another, said Karl Pillemer, a gerontologist at Cornell University who has researched these relationships for 20 years. "The staff sometimes feel families complain excessively--theyre too demanding. On the flip side, families sometimes feel that staff arent sufficiently caring, that staff are rude to them. . .

34

They often feel they have to coach the staff about how to care for their relative." (Paula Span, "The Nursing Home as Battle Zone." The New York Times, Oct. 7, 2009)

"Well, as is shown by the astonishing explosion of books and articles entitled 'The Rhetoric of . . .' (see appendix to chapter 2), we are now invited to think hard about the rhetoric ofeverything." (Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Rhetoric: The Quest for Effective Communication. Blackwell, 2004)

"In contrast to the unpredictable and extravagant lines of stars or points that burst across the pages of Gothic fiction, the three points have a discretion and a subtlety that highlight the very ordinariness of such dark perspectives at the end of the nineteenth century. And as the three points become increasingly common in the work of early twentieth-century writers--T.S. Eliot and Virginia Woolf, to name but two--the networks of symmetrical lines connecting one speaker to another and another that characterised Victorian fiction, are transformed into ' . . .', a new icon for a new generation." (Anne C. Henry, "Ellipsis Marks in a Historical Perspective." The Motivated Sign: Iconicity in Language and Literature 2, ed. by Olga Fischer and Max Nnny. John Benjamins, 2001)

More Tips on Using Ellipsis Points "Never alter quotations even to correct minor grammatical errors or word usage. Casual minor tongue slips may be removed by using ellipses but even that should be done with extreme caution. If there is a question about a quote, either don't use it or ask the speaker to clarify."

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"Use the terminal dash to suggest that a statement suddenly breaks off; use the terminalellipsis to suggest that it trails away. As your C.O. I'll have to say no, but as your The Victorians are secure, but the modern novelists. . . . friend, well--.

(Winston Weathers and Otis Winchester, The New Strategy of Style. McGrawHill, 1978)

"Use an ellipsis to indicate that a list goes on beyond those items actually spelled out in the text: An evil witch, a tap-dancing scarecrow, flying monkeys, an emotionally unstable lion, disturbing Munchkins . . . Dorothy couldn't help but wonder if, in the wonderful Land of Oz, they sold guns." (Richard Lederer and John Shore, Comma Sense. St. Martin's Press, 2005)

"It's generally understood that quotes are excerpts from routinely drabber material. And you'll be well advised not to start or end a quote with an ellipsis."

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Inferences and keywords

Much of what an author writes is implied. Authors expect their readers to fill in the gaps. So, to truly comprehend or understand much of what an author writes, we, as readers, have to use our inference skills. The more we are able to do this the better our inference and reading comprehension becomes. And successful inference of written text is often reliant on us having good word and world knowledge. To have a good vocabulary is important. But perhaps even more important is to have a solid understanding of semantic categories, and the links between words in our mental lexicon, or mental dictionary. If we are able to access the connections well then our ability to make inferences from complex text is that much stronger.

How do we infer?
Successful inferential comprehension requires us to do 3 things. 1.We must use the information presented in the text as our starting point. 2. We look for key words in the text that give us little hints or clues of a hidden meaning. 3. Using our background knowledge, or our world knowledge, we fill in the gaps using the key words to select a best fit answer.

The best way to illustrate this is to use an example from a children's book: Schumann the Shoeman. To give you some background, Schumann the Shoeman is an old style cobbler who lovingly makes pairs of shoes that are true works of art. No two pairs are the same.

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Example text: 'One grey wintery morning, a shoe factory opened in town. Before long, everyone was wearing the shoes that spilled from its conveyer belts. The shoes came in just one style - sensible. They came in just one colour - salmon. And they wore out after only one season.' Excerpt from Schumann the Shoeman, by John and Stella Danalis.

This excerpt is a particularly rich example of effective language written for children, and has much gold buried just beneath the surface. Often, children, particularly those with oral and written language difficulty, need a little push from us to discover for themselves the themes and depth of certain stories.

At a literal level, the author presents us with a shoe factory, which makes shoes that everybody buys. The shoes don't last particularly long in that they wear out after one season. But there's much more going on in the text than is revealed at surface level. We can sense that the author doesn't really approve of this situation. Nothing is stated explicitly, yet we can feel the disapproval nonetheless. We need to dig a little deeper here. We start by identifying the key words. 'One grey wintery morning, a shoe factory opened in town. Before long, everyone was wearing the shoes that spilled from its conveyer belts. The shoes came in just one style - sensible. They came in just one colour salmon. And they wore out after only one season.'

The author repeats the words one grey wintery morning, and one style, one colour, one season. He adds words such as 'conveyer belts' and'spilled' to denote a lack of care and absence of originality.

At a deeper inferential level, the word 'everyone' carries weight in that it hints that Schumann the Shoeman may face a difficult challenge if he were to lose all his customers to the shoe factory. This then raises the larger world view of the small businessman trying to compete with megacompanies and trans-national corporations.
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As we can see, there is much that the author is communicating in this one short passage. The author relies on the reader to use their world knowledge to infer the deeper implications of the impact the shoe factory may have on Schumann the Shoeman's livelihood.

A child with reading comprehension difficulty may read this book at a surface level and not dig any deeper. The child will note only that a new factory has opened and that it makes shoes.

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40

General Sense The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the meaning of the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence: Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers. You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually happens to those found guilty of murder or robbery?" Use the text box below to write down what you have inferred as the meaning of the word incarcerated.

If you answered that they are locked up in jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly inferred the meaning of incarcerated. Examples When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may be implied by examples. For instance, Those who enjoy belonging to clubs, going to parties, and inviting friends often to their homes for dinner are gregarious. You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question "What word or words describe people who belong to clubs, go to parties a lot, and often invite friends over to their homes for dinner?" Use the lines below to write down what you have inferred as the meaning of the word gregarious. If you wrote social or something like: "people who enjoy the company of others", you correctly inferred the meaning of gregarious. Antonyms and Contrasts When the meaning of a word is not implied by the general sense of its context or by examples, it may be implied by an antonym or by a contrasting thought in a context.

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Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings, such as happy and sad. For instance, Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous. You may infer the meaning of timorous by answering the question "If Ben is fearless and Jim is very different from Ben with regard to fear, then what word describes Jim?"

If you wrote a word such as timid, or afraid, or fearful, you inferred the meaning of timorous. A contrast in the following sentence implies the meaning of credence: Dad gave credence to my story, but Mom's reaction was one of total disbelief. You may infer the meaning of credence by answering the question "If Mom's reaction was disbelief and Dad's reaction was very different from Mom's, what was Dad's reaction?"

If you wrote that Dad believed the story, you correctly inferred the meaning of credence; it means "belief." Be Careful of the Meaning You Infer! When a sentence contains an unfamiliar word, it is sometimes possible to infer the general meaning of the sentence without inferring the exact meaning of the unknown word. For instance, When we invite the Paulsons for dinner, they never invite us to their home for a meal; however, when we have the Browns to dinner, they always reciprocate. In reading this sentence some students infer that the Browns are more desirable dinner guests than the Paulsons without inferring the exact meaning of reciprocate. Other students conclude that the Browns differ from the Paulsons in that they do something in return when they are

42

invited for dinner; these students conclude reciprocate means "to do something in return."

correctly

that

In drawing conclusions (making inferences), you are really getting at the ultimate meaning of things - what is important, why it is important, how one event influences another, how one happening leads to another. Simply getting the facts in reading is not enough you must think about what those facts mean to you.

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UNIT III: TEXT PURPOSE & AUDIENCE

Purpose, audience and context
Purpose, audience and context are very closely linked. This is because the purpose of a text often involves communicating with a particular audience. A visual text with the purpose of making teenagers laugh should have an audience of teenagers who want to laugh. In order for this to happen, the composer will need to have a good understanding of the context (what teenagers' circumstances are - particularly their interests and what they find humorous). Another example is a newspaper photograph where the purpose of the visual text is to inform the public about a specific part of an event. As the purpose of the photograph is to inform the public, in general its audience is very wide and hopes to communicate with people from a diverse range of personal contexts. The photographer (composer) of a newspaper photograph needs to ensure that their personal context does not stop them from reporting the news objectively (not influenced by personal context) as opposed to subjectively whereby the personal context and opinions of a composer directly affect the construction of a visual text.

Audience
The audience refers to the group of people who will be looking at (viewing) the visual text. When a composer constructs a visual text he/she is composing for a particular audience. This will have an impact on how the visual text is composed. Imagine, for example, that you are leaving a voice message on a mobile phone (a spoken text). Do you think that the message you leave will be different if your intended audience was your best friend? Your mother? The manager where you hope to get a job? If you can imagine how what you would say and how you would say it would change, then you already have an understanding of audience. Now it is a matter of recognising where audience has had an affect on how visual texts have been constructed. Not every visual text that you analyse will have you as the intended audience. It is important, therefore, that you can decide what audience the text has been constructed to reach. In a visual text such as a film clip where the subject matter is about a famous rapper, the audience may well be people whose interests include listening to rap music. The next time you see a visual text (in a newspaper, on television, an advertisement on a bus) try to decide who you think the audience for that visual text is. This is

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particularly relevant when watching (viewing) video clips. Consider how the images in the visual text reach the audience.

Purpose
Every text that we come across has a purpose. The purpose is the reason for the text being composed. The purpose of some visual texts could be to make teenagers laugh. The purpose of many documentaries is to inform and sometimes to persuade. The purpose of advertisements is certainly to persuade. The purpose of a stop sign is to warn of impending (coming) danger. In each case the purpose of a visual text will influence the way in which it is composed. Visual texts generally have the purposes of entertaining, instructing, persuading or warning and so on.

Modes of writing How to read an author depending on what they write

For the purposes of writing, when we refer to rhetoric, we often talk about it as the art of persuasion. There are many different strategies a communicator may employ to get his message across. Below is a list of some of the more basic ones: Analysis: Analyze why something happens and describe the consequences of a string of events. Does the essay examine past events or their outcome? Does it explain why something happened? Classification: Divide a whole into parts or sort related items into categories. Does the essay reduce the subject to more manageable parts or group parts? Critical: We read the text over and over and look at it every which way in the hope of seeing something that we could not see directly, meaning that you weigh the coherence of the reading, the completeness of its data, and so on, before you accept or reject it. Imagery: Language that evokes one or all of the five senses: sight, sound, touch, taste, smell. Does the essay use any provocative language that calls upon readers senses? Persuasion: Makes a claim or takes a position and backs it up with statistics, expert opinions, and other evidence. You may review an opposing review and explain why it is wrong and you are right.

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Description: Detail sensory perceptions of a person, place, or thing. Does a person, place, or object play a prominent role in the essay? Demonstrative: to demonstrate that you can tell about a specific thing, action, even or place in some kind of readable manner Support: Introduces a topic clearly, by presenting a precise theses, and supporting it with strong evidences. Summary: Restates the main ideas of a complex reading, without including critique or analysis of the text's ideas. A summary essay reveals the essayist's opinion by identifying which ideas the essayist deems important. Warning: Attempts to make readers to be aware of believing or following certain ideas that could do any harm. Caution: Contributes with stating solid arguments by which certain things must or must not be taken into account by the reader when making a choice. Emphasis: Requires that all information that is being presented in arranged in the order of the importance of the point. For example, from strongest to weakest, or from weakest to strongest is how information is arranged in an emphatic order. Definition: Provide the meaning of terms you use. Is there any important word in the essay with many meanings and is defined or clarified? Expository: It consists on presenting, completely and fairly, other people's views or to report about an event or a situation. Prediction: It is based on giving the reader clues and hints about what might occur sometime in the future.

Audience classification
According to the vocabulary employed in a text, three categories of audience are defined: the "lay" audience, the "managerial" audience, and the "experts." The "lay" audience has no special or expert knowledge. They connect with

46

the human interest aspect of articles. They usually need background information; they expect more definition and description; and they may want attractive graphics or visuals. The "managerial audience may or may have more knowledge than the lay audience about the subject, but they need knowledge so they can make a decision about the issue. Any background information, facts, statistics needed to make a decision should be highlighted. The "experts" may be the most demanding audience in terms of knowledge, presentation, and graphics or visuals. Experts are often "theorists" or "practitioners." For the "expert" audience, document formats are often elaborate and technical, style and vocabulary may be specialized or technical, source citations are reliable and up-to-date, and documentation is accurate.

Cohesion in texts How to recognize cohesive paragraphs Cohesion is related to the use of transitional expressions as well as other devices to guide readers and show how the parts of a composition relate to one other. According to Roy Peter Clark (Writing Tools: 50 Essential Strategies for Every Writer. Little, Brown, 2006), "The big parts of a story should stick together, but the small parts need some stickum as well. When the big parts fit, we call that good feeling coherence; when sentences connect, we call it cohesion." Therefore, Cohesion is achieved when writers connect their organized parts with sufficiently clear and numerous signals--like the words 'finally,' 'thus,' 'however,'--to make the development of their cases intelligible and to lead the reader safely along the emerging lines of their arguments. But what do we call these words? The answer is Transitional words and/or phrases. Transitional words and phrases can help make our writing clear and cohesive. A key quality of an effective paragraph is unity. A unified paragraph sticks to one topic from start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of that paragraph. But a strong paragraph is more than just a collection of loose sentences. Those sentences need to be clearly connected so that readers can follow along, recognizing how one detail leads to the next. A paragraph with clearly connected sentences is said to be cohesive.

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The following paragraph is unified and cohesive. Notice how the italicized words and phrases (called transitions) guide us along, helping us see how one detail le ads to the next. Text example: Why I Don't Make My Bed Ever since I moved into my own apartment last fall, I have gotten out of the habit of making my bed--except on Fridays, of course, when I change the sheets. Although some people may think that I am a slob, I have some sound reasons for breaking the bed-making habit. In the first place, I am not concerned about maintaining a tidy bedroom because no one except me ever ventures in there. If there is ever a fire inspection or a surprise date, I suppose I can dash in there to fluff up the pillow and slap on a spread. Otherwise, I am not bothered. In addition, I find nothing uncomfortable about crawling into a rumpled mass of sheets and blankets. On the contrary, I enjoy poking out a cozy space for myself before drifting off to sleep. Also, I think that a tightly made bed is downright uncomfortable: entering one makes me feel like a loaf of bread being wrapped and sealed. Finally, and most importantly, I think bed-making is an awful way to waste time in the morning. I would rather spend those precious minutes checking my email or feeding the cat than tucking in corners or snapping the spread. As you could have notice, transitional words and phrases guide readers from one sentence to the next. Although they most often appear at the beginning of a sentence, they may also show up after the subject. Here are the common transitional expressions, grouped according to the type of relationship shown by each. Transitional words and phrases - Classification 1. Addition Transitions and also besides first, second, third in addition in the first place, in the second place, in the third place furthermore moreover to begin with, next, finally

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Example In the first place, no "burning" in the sense of combustion, as in the burning of wood, occurs in a volcano; moreover, volcanoes are not necessarily mountains; furthermore, the activity takes place not always at the summit but more commonly on the sides or flanks; and finally, the "smoke" is not smoke but condensed steam. (Fred Bullard, Volcanoes in History) 2. Cause-Effect Transitions accordingly and so as a result consequently for this reason hence so then therefore thus

Example The ideologue is often brilliant. Consequently some of us distrust brilliance when we should distrust the ideologue. (Clifton Fadiman)

3. Comparison Transitions by the same token in like manner in the same way in similar fashion likewise similarly Example When you start with a portrait and search for a pure form, a clear volume, through successive eliminations, you arrive inevitably at the egg. Likewise, starting with the egg and following the same process in reverse, one finishes with the portrait. (Pablo Picasso)

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4. Contrast Transitions but however in contrast instead nevertheless on the contrary on the other hand still yet Example Every American, to the last man, lays claim to a sense of humor and guards it as his most significant spiritual trait, yet rejects humor as a contaminating element wherever found. America is a nation of comics and comedians; nevertheless, humor has no stature and is accepted only after the death of the perpetrator. (E. B. White) 5. Conclusion and Summary Transitions and so after all at last finally in brief in closing in conclusion on the whole to conclude to summarize Example Reporters are not paid to operate in retrospect. Because when news begins to solidify into current events and finally harden into history, it is the stories we didnt write, the questions we didnt ask that prove far, far more damaging than the ones we did. (Anna Quindlen) 6. Example Transitions as an example for example for instance

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specifically thus to illustrate Example With all the ingenuity involved in hiding delicacies on the body, this process automatically excludes certain foods. For example, a turkey sandwich is welcome, but the cumbersome cantaloupe is not. (Steve Martin, "How to Fold Soup") 7. Insistence Transitions in fact indeed no yes Example The joy of giving is indeed a pleasure, especially when you get rid of something you dont want. (Frank Butler, Going My Way) 8. Place Transitions above alongside beneath beyond farther along in back in front nearby on top of to the left to the right under upon Example What did it matter where you lay once you were dead? In a dirty sump or in a marble toweron top of a high hill? You were dead, you were sleeping the big sleep, you were not bothered by things like that. (Raymond Chandler, The Big Sleep)

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9. Restatement Transitions in other words in short in simpler terms that is to put it differently to repeat Example Anthropologist Geoffrey Gorer studied the few peaceful human tribes and discovered one common characteristic: sex roles were not polarized. Differences of dress and occupation were at a minimum. Society in other words, was not using sexual blackmail as a way of getting women to do cheap labor, or men to be aggressive. (Gloria Steinem, "What It Would Be Like If Women Win") 10. Time Transitions afterward at the same time currently earlier formerly immediately in the future in the meantime in the past later meanwhile previously simultaneously subsequently then until now Example At first a toy, then a mode of transportation for the rich, the automobile was designed as man's mechanical servant. Later it became part of the pattern of living. Cohession in paragraphs Exercise

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This exercise will give you an opportunity to apply the techniques discussed in previous pages. Instructions Combine the sentences in each set into two clear and concise sentences, eliminating any needless repetition. As you do so, add a transitional word or phrase (in italics at the head of each set) to the beginning of the second sentence to show how it relates to the first. After you have completed the exercise, compare your sentences with the originals. Keep in mind that many combinations are possible, and in some cases you may prefer your own sentences to the original versions. 1. Instead Retirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work. It is widely viewed as a sort of punishment. It is a punishment for growing old.

2. Therefore In recent years viruses have been shown to cause cancer in chickens. Viruses have also been shown to cause cancer in mice, cats, and even in some primates. Viruses might cause cancer in humans. This is a reasonable hypothesis.

3. In fact We do not seek solitude. If we find ourselves alone for once, we flick a switch. We invite the whole world in. The world comes in through the television screen.

4. On the contrary We were not irresponsible. Each of us should do something. This thing would be of genuine usefulness to the world. We were trained to think that.

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5. However Little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets. They do not say "Pow, pow" to all their neighbors and friends. The average well-adjusted little boy does this. If we gave little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the pretend body count.

6. Next We drove the wagon close to a corner post. We twisted the end of the wire around it. We twisted the wire one foot above the ground. We stapled it fast. We drove along the line of posts. We drove for about 200 yards. We unreeled the wire on the ground behind us.

7. Indeed We know very little about pain. What we don't know makes it hurt all the more. There is ignorance about pain. No form of illiteracy in the United States is so widespread. No form of illiteracy in the United States is so costly.

8. Moreover Many of our street girls can be as vicious as any corporation president. Many of our street girls can be as money mad as any corporation president. They can be less emotional than men. They can be less emotional in conducting acts of personal violence.

9. For this reason The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past. They have made us conscious of the world as a machine. The machine generates successive events out of foregoing ones. Some scholars tend to look totally backward. They look backward in their interpretation of the human future.

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10. However Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do. They rewrite to discover what they have to say. They rewrite to discover how to say it. There are a few writers who do little formal rewriting. They have capacity and experience. They create and review a large number of invisible drafts. They create and review in their minds. They do this before they approach the page.

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ASSORTED TEXTS POR READING PURPOSES READING 1:

Diamond Jubilee: Queen celebrating 60-year reign

The Queen was met by well-wishers after she visited Dersingham Infant and Nursery School, in Norfolk

The Queen has visited a school in Norfolk as she marks the 60th anniversary of her accession to the throne. Earlier she said she was dedicating herself "anew to your service" and that she was "deeply moved" by support for the Diamond Jubilee. The Queen was met by crowds at King's Lynn Town Hall before going to Dersingham Infant and Nursery School. Gun salutes were held around the UK, including in London and Edinburgh.

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The main celebrations for her anniversary will be in June. The Queen, 85, usually spends Accession Day - the day her father, George VI, died in 1952 - privately but this year has the two engagements in Norfolk. Two official photographs were released and a 41-gun salute was held in Hyde Park, London, followed by a 62-gun salute at the Tower of London.

Analysis
Peter Hunt BBC diplomatic and royal correspondent
For the Queen, this is a day of celebration - her great-great grandmother Victoria was the only other British monarch to achieve this milestone - and commemoration, marking as it does the anniversary of the death of her beloved father, George VI. So, a significant moment will pass in a deliberately low-key manner with a visit to a town hall and a primary school in Norfolk. As the weather improves and the months go by, there will be nothing subdued about the events which will be staged for a reign which is the second longest in British history. Her close friend, Lady Penn, told the BBC the Queen had been the "still small voice of calm" in a social revolution in this country over the past 60 years. In her Diamond Jubilee message, with the words "I dedicate myself anew to your service", the Queen is repeating a pledge she first made at the age of 21. This is a royal octogenarian who intends to remain as Sovereign for as long as she lives.

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Read more from Peter There was also a 21-gun Royal Salute at Edinburgh Castle at noon. At the end of the Queen's tour, pupils at Dersingham Infants gathered in the school hall for a musical performance where she was the guest of honour. Head teacher Gayle Platt said the visit had been "incredible" and she felt "very, very privileged". "We've made the day a big occasion for the children that will continue now the Queen's gone," she said. During her reign, Queen Elizabeth II has seen 11 UK prime ministers come and go, with David Cameron her 12th. Mr Cameron praised the "magnificent service" given by the Queen and called her a "source of wisdom and continuity". "With experience, dignity and quiet authority she has guided and united our nation and the Commonwealth over six varied decades," he said. Among the crowds waiting for the Queen in King's Lynn was Laura Skrzynski, who travelled from London. She said: "I love that the monarchy is above politics and feel that the Queen represents that best of all. "She stands for integrity and respect and I am inspired by her faith. She has been a constant through all our lives."

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BBC coverage of the proclamation announcement of Queen Elizabeth II, February 1952 Meanwhile, Sir John Major has formally launched the Queen Elizabeth Diamond Jubilee Trust to help those in need across the Commonwealth. He will chair the grant-making body, which will focus on areas such as fighting curable diseases and the promotion of education and culture. A set of six 1st class definitive stamps, all of which feature official portraits of the Queen, are also being issued to mark the monarch's milestone. Moya Greene, Royal Mail's chief executive, said: "The Queen's image is one of the most recognisable in the world and we are delighted to bring these iconic images together to mark the 60th anniversary of the Queen's accession." The Diamond Jubilee Miniature Sheet marks the first occasion on which official images of the monarch, sourced from stamps, coins and banknotes, have been brought together for a stamp issue. The Queen's 60 years as monarch are set to be marked by a series of regional, national and international events during 2012, culminating in a fourday long UK Bank Holiday weekend in June. Events planned to take place during the summer include the Queen leading a flotilla of a thousand boats along the Thames and a chain of beacons being lit across the country.

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Two new photos were released to mark the anniversary There will be a service of thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral in June and a formal carriage procession by the Queen. The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh also intend to travel as widely as possible across the UK. Other members of the Royal Family will visit the 15 other countries where the Queen is head of state, as well as some other Commonwealth countries. In her message to mark the anniversary, the Queen said: "I am writing to thank you for the wonderful support and encouragement that you have given to me and Prince Philip over these years and to tell you how deeply moved we have been to receive so many kind messages about the Diamond Jubilee. "In this special year, as I dedicate myself anew to your service, I hope we will all be reminded of the power of togetherness and the convening strength of family, friendship and good neighbourliness, examples of which I have been fortunate to see throughout my reign and which my family and I look forward to seeing in many forms as we travel throughout the United Kingdom and the wider Commonwealth."

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READING 2:

Europe's governments are running out of options

From the Baltic to the Balkans, politicians are struggling to stay in office while implementing savage savings programmes

Ian Traynor, Europe editor

o

guardian.co.uk, Monday 6 February 2012 13.57 GMT Article history

A single protester waves a huge national flag on University Plaza in Bucharest, Romania. Photograph: Robert Ghement/EPA

For the governments of Europe in the midst of the EU's worst ever crisis, it is getting increasingly difficult to reconcile internationally ordained austerity packages with popular acquiescence in spending cuts, job losses, and slashed budgets. Whether using the euro or not, governments from the Baltic to the Balkans are struggling to stay in office while implementing the savage savings programmes dictated by technocrats from Brussels, Washington, and Frankfurt.

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The fall on Monday of the Romanian government following weeks of unrest on the streets of Bucharest is but the latest example. In Greece another uneasy coalition may be falling apart as it balks at meeting the severe terms of the troika of the European Commission, the European Central Bank, and the International Monetary Fund if it is to secure a second 130bn bailout in time to redeem a large tranche of its debt next month. Athens will again be seething with rage on Tuesday when two of the biggest unions have called a 24-hour general strike. Trapped between the demands of their constituency and the dictates of international creditors, governments and political leaders all across Europe are running out of options. The problem is made worse by the popular perception in several of the affected countries that the political class is akin to a mafia politicians in cahoots with bankers and property developers or businessmen fleecing the country to the point of bankruptcy then leaving the public to pick up the pieces wage cuts, job losses, higher taxes, health, education, and retirement services decimated, all of it policed by faceless technocrats flying in from Brussels and Washington. Such has been the perception of the Boc government in Romania, ditto in Greece and Ireland. Since the euro crisis erupted two years ago, governments in all three so-called "programme" countries, those being bailed out by the EU and the IMF, have fallen as a direct consequence in Ireland, Portugal and Greece. The crisis also brought down the seemingly insuperable Silvio Berlusconi in Italy as well as Jos Luis Zapatero in Spain. But the political pain has been felt not only on the debtors' side of the bailout equation. Among the euro creditors, resort to taxpayers' money to rescue the profligate has been highly unpopular, contributing to a change of government in Finland, a series of regional election losses for Chancellor Angela Merkel's Christian democrats in Germany, and a harsher, more eurosceptic mood in the Netherlands. The crisis is now playing strongly in Europe's key election campaign this year in France where Nicolas Sarkozy has overseen a loss of the country's credit rating parity with Germany and where the leftist frontrunner, Franois
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Hollande, is pledging to ease up on the austerity deemed to be needed to shake up the country. In the EU, but outside the eurozone, the debt crisis is also taking its toll, as shown by the fate of the Romanian government. Next door in Hungary, the divisive prime minister, Viktor Orbn, is having to eat humble pie, reverse a previous spurning of outside help, and perform a U-turn on economic policy in order to try to secure a 20bn lifeline from the EU and the IMF.

READING 3

Michael Jackson

Rusty Kennedy/Associated Press

Updated: Nov. 29, 2011

Michael Joseph Jacksons story was a quintessentially American tale of celebrity and excess that took him from musical boy wonder to global pop superstar to sad figure haunted by lawsuits, paparazzi and failed plastic surgery. At the height of his career, Mr. Jackson was indisputably the biggest star in the world; he sold more than 750 million albums. He spent a lifetime surprising people, in his last years mainly because of a surreal personal life, lurid legal scandals, serial plastic surgeries and erratic public behavior that turned him on his very best days into the butt of late-night talk-show jokes and tabloid headlines. Mr. Jackson died at age 50 in Los Angeles on June 25, 2009. His death itself became an enormous spectacle. On television and on the Internet, tens of millions

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of people worldwide watched a memorial service at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. The cause of Mr. Jacksons death was a mixture of the powerful anesthetic propofol and the anti-anxiety drug lorazepam, according to the Los Angeles County Coroners office. Two days after Mr. Jacksons death his personal doctor, Conrad Murray, told detectives that he had been using propofol nearly daily for the last two months to help Mr. Jackson sleep. But he said that he had been trying to wean Mr. Jackson off the drug and had tried sedatives instead. Dr. Murray was charged with involuntary manslaughter for providing him with propofol. Guilty Verdict and Sentencing On Nov. 7, Dr. Murray was convicted of involuntary manslaughter. The jury deliberated less than nine hours. He could also lose his medical license. On Nov. 29, Dr. Murray was sentenced to four years, the maximum he was facing. However, because of Californias chronically overcrowded prisons, it was unclear how much time he would actually spend behind bars. Dr. Murray was initially being sent to a county jail because of a state law aimed at easing overcrowding. Court observers said he was likely to spend two years there and then serve out the rest of the time under house arrest. The trial focused on whether Dr. Murray abdicated his duty as a doctor, recklessly providing Mr. Jackson at home with a powerful sedative that is typically used in hospitals with extensive monitoring. Judge Michael E. Pastor, before announcing the sentence, castigated Dr. Murray for his lack of remorse. To hear Dr. Murray say it, Dr. Murray was a bystander, the judge said. Talk about blaming the victim. Not only is there not a ny remorse, theres umbrage and outrage. The Jackson 5 Mr. Jackson was born in Gary, Ind., on Aug. 29, 1958 and began performing professionally at age 5, joining his three older brothers in a group that their father, Joe, a steelworker, had organized the previous year. In 1968 the group, now five strong and known as the Jackson 5, was signed by Motown Records. As Mr. Jacksons career began to take off, fans and entertainment industry veterans recognized something else about the pint-size musical dynamo that was unusual: He was in possession of an outsize, mesmerizing talent. By 1969, Mr. Jackson had already spent years in talent shows and performing in seedy Midwestern clubs under the aegis of his dictatorial and ambitious father and

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Berry Gordy, the founder of Motown Records. They were the singers twin mentors during his early career. The Jackson 5 was an instant phenomenon. The groups first four singles I Want You Back, ABC, The Love You Save and Ill Be There all reached No. 1 on the pop charts in 1970, a feat no group had accomplished before. And young Michael was unquestionably the center of attention: he handled virtually all the lead vocals, danced with energy and finesse, and displayed a degree of showmanship rare in a performer of any age. The Jackson brothers were soon a fixture on television variety shows and even briefly had their own Saturday morning cartoon series. Mr. Jackson had his own recollections of those years. When youre a show business child, you really dont have the maturity to understand a great deal of what is going on around you. People make a lot of decisions concerning your life when youre out of the room, he wrote in Moon Walk, his 1988 autobiography. Berry insisted on perfection and attention to detail. Ill never forget his persistence. This was his genius. Then and later, I observed every moment of the sessions where Berry was present and never forgot what I learned. To this day, I use the same principles. Solo Career In 1971 Mr. Jackson began recording under his own name, while also continuing to perform and record with his brothers. His recording of Ben, the title song from a movie about a boy and his homicidal pet rat, was a No. 1 hit in 1972. The brothers (minus Michaels older brother Jermaine, who was married to the daughter of Berry Gordy, Motowns founder and chief executive) left Motown in 1975 and, rechristened the Jacksons, signed to Epic, a unit of CBS Records. The following year Michael made his movie debut as the Scarecrow in the screen version of the hit Broadway musical The Wiz. But movie stardom proved not to be his destiny. Music stardom on an unprecedented level, however, was. Mr. Jacksons first solo album for Epic, Off the Wall, yielded four No.1 singles and sold seven million copies, but it was a mere prologue to what came next. His follow-up, Thriller, released in 1982, became the best-selling album of all time and helped usher in the music video age. The video for the albums title track, directed by John Landis, was an elaborate horror-movie pastiche that was more of a mini-movie than a promotional clip and played a crucial role in making MTV a household name. Seven of the nine tracks on Thriller were released as singles and reached the Top 10. The album spent two years on the Billboard album chart and sold more than 50 million copies worldwide. It also won eight Grammy Awards.

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Such accomplishments would have been difficult for anyone to equal, much less surpass. Mr. Jacksons next album, Bad, released in 1987, sold eight mill ion copies and produced five No..1 singles and another state-of-the-art video, this one directed by Martin Scorsese. It was a huge hit by almost anyone elses standards, but an inevitable letdown after Thriller. Offstage, A Strange Life It was at this point that Mr. Jacksons bizarre private life began to overshadow his music. He would go on to release several more albums and, from time to time, to stage elaborate concert tours. And he would never be too far from the public eye. But it would never again be his music that kept him there. Sales of his recordings through Sonys music unit generated more than $300 million in royalties for Mr. Jackson since the early 1980s, according to three individuals with direct knowledge of the singers business affairs. R evenues from concerts and music publishing including the creation of a venture with Sony that controls the Beatles catalog as well as from endorsements, merchandising and music videos added, perhaps, $400 million more to that amount, these people believe. Subtracted were hefty costs like recording and production expenses, taxes and the like. Those close to Mr. Jackson say that his finances had not deteriorated simply because he was a big spender. Until the early 1990s, they said, he paid relatively close attention to his accounting and kept an eye on the cash that flowed through his business and creative ventures. After that, they say, Mr. Jackson became overly enamored of something that ensnares wealthy people of all stripes: bad advice. Mr. Jacksons pre-expense share of the Thriller bounty including the album, singles and a popular video surpassed $125 million, according to a former adviser who requested anonymity because of the confidential nature of Mr. Jacksons finances. Those who counseled him in the Thriller era credit the pop star with financial acumen and astute business judgment, evidenced by his $47.5 million purchase of the Beatles catalog in 1985 (a move that served to alienate him from Paul McCartney, the Beatles legend who imparted the financial wisdom of buying catalogs to Mr. Jackson during a casual chat, only to see Mr. Jackson then turn around and buy rights to many of Mr. McCartneys own songs). Acquaintances from that period say that he would occasionally borrow gas money, and he still lived in the Jackson family home in the suburban Encino section of Los Angeles. It wasnt until the end of the 1980s that Mr. Jackson began to exhibit more baronial tendencies. In 1988, he made his $17 million purchase of property near Santa Ynez, Calif., that became Neverland. At the same time, Mr. Jackson was redefining the concept of spectacle in pop music. He hired Martin Scorsese, the film director, to direct a video for Bad, a clip that one adviser with direct knowledge of the production budget said cost more

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than $1 million. The same adviser said that Mr. Jackson netted way north of $35 million from a yearlong Bad tour that began in 1987, and that heading into the 1990s Mr. Jackson was in sound shape financially. By the mid-90s, though, Mr. Jacksons finances were under strain. He retreated from working regularly after the release of Dangerous in 1991 and settled a child molestation lawsuit for about $20 million. More significantly in terms of his finances, he had to sell Sony a 50 percent stake in the Beatles catalog in 1995 for more than $100 million, which one adviser said helped shore up the singers wobbling accounts. Mr. Jackson wouldnt produce another studio album of completely new material until 2001. Sexual Abuse Trial In June 2005, he was acquitted of all charges in connection with accusations that he molested a 13-year-old boy he had befriended as the youth was recovering from cancer in 2003. Mr. Jacksons complete acquittal ended a nearly four-month trial that featured 140 witnesses who painted clashing portraits of the 46-year-old international pop star as either pedophile or Peter Pan. Along with the verdict, the jury gave a note for the judge to read out in court. In it, they said they felt the weight of the worlds eyes upon us all and that they had thoroughly and meticulously studied all the evidence. The note concluded with a plea we would like the public to allow us to return to our lives as anonymously as we came. The case arose from the February 2003 broadcast of Living with Michael Jackson, a British documentary in which Mr. Jackson admitted sharing his bed with young boys, calling it a loving act unrelated to sex. The boy who later became the accuser was shown holding hands with the singer and resting his head affectionately on his shoulder. He was described as a 13-year-old cancer patient whom Mr. Jackson had decided to help. Death and Aftermath On March 5, 2009, Mr. Jackson announced that he would perform a series of concerts in London in the summer, in what he called a final curtain call. Mr. Jackson, 50, revealed the details of the concerts at a news conference in London, where he said he would perform 10 shows at that citys O2 Arena, beginning July 8. When I say this is it, I mean this is it, Mr. Jackson said. Ill be performing the songs my fans want to hear. The shows would have been Mr. Jacksons first major performances since 2001 and 2002, when he appeared at a pair of 30th anniversary celebrations and two benefit concerts; a brief appearance by Mr. Jackson at the World Music Awards in 2006 was booed by some audience members.

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On June 25, Mr. Jackson was found unconscious in his home. Mr. Jackson arrived at the U.C.L.A. Medical Center in cardiac arrest and was declared dead a short time later. According to the court documents unsealed on Aug. 24, 2009, Dr. Murray told investigators that he had administered an intravenous drip of 50 milligrams of propofol, a powerful anesthetic, to Mr. Jackson nightly for six weeks before the singers death to help him sleep. Dr. Murray also administered lorazepam, an antianxiety drug that can be addictive, and midazolam, a muscle relaxant, to treat Mr. Jacksons insomnia. A mixture of propofol and lorazepam killed Michael Jackson, according to a statement made by the Los Angeles County Coroners Office on Aug. 28. It said the manner of death was a homicide. Dr. Murray said he tried to resuscitate Mr. Jackson and administered flumazenil, a drug to reverse the effects of the sedatives in his system. Dr. Murray did not immediately call paramedics to the home. Media outlets treated the weeks following Mr. Jacksons death as an expansive public funeral for the pop star, culminating in a service at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. Nielsen Media Research said that the 18 channels that simulcast the service had a combined average of 31 million at-home viewers during the nearly three-hour event. The service drew a bigger TV crowd than the funerals for two former presidents, Ronald Reagan in 2004 and Gerald Ford in early 2007. Mr. Jacksons memorial also attracted millions of online viewers. Citing internal data, CNN.com said it served 4.4 million live video streams during the service; MSNBC.com said it counted 3.1 million.Yahoo reported 5 million total streams. On Sept. 3, Mr. Jackson was entombed in the heavily guarded Forest Lawn cemetery, several miles north of downtown Los Angeles. About 200 people, including Elizabeth Taylor, Lisa Marie Presley, Macaulay Culkin, and Quincy Jones, attended the private funeral.

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READING 4

Aeolian processes on Mars: atmospheric modeling and GIS analysis

Citation
Fenton, Lori K (2003) Aeolian processes on Mars: atmospheric modeling and GIS analysis. Dissertation (Ph.D.), California Institute of Technology. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03052003124751

Abstract
Wind is currently the dominant geological agent acting on the surface of Mars. A study of Martian aeolian activity leads to an understanding of the forces that have sculpted the planets face over the past billion years or more and to the potential discovery of climate shifts recorded in surface wind features that reflect ancient wind patterns. This work takes advantage of newly available tools and data to reconstruct the sedimentary history reflected in aeolian features on Mars. The thesis is divided into two main projects. In the first section, a widely accepted hypothesis, that oscillations in Martian orbital parameters influence atmospheric circulation patterns, is challenged. A Mars global circulation model is run at different obliquity, eccentricity, and perihelion states and the predicted surface wind orientations are correlated with observed aeolian features on the Martian surface. The model indicates that orbital parameters have little effect on wind patterns, suggesting that aeolian features not aligned with the current wind regime must have formed under atmospheric conditions unrelated to orbital parameters. In the second project, new spacecraft data and a mesoscale model are used to determine the sedimentary history of Proctor Crater, a 150 km diameter crater in the southern highlands of Mars. Using high-resolution imagery, topography, composition, and thermal information, a GIS was constructed to study the aeolian history of the crater, which was found to have a complex interaction of deposition and erosion. Surficial features include 450 m of sediments filling the crater basin, small bright bedforms, dust devil tracks, and a dark dunefield consisting of coarse, basaltic sand and containing

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slipfaces indicative of a multidirectional, convergent wind regime. All wind features, both ancient and contemporary, are coaligned, indicating that formative wind directions have changed little since the first aeolian features formed in this area. Mesoscale model runs over Proctor Crater indicate that two dune slipfaces are created by winter afternoon geostrophic westerlies and summer evening katabatic easterlies, and that dust devil tracks are created by summer noontime rotational westerlies. Using all available tools, this thesis begins the work of understanding how aeolian processes have influenced the Martian surface.
Item Type: Subject Keywords: Thesis (Dissertation (Ph.D.)) climate change; dunes; dust; dust devils; eolian processes; GCM; geomorphology; GFDL; global circulation model; mesoscale model; MM5; Noachis Terra; obliquity variations; sand; sedimentary history; wind stress California Institute of Technology Geological and Planetary Sciences Geological and Planetary Sciences Public (worldwide access)

Degree Grantor: Division: Major Option: Thesis Availability: Research Advisor(s):

Albee, Arden Leroy (advisor) Murray, Bruce C. (co-advisor) Brown, Michael E. (chair) Albee, Arden Leroy Murray, Bruce C. Sieh, Kerry E. Richardson, Mark I.

Thesis Committee:

Defense Date: Record Number:

03 February 2003 CaltechETD:etd-03052003-124751

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Persistent URL: Default Usage Policy:

http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechETD:etd-03052003-124751 No commercial reproduction, distribution, display or performance rights in this work are provided. 877 CaltechTHESIS Imported from ETD-db 06 Mar 2003 14 Jul 2010 15:57

ID Code: Collection: Deposited By: Deposited On: Last Modified:

READING 5
THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY THE LINGUISTIC EVIDENCE

A stunning result of linguistic research in the 19th century was the recognition that some languages show correspondences of form that cannot be due to chance convergences, to borrowing among the languages involved, or to universal characteristics of human language, and that such correspondences therefore can only be the result of the languages in question having sprung from a common source language in the past. Such languages are said to be related (more specifically, genetically related, though genetic here does not have any connection to the term referring to a biological genetic relationship) and to belong to a language family. It can therefore be convenient to model such linguistic genetic relationships via a family tree, showing the genealogy of the languages claimed to be related. For example, in the model below, all the languages B through I in the tree are related as members of the same family; if they were not related, they would not all descend from the same original language A. In such a schema, A is the proto-language, the starting point for the family, and B, C, and
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D are offspring (often referred to as daughter languages); B, C, and D are thus siblings (often referred to as sister languages), and each represents a separate branch of the family tree. B and C, in turn, are starting points for other offspring languages, E, F, and G, and H and I, respectively. Thus B stands in the same relationship to E, F, and G as A does to B, C, and D. B and C, therefore, are protolanguages too, but are they are intermediate protolanguages. It is thus possible to determine not only overall family relationship, but also degrees of relatedness the languages in a single branch, e.g. E, F, and G, are more closely related to one another than each of them is to a language in a different branch, e.g. H, I, or D. Many such language families can be recognized, and the languages within each exhibit striking formal correspondences in their phonology, morphology, overall structure, and vocabulary that link them together. One of the earliest language families to be recognized, and thus the most thoroughly investigated of all to date, is the one that Greek belongs to, the one known as the IndoEuropean language family. The source language, generally called Proto-Indo-European, was spoken some 6,500 years ago (see the article by J. P. Mallory) and has given rise to several hundred languages, in ten major branches. In the sections that follow, these ten branches are enumerated, with brief mention of some minor languages are given, the

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interrelationships among these languages are discussed, and the evidence linking the IndoEuropean languages together is presented. 1. The Major Branches of Indo-European The ten major branches of the Indo-European family are listed here roughly in the order of their location east-to-west at the point of their first attestation, with an indication of the oldest representative languages in each and their earliest attestation (generally literary innature). 1.1. Tocharian. Two closely related languages, generally referred to simply as TOCHARIAN A and TOCHARIAN B, make up this easternmost branch of Indo-European. Though extinct by the 10th century AD, these languages were discovered in documents dating from the 6th to 8th centuries AD that were found in the Central Asian region of Chinese Turkestan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 1.2. Indo-Iranian. This branch, consisting now of hundreds of modern languages found mainly in South Asia, is represented by two large sub-groups, IRANIAN and INDIC (alsoknown as INDOARYAN), both with important ancient testimony. The earliestattested Iranian languages are OLD PERSIAN, known from rock-cut inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings in the 6th to 4th centuries BC, and AVESTAN, the sacred language of Zoroastrianism, known from orally transmitted texts from at least as early as the 7th century BC. On the Indic side, the major representative is SANSKRIT, which in its most archaic form, known as Vedic, is the language of the orally transmitted sacred Hindu texts the Vedas, the oldest being the Rig Veda, conventionally dated to about 1200 BC. A vast literature in the highly archaic Vedic Sanskrit and in the somewhat later Classical Sanskrit, dating from the 6th century, including detailed native grammatical treatises, make this language especially important for Indo-European studies.
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1.3. Armenian. Though showing considerable dialect diversity, this branch is represented essentially by a single language, ARMENIAN, spoken now mainly in the Armenian Republicand in eastern Turkey, and attested from the 5th century AD through Bible translations into what is referred to as Classical Armenian. 1.4. Anatolian. Several of the ancient languages of Anatolia, in what is now Turkey, came to light in the early 20th century in cuneiform archives discovered at Bo azky, east of Ankara, and were soon recognized as Indo-European languages. Though the oldest of these is PALAIC, an extinct language even in the 18th century BC, the best represented by far is HITTITE, attested from the 17th century BC up through the 13th century BC. Also important are LUVIAN, contemporaneous with Hittite but spoken into the first millennium BC, and LYCIAN and LYDIAN, both attested from as early as the 5th century BC. All of the IndoEuropean Anatolian languages were extinct by late Hellenistic times. 1.5. Greek. Like Armenian, GREEK is essentially a single language throughout its long history, yet constitutes a separate and distinct branch of Indo-European, though it too has considerable dialect diversity at all points in its history. Greek is attested first in Linear B texts from (perhaps) as early as 1400 BC, with the later Homeric texts showing considerable archaism as well. 1.6. Albanian. Attested quite late, only from the 15th century AD, ALBANIAN, in its two major dialects Geg and Tosk, is a separate branch of the Indo-European family. Its prehistory is most unclear, though some connection with an ancient language of the Balkans, possibly Illyrian or Thracian, is often assumed. 1.7. Balto-Slavic. This branch consists of two well-represented subgroups, the BALTIC languages and the SLAVIC languages. Grouping them together into a single branch is somewhat controversial but is generally accepted and is justified by some
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significant innovations they share, particularly in the accentual realm. The oldest attested representative of Baltic is the now-extinct OLD PRUSSIAN, attested from the 14th century AD, but the most substantial documentation for Baltic comes from LITHUANIAN and LATVIAN, both attested from the 16th century and still spoken today. The Slavic languages are attested from the 9th century AD, with the earliest text being a Bible translation prepared, at the invitation of the ruler of Moravia, by Cyril and Methodius of Thessalonica writing in a southern Slavic dialect now referred to as OLD CHURCH SLAVONIC. 1.8. Germanic. Three subgroups with important older representation make up the GERMANIC branch of IndoEuropean. The earliest attested Germanic is found in the socalled Runic inscriptions from as early as the 2nd century AD, though the evidence is sparse compared to the rich literary material of later centuries. Earliest among this richer documentation is GOTHIC, the sole (and now-extinct) representative of East Germanic, attested first through a 4th century AD Bible translation. West Germanic is represented byOLD ENGLISH, attested from the 7th century AD, and by OLD HIGH GERMAN, attested from the 8th century. North Germanic is attested earliest in OLD NORSE, from the 12th century. 1.9. Italic. Along with Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, and Greek, the other branch of IndoEuropean with substantial attestation from before the common era is ITALIC, covering many of the languages spoken in ancient Italy. The primary representative of this branch is LATIN, attested first in the 6th century BC through short inscriptions with much more extensive documentation coming in the 3rd century BC and later (and note Latins modern offshoots, the socalled Romance languages). Other Italic languages include FALISCAN, OSCAN, and UMBRIAN, all somewhat spottily attested and rendered extinct in ancient times by the spread of (Roman) Latin.

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1.10. Celtic. The westernmost branch of Indo-European at the time of its first attestation is the group of CELTIC languages. Although Celtic languages were spoken over much of the western European continent in ancient times, with traces attested in GAULISH and CELTIBERIAN inscriptions from as early as the 3rd century BC, the main representatives ofthis branch are found in the British Isles. The most important Celtic language for IndoEuropean studies is OLD IRISH, attested in short inscriptions from the 4th and 5th centuriesAD and in extensive literary documents from the 8th century; WELSH, too, is important, attested also from the 8th century.

READING 6 Queen Biography (http://rockhall.com/inductees/queen/bio/)

Queen represented rocks bombastic pinnacle. Melding glam-rock with hard-rock, the groups ornate, multi-tracked recordings and in-your-face songs resulted to worldwide sales of more than 130 million records. Queen took flight in the Seventies, embodying the thrills and excesses of that decade. Were the Cecil B.

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DeMille of rock and roll, always wanting to do things bigger and better, said vocalist Freddie Mercury. Exhibiting a keen intelligence and capacity for reinvention, Queen drew from contemporary music, visual media and pop culture, blowing it all up into a multimedia spectacle grounded in solid rock. Beyond the flamboyant exterior, however, there was genuine power and daring in their music, which ranged from the neo-rockabilly swagger of Crazy Little Thing Called Love to the driving disco-funk of Another One Bites the Dust. Queen concocted a densely layered rock operetta, Bohemian Rhapsody, that is among the most ornate productions in music history. They also served up crowd-pleasing chants like We Are the Champions and We Will Rock You, which have both become anthems in the world of sports.

The group formed in London in 1971. They came to music from university studies in such far-ranging disciplines as art, biology and astronomy. In keep with their regal vision, the nascent quartet foreswore the usual humbling rounds of pub and club gigs, working privately on a more theatrical, stage-ready presentation. Their first public concert took place in 1973 before an audience of invited guests at a London college. Eight years later, in March 1981, they would perform in Sao Paulo, Brazil, on consecutive nights to audiences numbering 131,000 and 120,000 - the largest paying crowds ever to hear a single band. In 1985, they played to a quarter of a million people at the Rock in Rio festival. That same year, they delivered an

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electrifying segment at the Live Aid benefit concert, seen by a TV audience of hundreds of millions. Clearly Queen was a band born to play stadiums. A specially designed stage prop - a 5,000-pound lighting rig shaped like a crown - accompanied them on tour. The stage is designed to cope with the venues were playing in, to get the optimum out of those places, explained drummer Roger Taylor. The more the merrier, said guitarist Brian May of Queens stadium-filling mass appeal.

Excepting live albums and hits compilations, Queen released 15 studio albums of original music between 1973 and 1995. Their self-titled debut laid out the fundamentals of Queens sound - built around Mays layered guitars and Mercurys biting vocals - on such tracks as Keep Yourself Alive and Liar. Their massively overdubbed second album, Queen II (1974), exploited cutting-edge studio technology and remains a pillar of grandiose, assaultive hard rock. The title of Queens third album, Sheer Heart Attack (also released in 1974), summed up the monumental intensity of their work and yielded their first hit single, Killer Queen. Back-to-back albums at mid-decade - A Night at the Opera and A Day at the Races - borrowed Marx Brothers movie titles. More important, A Night at the Opera ushered forth Queens grandest moment: Bohemian Rhapsody. This seven-minute magnum opus cracked the Top Ten on two occasions: on its initial release in 1976 and again in 1992, when it appeared in a memorable scene from the film comedy Waynes World.

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Going against the grain of 1977s punk uprising, News of the World (1977) contained Queens most beloved (and despised) chant-along songs: We Are the Champions and We Will Rock You. Queens highest-charting album was 1980s The Game (#1 for five weeks), which also produced their biggest singles, Crazy Little Thing Called Love and Another One Bites the Dust. All the while, Queen mounted ever-more grandiose live shows. Queens performance at the 1985 Live Aid spectacular is remembered as one of the days highlights and gave the band momentum for what turned out to be their final year of concert performances. Meanwhile, Queen continued to push the envelope in the studio. As the flamboyant frontman Mercury stated when A Kind of Magic was released in 1986, I hate doing the same thing again and again. I like to see whats happening now in music, film and theater and incorporate all of those things. The group ended with the death, due to AIDS-related causes, of Mercury in 1991. At the same time, their status as one of rocks most legendary bands only continues to grow.

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READING 7
Curiosity Safely on Mars! Health Checks Begin
Mon, 06 Aug 2012 09:10:48 PM GMT-0430

With Curiosity now safely on the surface of the Red Planet after last night's spectacular entry, descent and landing in Gale Crater, NASA's Mars Science Laboratory begins its planned primary one-Martian-year (98-week) mission of discovery and exploration.

On its first Martian day, designated Sol 0, the rover is checking its health and measuring its tilt. All Sol 0 spacecraft activities appear to have been completely nominal. These include firing all of Curiosity's pyrotechnic devices for releasing post-landing deployments. Spring-loaded deployments, such as removal of dust covers from the Hazard-Avoidance cameras (Hazcams) occur immediately when pyros are fired. Curiosity also took images with its front and rear Hazcams both before and after removal of the dust covers, checked out its UHF telecommunications system and rover motor controller assembly, and completed all activities required to proceed with its planned activities on Sol 1. Approximately five megabytes of data were successfully relayed back to Earth from NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft during its overpass today.

Curiosity landed facing east-southeast within Gale Crater, with a heading of 112.7 degrees (plus or minus five degrees), and a few degrees of tilt. A Sol 1 overpass by Mars Odyssey will provide additional information on Curiosity's position and additional imagery. A first look at some color images taken just before landing by MSL's Mars Descent Imager also provided additonal information on the rover's precise location.

Activities planned for Sol 1 during the mission's approximately one-month characterization activity phase include deploying Curiosity's high-gain antenna, collecting science data from Curiosity's Radiation Assessment Detector and Rover Environmental Monitoring Station instruments, and obtaining additional imagery. The mission's characterization activity phase is design to learn how all Curiosity's subsystems and instruments are functioning after landing and within the environment and gravitational field of Mars.

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READING 8

7 August 2012Last updated at 10:54 GMT

Usain Bolt cruises into Olympics 200m semi-finals

Usain Bolt began his bid to complete the sprint double at the London Olympics by cruising into the 200m semi-finals in a time of 20.39 seconds.
The 25-year-old Jamaican was joined by countrymen Yohan Blake and Warren Weir, with America's Wallace Spearmon, France's Christophe Lemaitre and Briton Christian Malcolm also through. GB's James Ellington failed to qualify after finishing sixth in his heat. The semi-finals are on Wednesday with the final on Thursday. Four-time Olympic champion Bolt, who successfully defended his 100m crown on Sunday, is also attempting to retain his 200m title from Beijing.

Analysis
Michael JohnsonFour-time Olympic champion & BBC Sport pundit "Bolt would have been a little bit tentative of the 100m, but now he's won that and set an Olympic record, the 200m is going to be a tremendous amount of

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fun for him. Yohan Blake is the challenge for him and probably the only challenge, but if Bolt loses the 200m it's not as big as the 100m title."

After what was approaching a jog, he told BBC Sport: "The crowd is always wonderful, they play an important role in my running and I love my 200m. "I try to do my part, I know what comes with winning, so all I have to do is try and enjoy it." Blake, who won silver behind Bolt in the 100m, also ran a comfortable heat in 20.38secs and said afterwards: "I'm good and I'm healthy. I'm giving credit to my coach because the 100m taught me a lot. "It was my first medal in the Olympics. The 200m is my better event because I have more speed endurance." Despite his vast experience, Malcolm, 33, said he was anxious about competing in front of such a huge home crowd. But Ellington, who auctioned himself on Ebay to raise funds for his training, was clearly disappointed with his run as he could only manage 21.23secs in the final heat. "I don't know what to say," the 26-year-old said. "It's the slowest race I've done all year. I felt good in the warm-up and I thought I was going to run fast, but came off the bend and had no gas left. "Training has been going well in Portugal, Im just gutted. I just feel like I've taken someone else's place and I feel like I let the team down."

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READING 9

New Breaking Dawn Part 2 Still with Bella and Renesmee!

53 Comments August 6, 2012 by Jaypat Filed Under: Bella Cullen, Breaking Dawn Part 2,Breaking Dawn Pictures, Kristen Stewart, Mackenzie Foy, Renesmee

Entertainment Weekly posted a new Breaking Dawn Part 2 still with Bella and Renesmee! OH! This scene! Bella gives Renesmee the pendant with a picture of her, Edward and Renesmee! *cries*

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READING 10

Argentina Unfinished Harrassing William

and Britain's War: Hate Email, Calls and Prince

By UKI GOI / BUENOS AIRES Monday, Feb. 06, 2012

Britain's Prince William at the controls of a Sea King helicopter during a training exercise at Holyhead Mountain, having flown from RAF Valley in Anglesey, north Wales, March 31, 2011.
John Stillwell / AFP / Getty Images
inShar e4

When their mobiles ring, the inhabitants of Port Stanley are learning to check caller ID carefully before answering. If it displays a "long number," meaning it might be from Argentina, they don't pick up. "It's intimidating to be woken in the night to someone shouting at you in Spanish," says Lisa Watson, editor of The Penguin News, the main and only newspaper of the Falkland Islands, the British Overseas Territory claimed by Argentina as Las Malvinas. The angry calls are coming with the advent of the 30th anniversary of the 1982 war with Great Britain that started with the occupation of the islands by Argentine military forces on April 2 that year. That 74-day military engagement left more than 900 dead and some 1,800 wounded. Argentina lost the war but it has not forgotten it's historic claim to the islands that lie a tantalizingly close 300 miles off its coast. The islands have been under British control since 1833 when a British naval squadron arrived to oust the Argentine authorities there. Argentina claims that it

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inherited the islands from Spain after it gained independence in 1816 but Britain says it had prior jurisdiction through an 18th century settlement. Global Briefing: Falklands, France and a Failed Coup. Now, the verbal crossfire between London and Buenos Aires like the email and phone calls in the islands has started turning ugly with the coming anniversary. Argentina's President Cristina Kirchner has accused Britain of acting like "a coarse and decadent colonial power" because it refuses to accept a United Nations resolution urging Argentina and Britain to negotiate a solution. British Prime Minister David Cameron retorted saying that: "What the Argentinians have been saying recently I would argue is actually far more like colonialism." That was said after Argentina and its South American neighbors, including new international heavyweight Brazil, agreed to close their ports to ships flying the Falklands flag. London fears that Argentina's next move might be to suspend permission for the weekly flights that cross its airspace from Chile to the islands, thus imposing a full economic blockade on their inhabitants. Kirchner vows to continue demanding talks over Malvinas as long as necessary: "We will say it tirelessly, as will those who come after me and the children of our children. The arrival of Britain's Prince William to Port Stanley on Thursday on a six-week tour of duty as a Royal Air Force search and rescue helicopter pilot has only increased Argentina's anger. "The Argentine people regret that the royal heir will arrive on national soil in the uniform of the conqueror and not with the wisdom of the statesman who works in the service of peace and dialogue among nations," said a statement put out by Argentina's Foreign Ministry. (William's uncle, Prince Andrew the Queen's second son had also served as a rescue helicopter pilot during the war, assigned to H.M.S. Invincible, which came under Argentine missile attack.) But it is the islands' inhabitants, about 3,000 people of mainly British descent, who are feeling increasingly distraught by the rising tension. "I receive threats and insults via our work email address and on Twitter," says Watson. "Die you decadence [sic] whore," said one email that held a chilling echo of President Kirchner's statement about "decadent" Britain. Another read: "I am coming to the Malvinas so walk softy because I will find you." Watson tries to take the threats lightly. "How many times must I tell you, insult me in English I don't speak Spanish," she tweeted in response to one this week. "I assume it is simply people momentarily angry because they have read something in their newspaper," she says. "We all feel like that sometimes but threatening to kill me seems a little extreme. Mainly I am referred to as a prostitute, liar, thief and pirate, and other words I really wouldn't like to mention." What Watson finds really disturbing are the random abusive phone calls. "My friend's seven-year-old daughter has a mobile phone just for when she goes to play at the park with her pals. Even she has received abusive calls. My friend has had to tell her not to answer phone calls that have a long number." Watson's family arrived in 1840 as servants to a rich family and have been farm workers since. The unwanted attention she has been getting is in total disproportion to the tiny weekly paper she edits. The Penguin News tends to the

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tiny community of farmers who inhabit the cold, wind-swept islands. The job qualifications include "knowing the name of every sheep breed and being able to dig a bogged Land Rover out of a peat bank," she likes to quip. But her job description should now be expanded to include the fascinating dialogue she has developed with other much friendlier, and extremely curious, Argentines following her on Twitter (@Lisafalklands). "We not province of UK nor want to be province of Argentina. Are overseas territory with relationship with UK," she tweeted in response to Hernn Adastra, an Argentine who suggested not much would change if Argentina gained sovereignty. To Dario Romero, a student who sent Watson a link to a song by the Irish rebel band The Wolfe Tones that mentions the "Islas Malvinas Argentinas", she amicably replied: "Well done getting Irish folk band on side. Won't help." "I have no objection to chatting and debating with Argentines," Watson says. "My reason for doing so is in the hope they will see us as a people with our own culture and our own thoughts. I live in hope that they will understand we are not 'British imperialists' but a population that has struggled to develop this little country and deserve to be allowed to live in peace. I should say that I also receive many messages of support from Argentines or messages from people who do not agree with my point of view but want to offer kind thoughts anyway. Many of the islanders (or "Islanders" with a capital I, as they describe themselves in the Penguin News) are trying to maintain calm despite harrowing memories of the 1982 war. "These big anniversaries seem to bring out the most extreme demonstrations of jingoism and hysteria from both sides most particularly from people who were not involved in 1982," says John Fowler, the deputy editor of the Penguin News, who saw three friends killed in his own home by misdirected British fire 30 years ago. "Those of us who were here do not need a special day to remember what happened, though, like me, I suspect that many prefer to keep the most painful memories hidden deep inside as far as possible." Although patriotic fervor over Malvinas has remained high since the war, even intensified with the new diplomatic confrontation, a few Argentines are starting to question their country's traditional hard-line attitude regarding the islands' inhabitants. In the past this has ranged from affirming that they are actually Argentines to suggestions they should be evicted post-haste to Britain. "We have to move away from the old sloganeering," says Gustavo Arballo, 36, a law professor at the University of La Pampa in central Argentina who recently penned a column in the left-wing daily Pagina/12 suggesting the islands should be granted wide autonomy in any future arrangement. "We're a nation of 40 million against islands with only a few thousand inhabitants, that's like an 18-wheeler bearing down on a bicycle." Despite the email threats and abusive calls, Watson bravely keeps the channel with Argentina open, in the hope that she can somehow lower the level of confrontation. "My parents have a sheep farm on East Falklands and I often assist them on the weekends along with my two brothers. I'm described by my friends as horse-obsessed another reason I wish the Falklands and Argentina could get along happily, Argentina has the best horses in the world."
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