HOME

CHAPTER 4

A Practical Guide to Some Aspects of Mineralogy that Affect Flotation

Alan Butcher
Strategic Marketing Manager, FEI Company, PO Box 2269, Milton Qld 4064. Email: Alan.Butcher@fei.com Alan R Butcher has over 29 years international experience as a field geologist, igneous petrologist, isotope geochemist and applied mineralogist. His professional career has spanned the entire spectrum from undergraduate and postgraduate teaching, to pure and applied research and consulting, and now commercialisation of technology. He is best known for his enthusiastic evangelism and visionary development of new and emerging capabilities in the field of Automated Mineralogy. Alan is a Fellow of the Geological Society of London.

Abstract Introduction Background to Ore Deposits Basic Ore Textures The Concept of Liberation A Review of Mineralogical Methods Available Application of Mineralogy to Flotation Example Case Studies Concluding Remarks References

ABSTRACT
This chapter is designed to introduce some of the basic aspects of mineralogy that can influence flotation behaviour, with particular emphasis on sulfide flotation. The minerals industry has recently celebrated 100 years since the introduction of flotation, and we have had cause to reflect on the many and varied developments in chemical reagents and flotation cell technologies during this period, yet it is only more recently that the role of mineralogy has been realised as another important component in the better understanding of the flotation separation process. Most of the information required by mineral processing engineers involved in flotation can now be provided by geologists and mineralogists using well-established optical, X-ray, laser and electron-microbeam technologies. Metallurgically-relevant observations for flotation processing applications can be made at any time during the life of a mine, from first exploration drill core, which can flag-up problematic minerals and textures, through start-up phases to full production, which can allow fine tuning of a concentrator to produce acceptable grades and recovery. Finally, mineralogy can be used to optimise recycling and/or disposal of tailings during the mine closure phase.

An understanding of the geological context, mineral assemblage, and textures of an ore is absolutely key to understanding its potential amenability to the flotation process. Equally important is the measurement of sizes, composition, locking and liberation, and flotation behaviour of particles as they pass through a circuit from blasting, crushing, grinding, flotation to final concentration, using the appropriate mineralogical techniques. This chapter will review the many and varied mineralogical techniques currently available, and will guide the reader through when and where to use them. Examples will be drawn from case studies which illustrate how mineralogy has allowed better understanding and improvement in the flotation process on a range of ore types.

INTRODUCTION
An understanding of the geological context, mineral assemblage, and texture of an ore is absolutely key to efficient and effective unlocking and concentration of ore minerals during blasting, crushing, grinding and flotation. Whilst this opening statement might appear somewhat obvious to an experienced process

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

83

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

mineralogist, it is seldom appreciated by geologists, let alone by mining and minerals engineers. Let us explore why this is so. The reasons for this are not always clear, or even logical, but experience has shown that it is due in part to one or more of the following factors:

Historical: in the past, only mining of high-grade ores or

easy-to-process ores was practised and, generally speaking, these did not require strong geological input. In fact, in some of the early mines, a geologist, let alone a mineralogist, may not even have been on staff.

Managerial: mineralogy is typically only considered and

commissioned during the exploration, feasibility and start-up stages, as part of due diligence exercises. It is not that common for a mine manager to agree to regular mineralogical audits once an operation is up and running, except of course when grade and recovery drop below unacceptable limits. Also, mining geologists rarely make it to mine manager level where they can influence behaviour patterns in such matters.

quick inspection of the ore by a mineralogist can immediately establish if the copper is deporting to the usual phases (say sulfides), at the same grain size (which affects grind size), and in the same host gangue (which affects flotation conditions) as the production ore. If conditions are the same, fine. If they have changed, you could have saved yourself a lot of expensive experimentation, not to mention embarrassment. Mineral processing plants process minerals, and for mostly practical reasons, it is accepted that conditions are often based on chemical assays rather than on mineralogical information. Hopefully, your opinion on the use of mineralogy will change after reading through this chapter.

BACKGROUND TO ORE DEPOSITS

It is necessary at this point to introduce a number of technical terms commonly used to describe ore deposits, the minerals which make them up, and the textures which affect processing, all with special reference to flotation behaviour.

Financial: there is real perception (which is also sometimes

based on truth) that mineralogy is costly, requires expensive equipment, and involves highly qualified personnel who write not particularly timely and relevant reports, which are all too often full of jargon, and serve only to alienate the very audience for which they were intended. Of course, the modern mining industry is quite different to that in the past. Gone are the days where one could choose to mine only the near surface, high-grade, easy-to-process ores. With volatile metal prices, heightened expectations from shareholders, and unprecedented industrial growth from China and India, the race is on to extract as much from the Earth to keep up with demand. This must of course take place in a world where the awareness of human safety and the environmental footprint of mining are coming under ever-increasing scrutiny. All of these factors are challenging the viability of companies and mining operations every day as we move to a world where mining lower-grade, more-difficult-to-process resources will be the norm. Given that our mantra as professionals involved in the Earth Resources industry could be to Take apart what Mother Nature has put together. Safely with due regard for the Environment and Economically, we really need to make effective use of all the armoury available to us to succeed in this combat exercise. The science of mineralogy, and in particular that area of mineralogy which is dedicated to the application of mineralogical information to mineral processing and smelting in order to improve understanding, solve problems and improve efficiency of extraction, commonly referred to as Process Mineralogy, is one such effective weapon in our mining armoury which we can draw on. There is no doubt that process mineralogy, when used judiciously, can make a major difference to a mining operation. In the authors opinion, this was first brought to the worlds attention in a seminal paper by Henley (1983), although many others followed shortly after that (Hiemestra, 1984; Petruk, 1984; Baum et al, 1989). A text book has recently appeared by Petruk which attempts to pull together his lifes experiences as a process mineralogist and is a good source of case studies (Petruk, 2000). Before we move on, let us consider a hypothetical, but typical situation, which hopefully will keep the sceptics interested and the novices alert. The situation involves an ore type from the Eureka Concentrator. It needs investigating because it is new. Routine assaying by the geologists in the mine suggests this ore type contains a three weight per cent copper head grade, similar to all existing production ores. The temptation is to go ahead, mine and crush the ore, and hope for the best. You might be lucky. But a

Basic classification of deposit types

Believe it or not, it is helpful to know the geological context of a mine, especially where mineralogical work is required to be carried out. This is undoubtedly satisfying from an intellectual viewpoint. But more importantly, geologists need to do this all the time so that they can conjure up a mental 3D image of the deposit on which they are working. It helps us see things to scale, in some cases, put things back in order of formation and ultimately allows us to rationalise and categorise the apparent anarchy we find in nature. Ores are no different to any other rocks they simply have an economic value and are defined as a mineral or aggregate of minerals that form a rock which can be mined at a profit. They can therefore be classified, like everything else in Earth Sciences, into conveniently simplified categories. There are classifications that are based on simple criteria, such as the minerals or metals contained (Pb-Zn; Cu-Au; PGM, etc). Better still, we can describe the structure of the deposit in terms of its shape or size (basin, pluton, diatreme, vein, fault, etc), its relationship to the host rocks, and the rocks which enclose or contain the deposit (eg stratabound, stratiform, volcanic-hosted, sedimentary-hosted, etc). Of less use, is to classify a deposit according to the geological processes which combined to form the deposit (or genesis). Why? Because most deposits are old, some very old, and whose formation has not been witnessed by geologists today. We therefore have to rely on interpretation alone, and given that there is considerable debate among geologists as to the exact mode of formation of most mineral deposits, this is not a good classification in isolation. So, in summary, it is best to stick to features which can be agreed on, such as the physical description of the deposit. And even though no two mineral deposits are exactly alike, most of them fall into a clear category. Each category often conveniently coincides with a generally accepted hypothesis as to how the mineral deposit formed. So we typically end up with a physically descriptive classification that includes a descriptor of how the deposit formed. Once one understands that certain ore types produce distinctive mineral assemblages and textures (and geologists are trained to know this), then it is easier to focus on issues that are of specific interest. Figures 1 and 2 summarise some of the basic ore deposit types and structures likely to be encountered by the professional minerals engineer. For a more thorough review, the interested reader is referred to Guilbert et al 1986; Evans, 1993; Roberts and Shehan, 1988; Eckstrand, 1984; Peters, 1978 and McKinstry, 1948.

84

Spectrum Series 16

Flotation Plant Optimisation

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

following texts for further details: Petruk, 2000; Craig and Vaughan, 1994, and an excellent web-based atlas (Ixer and Duller, 1998). Of particular interest to flotation are the following basic types of textures. Starting at the most basic level (Figure 3), an ore texture can be evaluated as to whether it is equigranular or inequigranular. Milling strategies for the two extreme ores will be quite different.
Equigranular
Mineralisation Stratiform Stratabound

Ore mineral
Vein-hosted Fault-hosted

Exploration methods Mining method Sampling Strategies

Disseminated Replacement

FIG 3 - Cartoons to illustrate the basics of ore textures, with special reference to flotation. At the simplest level, ores can be considered either equigranular (all grains same size) or inequigranular (not all same size). The mineral of interest is shown in black. Grain boundaries are straight or gently curved. No scale.

FIG 2 - Cartoons to illustrate how the geological structure of an orebody controls how you explore for it, how you mine it and how you sample it. Here six typical types are presented. Black is mineral or ore of interest. No scale (after Butcher and Trudu, 1999).

Take, for example, the deposit on which Eureka Mine is positioned. We know at the most basic level that it is a polymetallic sulfide ore, and is mined underground. Armed with just this information, an experienced geologist and process mineralogist can mentally map this to be most likely a sediment-hosted, volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit, with an economic mineral assemblage of sphalerite (Zn), galena (Pb), chalcopyrite (Cu). With more information (such as age, geographic locality, geological model, tectonic history, historical company reports), a mental checklist can be immediately created, and forms the basis on which the mineralogist starts his or her campaign. It may include the following: look for oxidation effects of sulfides; watch for grain size reduction if metamorphosed; look for talc if sheared; check for more than one type of sphalerite; etc. More on this later on in the chapter.

BASIC ORE TEXTURES

Once the macro-features (km-m) of an ore deposit have been established, it is then necessary to concentrate on the meso(m-cm) and micro-features (cm-mm-m). It is at these scales we start to gain valuable insights into which minerals make up the ore and how they all fit together to form what is known as the texture. This is the area of study known as petrography. A comprehensive study of ore deposit textures is beyond the scope of this chapter but the interested reader is referred to the

On a more complex level (Figure 4), it is crucial to ascertain how the economic minerals occur: if they are present as rims, disseminated inclusions (or exsolutions), or as interstitial phases as this will control breakage mechanisms during blasting, crushing and grinding (intragranular versus intergranular), and will make it either relatively easy, or difficult (or impossible) to liberate and float effectively. It is not uncommon for an ore to have multiple textural deportments for the element of particular interest (see Figure 5). Finally, and for completeness, a further concept is now introduced. It was mentioned above that orebodies are generally contained within old rocks. Practically, this means that they have been around long enough to experience post-formation modification, which can take one of many forms (metamorphism, deformation, oxidation and weathering, to name a few). Sometimes these so-called secondary processes can overprint or obliterate those that developed at the time the deposit formed (so-called primary features). Metamorphism, for example, is generally bad news for the metallurgist as it often involves growth of new (and unwanted) minerals (such as mica, talc, graphite, serpentine, etc), which have an annoying habit of floating along with the ore minerals to contaminate the concentrate. Deformation can lead to fracturing of the ore, recrystallisation and grain-size reduction, which can change the comminution behaviour of an ore in a negative way (production of slimes). Oxidation and weathering, however, can be both good and bad for a minerals engineer it can either upgrade (laterites, gossans) or downgrade (silcretes, calcretes and regoliths) the ore depending on which process is dominant. Figure 6 attempts to simplify what is obviously a very complex concept. The main point being made here is that it is the job of the process mineralogist to: firstly, identify the presence of these

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

Inequigranular

FIG 1 - Summary diagram illustrating the main types of ore deposit, classified according to mode of origin, host-rock and commodity, with real examples.

85

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

processes; then unravel them; and finally, understand how each one may impact on the physical and chemical processing of the ore under investigation, and report these results in a clear, easy to understand and practical way to the metallurgist.

THE CONCEPT OF LIBERATION

Now that we have revealed that ore deposits form in different ways, and that resulting mineral assemblages and ore textures, to a large extent, reflect that heritage, we need to briefly review what we mean by liberation from a mineralogical perspective.

Rims

Inclusions

Interstitial

Disseminated

Exsolved

Laminated

FIG 4 - Further cartoons illustrating complex ore textures, with special reference to those which affect liberation and flotation performance. Mineral of economic interest shown in black. No scale.

FIG 5 - One major outcome of a textural analysis of an ore is to ascertain the deportment of elements of economic interest. In this case, the element of interest, shown in black (say copper) occurs as: chalcopyrite intergrown with pyrite (upper left); chalcopyrite blebs included within sphalerite (upper right); discrete native copper (centre); chalcocite rimming pyrite (bottom left); bornite inclusions within silicate (bottom right); and native copper within a cross-cutting vein (bottom left to top right). Scale: width 10 100 microns (after Butcher and Trudu, 1999).

FIG 6 - Cartoon illustrating some of the processes which are known to affect ores after initial formation. The fate of three pristine ore textures is considered (one equigranular and two inequigranular), which undergo progressively more aggressive modification from left to right (oxidation, hydrothermal alteration to metamorphism). The job of the process mineralogist is to identify the presence of these processes, unravel them and understand how each one may impact on the physical and chemical processing of the ore under investigation.

86

Spectrum Series 16

Flotation Plant Optimisation

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

This is quite important as mineralogists often get asked to provide an estimate of liberation or to estimate optimal grind sizes in their reports. Liberation is best studied, estimated and quantified in mineral agglomerates (rock particles). Particles are typically examined in 2D sections, and this is best achieved by setting them in epoxy resin blocks and exposing their cross-sectional geometry by combinations of cutting, grinding and polishing. Examination of images of particles allows for the classification of each particle in terms of whether it is pure, barren or locked. This classification of particles is based on the volume of the mineral of interest in each particle. The concept can be illustrated with a cartoon in the same idealised format as we have seen previously. Figure 7 shows how a complexly-textured ore (as viewed, for example, in thinsection), and one that is essentially equigranular, starts to liberate the mineral of interest at particle diameters of around 70 microns. We will now see below that the degree of liberation can be quantified using a variety of optical and SEM-based image analysis techniques.

scratch plate and a bottle of acid. However, once materials become reduced in size to the point where they are barely visible to the naked eye, other techniques clearly need to be used.

Optical techniques
This probably still remains the most widely used technique worldwide, and not surprisingly, it has been around almost as long as the science of geology. It turns out that cleverly designed combinations of reflected and transmitted light sources, in both polarised and unpolarised states, allows minerals to be identified by their characteristic optical behaviour, especially when viewed under magnification on a petrographic polarising microscope. Ore minerals (such as sulfides, precious metals and oxides) are best viewed in reflected light as they tend to be opaque, whereas gangue phases (such as silicates, carbonates, phosphates) are best examined in transmitted light as they are often translucent. Sample presentation normally takes the form of polished sections or petrographic thin-sections, although loose grains can also be usefully observed with a basic stereo microscope. Apart from the identification of minerals, the modal mineralogy of a sample can be determined by point counting. Textures can be observed and recorded photographically (photomicrographs) and typically are used to augment reports and illustrate features of the sample. A useful text on this topic is by Gribble and Hall (1992). In each case, optical techniques obviously require a competent person to operate the microscope and make meaningful observations, typically a graduate in geological sciences with a few years relevant experience. Great microscopists, however, are a greying workforce and are in serious decline. Good microscopists are getting harder to find. And it is becoming more and more difficult to encourage young graduates to move into optical mineralogy. Automation of phase identification, modal point counting and texture analysis goes someway to redress this situation (Clemex Technologies Inc, 2009). A clear advantage of this method is that, in the right hands, a quick (and often cheap) prognosis can be obtained for both unbroken ore as well as particulates. And that might be good enough. But like all techniques, it must be used judiciously, and in combination with other methodologies.

FIG 7 - Cartoon illustrating the effect of particle size reduction and increasing liberation from a complex, equigranular, ore texture, where the mineral of economic interest is shown in black. Note that even the finest particle sizes still contain locked particles.

For a complete background to the theory of liberation, please refer to Barbery (1991), and for further background on how automated SEM-images can be used to derive knowledge of particle behaviour in processing, see Sutherland et al, 1988; Sutherland, Wilkie and Johnson, 1989; Spencer and Sutherland, 2000.

X-ray beam techniques

A commonly used technique to assess a sample for the relative abundance of minerals present is by a method that utilises the unique diffraction properties of minerals when subjected to a primary X-ray beam, the so called X-ray diffraction method or XRD for short. XRD is particularly useful when trying to establish the nature of an unknown material, or tracking the presence of an undesirable phase in a sample. It can be used to gain both semi-quantitative and quantitative phase data. XRD is a very powerful analysis technique for distinguishing certain mineral groups such as the Clay Group (montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite), the Serpentine Group (lizardite, talc), and certain polymorphs (minerals with exactly the same composition but differing only in their crystal structure, such as rutile-anatase, quartz-coesite), or distinguishing minerals with similar, but not exactly the same compositions (haematite-geothite-magnetite) or optical behaviour. As it is a bulk method of analysis, it cannot provide information on particle shape, size, or internal texture. In certain situations, it can be a relatively quick and inexpensive method to solve a problem. It is best used, however, in combination with other mineral techniques. XRD, of course, is not to be confused with X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRFS), which is another established X-ray beam technique, but unlike XRD, provides whole-rock chemical data.

A REVIEW OF MINERALOGICAL METHODS AVAILABLE

There are a bewildering number of techniques available to determine the mineralogical and metallurgical behaviour of particles (of differing sizes) as they pass through a mineral processing circuit from blasting, crushing, grinding and flotation through to final concentration and disposal, in terms of their particle size and shape, composition, locking and liberation characteristics and flotation behaviour. The following is an essential guide to the main techniques, which briefly covers each technique and provides when-andwhere-to-use-it advice.

Hand-specimen analysis
Every self-respecting geologist and mineralogist should be able to gain information from examination of materials in handspecimen, using the naked eye or aided only by a hand lens, a

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

87

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

It is most commonly used for grade determination (say, Fe-, Pband Zn-content of ores, Ti-contents of mineral sands, P-content of iron ores, etc).

Electron beam techniques

The technology which has most revolutionised mineralogical investigation over the past 40 years or so has been that based on the utilisation of signals generated as a result of interaction between a highly focused electron beam and earth materials. As soon as scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and later electron probe micro-analysers (EPMA) were introduced, they found immediate appeal among geologists, mineralogists and materials scientists. Effectively non-destructive, and with the ability to image, analyse and quantify a range of earth materials (both unbroken rocks and particulates), they remain at the forefront of mineral analysis for the earth resources industry today. The underlying principles are common to all systems. electroninduced, secondary X-ray, energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) can be used to qualitatively and quantitatively determine the composition of a phase under the electron beam. Secondary electrons (SEI), along with backscattered electrons (BSE) and cathodoluminescence, all of which are simultaneously generated along with the secondary X-rays, can be used to gain insights into other aspects such as sample topography, composition and crystal defects. EPMA systems (and some SEM systems) have both EDS and wavelength dispersive spectrometers fitted (WDS for increased sensitivity using a particular crystal to tune into a suite of elements). The electron beam can be used in both a scanning or point-and-shoot mode. A number of research groups around the world have attempted to automate SEMs and EPMAs (King and Schneider, 1993; Schneider and Neumann, 2004; Jones, 1984 and 1987), but only the Australian systems have succeeded in being widely adopted by the global minerals industry (Gottlieb et al, 2000; Baum, Lotter and Whittaker, 2004; Gu, 2003). A particular strength of an automated SEM system is that it removes some operator strain, tedium and repeatability issues arising from manual SEM work. CSIRO developed a system known as quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy (QEM*SEM) in the early 1980s (Grant et al, 1977; Miller, Reid and Zuiderwyk, 1982), which was used extensively by industry through ownership of their own systems as well as through a bureau service offered by CSIRO. The latest product of QEM*SEM technology is known as QEMSCAN, and is a complete automated solution from sample preparation through analysis to data reporting (Pirrie et al, 2004). The University of Queensland, through the JKMRC research centre, developed an alternative technology with similar objectives in terms of automation. Known as the Mineral Liberation Analyser (MLA), it began in 1997 (Keith, 1998; Dou, 1998), and was offered as a bureau service from 1999 (Gu, 2003). Both QEMSCAN and MLA are now owned by FEI Company, who continue to develop, market and sell the two technologies.

SEM or EPMA microbeams as it is in solid solution (Vaughan and Corrans, 1977). Fine grinding is not an option for this texture, but leaching could be. Logging of cores, chips and powders for mineralogical composition can now be undertaken using scanners which utilise near infrared radiation which is phase specific. This is ideal for on-site situations where rapid (near real-time) bulk mineralogical information is required to troubleshoot processing problems, or predict required conditions of operation as ores and products pass along conveyors (Huntington, 2006).

APPLICATION OF MINERALOGY TO FLOTATION Introduction

Flotation isnt about flotation cells. It is about minerals. Liberating the right minerals in the right place, with the minimum of grinding power. Preparing the surfaces for maximum selectivity for valuable minerals against gangue. Minimising entrainment. Responding to the needs of different size fractions. Doing all this at minimum cost, using the least new equipment possible. Understanding the economics of the operation. And making the whole circuit work together, simple, responsive and operable (Xstrata Technology, 2005). This quote appeared recently within the conference proceedings of the Centenary of Flotation Symposium held in Australia, which celebrated, as the name suggests, 100 years since the introduction of flotation. It encapsulates many of the concepts introduced so far, which is why it is reproduced here in full. Flotation, in fact, was started because in Australia at Broken Hill the ores were too fine to be separated efficiently by gravity (Figure 8). We now move on to consider the practical application of all this know-how, particularly the role of mineralogy, in the better understanding of the flotation separation process, with respect to the Eureka Mine. Let us imagine therefore, that we have been set a mineralogical task to try and understand why the metal recoveries at the Eureka concentrator are low despite the grades being acceptable.

Methodology
First up, we need decent primary samples to examine. These must be representative of the problem we are trying to fix. A good starting point is to always organise for the collection of a feed, concentrate and tail for each of the main saleable products. Experience has shown that you need to involve all relevant personnel in all key areas of the mines activity in the sampling, and to make them aware of the common pitfalls and problems in sampling mineral processing plants (many of these issues are covered in this book in other chapters, and by other publications, eg Annels (1991). Sampling a dynamic system such as a mineral processing plant, where crushing throughputs can be in the region of 100 kt/d, is certainly a challenging exercise. Results of any kind always need to be viewed with this in mind. Next, we need to create secondary samples from the primary samples, using appropriate methods, which normally take the form of one or more of the following, all of which are familiar to the metallurgist: cone and quartering, splitting, riffling, sieving, cyclosizing and de-sliming. From these secondary samples, we are then able to produce genuine replicate aliquots which can be used for all mineralogy and allied testing and

Other techniques
Other technologies used by mineralogists include those which utilise proton beams, ion beams, laser beams and near infrared beams. A proton microprobe is ideal for mapping ultra-trace elements within minerals. An example application at Eureka Mine would be to examine the galena by PIXE to ascertain if silver was present in solid solution (Goodall and Scales, 2006; Goodall, Scales and Butcher, 2005). A secondary ion mass spectrometer (SIMS) can be used for accurately measuring invisible gold in sulfides gold that is not possible to see with

88

Spectrum Series 16

Flotation Plant Optimisation

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

10 m

10 m

10 m

10 m

FIG 8 - Optical photomicrographs, taken using a digital camera attached to a reflected polarising petrographic microscope, of processed particles from an Australian leadzinc operation (McArthur River), which contain textures that historically would have been too fine for conventional flotation, and now require combinations of staged and fine-grinding methods to separate the galena and sphalerite.

analysis (assaying, etc). Typically, these aliquots then get made into a number of products depending on what happens next. Polished thin-sections and polished blocks are best as these can be used for optical work, SEM and EPMA work, as well as automated SEM techniques. Then, we need to generate quality petrographic information from the prepared products. A typical checklist that most mineralogists might run through when examining samples could look something like:

grain size estimates (used to determine optimum

liberation grain sizes and predict or prevent problems such as poor liberation, over-grinding of the valuables, production of slimes);

mineral associations (important for optimising the

separation process, say galena chalcopyrite from sphalerite); from sphalerite,

grain boundary relationships (curved, straight or irregular

boundaries will affect behaviour during crushing and grinding as this imparts preferential breakage mechanisms eg along or across boundaries);

Complete inventory of all known mineral phases present

(Figure 9).

Detailed modal analysis for major minerals (>5 per cent),

minor phases (>1 per cent - <5 per cent) and trace phases (<1 per cent).

elemental

Textural information on both gangue and ore minerals,

which includes:

deportment information (important for tracking how metals behave during processing, covered by Figure 5); and

photomicrographs of typical textures.

Ore Type
PGM Copper sulfide Nickel sulfide Pb-Zn
Gold

Example Valuable
PGM, Ni-sulfides Chalcopyrite Pentlandite Galena, sphalerite Gold, electrum

Example Problem Gangue

Talc, pyroxene Pyrite, Fe -oxides, silicates Pyrrhotite, talc Pyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, carbonates Pyrite, arsenopyrite, Fe -oxides, quartz

Ore

Crusher

Grinding & Classification

Separation

Product

Typical Process Overview

chalcopyrite fast floating; pyrrhotite slow floating

Waste

depressants for carbonates and talc

naturally hydrophobic minerals float

FIG 9 - Summary diagram to show how different ores, classified by the main ore minerals, have quite different gangue phases.

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

89

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

All of the above can be generated manually from careful traditional optical-SEM-EPMA interactive analysis. Automated techniques have enabled this type of information to be collected and reported in a fast, robust, operator independent, timeefficient and scalable manner.

This section covers two examples where mineralogical data collected by the author has been turned into information and knowledge, and then action has been taken based on that knowledge to realise the value. The examples have been simplified and modified so as to be relevant to the present text. A summary of information typically acquired is summarised in Figure 10.

EXAMPLE CASE STUDIES Introduction

For mineralogy to add value to a mining operation, one really needs to acquire consistently meaningful mineralogical data over a significant period of time (weeks, months, years). If a well-performing ore is properly characterised it is much easier to troubleshoot problems in an under-performing ore because there is a benchmark against which to compare it. Without a good day, it is difficult to diagnose what went wrong on the bad day.
Roughers

Case study 1 finding the optimal grind size

Following measurement of crushed drill cores as part of ongoing ore characterisation exercise for a new orebody at Eureka Mine, it was found that there was a distinct bi-modal distribution to the grain size distribution for galena (Figure 11). This flagged the possibility of whether a two-stage grinding process could be implemented. When the same distribution for sphalerite was considered, however, it was found that this displayed a normal distribution (Figure 12).
Mineralogical Data Liberation Particle size Particle composition Cleaners Particle surface area Problematic particles Penalty elements

Re-grind Mill

Mineral associations

Metallurgical Implications Reagent regime Scavengers Surface preparation Residence time Mechanical entrainment Flash flotation options Staged grinding Grinding media

FIG 10 - Idealised view of what mineralogical data can be extracted from samples taken from a mineral processing circuit, and the implications these data may have on metallurgical behaviour and practices.

Lead-zinc deposit

Galena

FIG 11 - An image grid of galena-containing particles (red) from crushed drill core, organised by galena grain-size estimate, as measured by a QEMSCAN and plotted using iExplorer. The distribution shows a distinct bi-modal distribution.

2 0

2 0 2 + / 7

3 7 2 /+ 8

4 8 3 /+ 5

5 a

7 -

1 -

2 -

3 -

4 -

6 -

0 0 6 +

5 4 /+ 3
l e n a B

i -

3 5 + / 5
S iz e D

i s t r i b

/+ 6 0

/+ 0 0

/+ 0 0

/ 2 1 1 +

/ 0 5 3 +

7 5
u t io n

6 0

2 1

0 5

0 0

90

Spectrum Series 16

Flotation Plant Optimisation

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

Lead-zinc deposit

Sphalerite

FIG 12 - An image grid of sphalerite-containing particles (blue) from crushed drill core, organised by sphalerite grain-size estimate, as measured by a QEMSCAN and plotted using iExplorer. The distribution shows a normal distribution.

0 2

/+ 8 3 0 2

/+ 3 5 8 3
S

0 5 4

6 +

/ 5 7 3 5 +
h a le r it e S

6 0 1
i z e

2 1 2

0 0 3

0 0 6

0 0

0 3 + /

5 7 /+
D i s t r ib u

0 1 + / 6
n t i o M T G A

Action
Given that a two-stage grinding circuit was not possible at Eureka, an optimal grind size of 212/+106 microns was trialled during bench-scale grinding tests, and was found to achieve the required grade and recovery.

Fe-Sphalerite Sphalerite Pyrite

1 2 /+

5 4 + /

CS2
100 90 80

Low Fe- Concentrate CS3+4 CS5

High Fe-Concentrate CS2 CS3+4 CS5

Case study 2 tracking down reason for penalty elements

After a few months of excellent results and acceptable concentrator performance, a crisis hit Eureka Mine. The levels of iron in the final zinc concentrate reached unacceptable levels. Mineralogy was used to establish the source of the iron.

70 60 50 40 30 20 10

Answer
Historic samples taken on a good day were compared with those containing high iron contents. The results showed that Fe deports to both pyrite and Fe-rich sphalerite. Both phases were more abundant in the final concentrate that had higher Fe-content (Figure 13).

0 Based on more than 1000 grains/fraction

FIG 13 - Comparison of samples from the final zinc concentrate, good and bad, in terms of Fe-content. It illustrates that when iron increases, it is due to increases in both Fe-sphalerite and pyrite.

Case study 3 understanding locking relationships

A re-evaluation of the locking characteristics of particles within the lead circuit was initiated following a managerial decision to set new grade and recovery targets at the Eureka Concentrator. In order to undertake this, a feed sample was collected and analysed on a size-by-size basis. The results revealed that the locking characteristics are complex (Figure 14). Galena is locked with sphalerite, as expected, but also with Fe-sulfides and non-sulfide gangue (NSG), which are problematic from a contamination perspective.

which will help reduce particle size to the required liberation size range. Bench-scale testing could validate this theory.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is the hope of the author that, after having gone through this chapter, the reader will take something away of interest, and most importantly, something of use, which can be directly applied to their everyday work. No one expects or wants minerals engineers to become mineralogists or geologists far from it. What the author encourages, however, is that metallurgists, like geologists, mining engineers and environmentalists, should take some of the responsibility for developing a culture of cross-pollination of professional skill areas within the modern minerals industry. Mineralogy is clearly useful when applied in the correct way. Rocks contain secrets that traditionally only geologists and mineralogists have been able to unlock. With the advent of more

Answer
Finer grinding of the feed ore is perhaps suggested. This will liberate the composite particles. Installation of secondary grinding equipment might be the solution, such as stirred mills,

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

91

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

Background Fe Sulfides Sphalerite Galena Other Sulfides NSG

FIG 14 - Image grid of particles from a feed sample, sorted according to the size fraction from which they were measured, and according to the texture they exhibit. The results show that the locking characteristics of galena are quite complex and involve: locking with sphalerite (high- and low-grade ternary), Fe-sulfide, non-sulfide gangue (NSG). Both barren and fully liberated particles are also present. Measured on QEMSCAN and plotted using iExplorer.

companies adopting automated mineralogical techniques, it is clear that mineralogy is experiencing a revival, and it is allowing the engineers insights that were previously just not possible. Finally, to measure is to know as Lord Kelvin, the famous English scientist, once remarked. If you do not understand your inputs and your outputs, then you cannot hope to optimise the overall process, whatever it is.

REFERENCES
Annels, A E, 1991. Mineral Deposit Evaluation, first edition, 436 p (Chapman and Hall). Barbery, G, 1991. Mineral liberation: Measurement, simulation and practical use in mineral processing, Quebec Editions GB, p 341. Baum, W, Lotter, N O and Whittaker, P J, 2004. Process mineralogy A new generation of ore charactrisation and plant optimisation, SME Annual Meeting, Denver, 23 - 25 February 2004, pp 1-5. Baum, W, Sanhueza, J, Smith, E and Tufar, W, 1989. The use of process mineralogy for plant optimisation at the El Indio gold-silver-copper operation (Chile), Erzmetall, 42(9):373-378. Butcher, A R and Trudu, A G, 1999. Ore characterisation and its relevance to the crushing and grinding of ores, presented to AJM Crushing and Grinding Conference, Kalgoorlie, 27 - 28 April 1999. Clemex Technologies Inc, 2009. Clemex web site. Available from: <http://www.clemex.com>. Craig, J R and Vaughan, D J, 1994. Ore Microscopy and Ore Petrography, second edition, 434 p (John Wiley and Sons, Inc). Dou, M, 1998. The segmentation of BSE images of mineral particles using an object based approach, in Proceedings Seventh JKMRC Conference, Brisbane. Eckstrand, O R, 1984. Canadian Mineral Deposit Types: A Geological Synopsis, Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report 36, 86 p (Canadian Government Publishing Centre).

Evans, A M, 1993. Ore Geology and Industrial Minerals An Introduction, third edition, 389 p (Blackwell Scientific Publications Inc). Goodall, W R and Scales, P J, 2006. Proceedings MEI Automated Mineralogy 06, Brisbane. Goodall, W R, Scales, P J and Butcher, A R, 2005. The use of QEMSCAN and diagnostic leaching in the characterisation of visible gold in complex ores, Minerals Engineering, 18:877-866. Gottlieb, P, Wilkie, G, Sutherland, D, Ho-Tun, E, Suthers, S, Perera, K, Jenkins, B, Spencer, S, Butcher, A and Rayner, J, 2000. Using quantitative electron microscopy for process mineralogy applications, Journal of Mining, April, pp 24-25. Grant, G, Hall, J S, Reid, A F and Zuiderwyk, M, 1977. Characterisation of particulate and composite mineral grains by on-line computer processing of SEM Images, in Proceedings 15th APCOM Symposium, Brisbane, pp 159-170. Gribble, C D and Hall, A J, 1992. Optical Mineralogy, Principle and Practice, p 295 (UCL Press). Gu, Y, 2003. Automated scanning electron microscope based mineral liberation analysis An introduction to JKMRC/FEI mineral liberation analyser, Journal of Minerals and Material Characterisation and Engineering, 2(1):33-41. Guilbert, J M and Park Jr, C F, 1986. The Geology of Ore Deposits, 985 p (W H Freeman and Company). Henley, K J, 1983. Ore Dressing Mineralogy A Review of Techniques, Applications, and Recent Developments, special publication no 7, pp 175-200 (Geological Society of South Africa: Marshalltown). Hiemstra, S A, 1984. The role of mineralogy in ore beneficiation as illustrated by case histories, in Proceedings Second International Congress on Applied Mineralogy, Los Angeles, 22 - 25 February, pp 9-20. Huntington, J, 2006. The hi-logger scanner for automated mineralogy, presented to MEI Automated Mineralogy 06, Brisbane.

92

Spectrum Series 16

Flotation Plant Optimisation

CHAPTER 4 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO SOME ASPECTS OF MINERALOGY THAT AFFECT FLOTATION

Ixer, R A and Duller, P R, 1998. Virtual atlas of opaque and ore minerals in their associations [online]. Available from: <http://www.smenet. org/opaque-ore/>. Jones, M P, 1984. Recent developments in the rapid collection of quantitative mineral data, in Proceedings Second International Congress on Applied Mineralogy, Los Angeles, 22 - 25 February, pp 141-156. Jones, M P, 1987. Applied Mineralogy: A Quantitative Approach, p 253 (Graham and Trotman, Springer). Keith, J, 1998. Mineral identification using X-rays, in Proceedings Seventh JKMRC Conference, Brisbane. King, R P and Schneider, C L, 1993. An effective SEM-based image analysis system for quantitative mineralogy, KONA, 11:165. McKinstry, H E, 1948. Mining Geology, 680 p (Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs). Miller, P R, Reid, A F and Zuiderwyk, M A, 1982. QEM*SEM image analysis in the determination of modal assays, mineral associations and mineral liberation, presented to XIV International Mineral Processing Congress, Toronto. Peters, W C, 1978. Exploration and Mining Geology, 696 p (John Wiley and Sons Inc). Petruk, W, 1984. Image analysis measurements and data presentation for mineral dressing applications, in Proceedings Second International Congress on Applied Mineralogy, Los Angeles, 22 - 25 February, pp 127-140. Petruk, W, 2000. Applied Mineralogy in the Mining Industry, p 286 (Elsevier Science). Pirrie, D, Butcher, A R, Power, M P, Gottlieb, P and Miller, G L, 2004. Rapid quantitative mineral and phase analysis using automated scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN); potential applications in forensic geoscience, Journal of the Geological Society of London, 232:123-136.

Roberts, R G and Sheahan, P A, 1988. Ore Deposit Models, 194 p Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 3 (Geological Association of Canada). Schneider, C L and Neumann, R, 2004. Measurement of exposed area by image analysis particle cross-section (eds: Pecchio et al), in Proceedings 2004 ICAM, Sao Paulo, pp 1035-1038. Spencer, S and Sutherland, D N, 2000. Stereological correction of mineral liberation grade distributions estimated by single sectioning of particle images, Image Anal Sterel, 19:175-182. Sutherland, D, Gottlieb, P, Jackson, R, Wilkie, G and Stewart, P, 1988. Measurement in section of particles of known composition, Minerals Engineering, 1(4):317-326. Sutherland, D N, Wilkie, G and Johnson, C R, 1989. Simple prediction of processing characteristics of ores using QEM*SEM, in Proceedings Mineralogy and Petrology Symposium, pp 81-84 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne). Vaughan, J and Corrans, I J, 1997. Estimation of submicroscopic gold in ores by SIMS and ultrafine milling: A comparative investigation, (eds: G Gillen, R Lareau, J Bennett and F Stevie), in SIMS XI Annual Workshop, Orlando, 7 - 12 September (Wiley and Sons). Xstrata Technology, 2005. Quote from Xstrata Technology company profile published in Proceedings Centenary of Flotation Symposium (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Flotation Plant Optimisation

Spectrum Series 16

93