Dyslexia

Developmental Dyslexia is a condition which causes difficulty with reading and writing. It is a learning disability that is likely present from birth. Its standard definition is a difficulty in reading and writing in spite of normal development of intelligence, cognitive and sensory abilities. The term dyslexia is also sometimes used to refer to the the loss of reading ability following brain damage. This form of dyslexia is more often referred to as either acquired dyslexia or "Alexia". Dyslexia primarily impacts reading and writing abilities; however, other difficulties have been identified including deficits in processing spoken language[4] as well as non-language difficulties[5]. Dyslexia is not limited to reversing the order of letters in reading or writing. Nor is it a visual perception deficit that involves reading letters or words backwards or upside down, as is often implied in popular culture. Because writing systems vary across languages, the specific reading difficulties exhibited by individuals with dyslexia will also tend to vary across languages.[6] However, dyslexia occurs in all societies with writing systems. It is typically marked by difficulty in the speed and efficiency with which an individual reads and writes. It can also be accompanied by other non-reading difficulties such as poor phonological awareness and short-term memory.

Variations and related conditions

Dyslexia is a learning disorder. Its underlying cause is believed to be a brain-based condition that influences the ability to read written language. It is identified in individuals who fail to learn to read in the absence of a verbal or nonverbal intellectual impairment, sensory deficit (e.g., a visual deficit or hearing loss), pervasive developmental deficit or a frank neurological impairment. The following conditions are sometimes confused with dyslexia because they can also lead to difficulty reading:

Auditory Processing Disorder is a condition that affects the ability to encode auditory information. It can lead to problems with auditory working memory and auditory sequencing. Dyspraxia is a neurological condition characterized by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, and kinesthetic coordination. This is most common in dyslexics who also have an attention deficit disorder.

Verbal Dyspraxia is a neurological condition characterized by marked difficulty in the use of speech sounds, which is the result of an immaturity in the speech production area of the brain. Dysgraphia is a neurological condition characterized by distorted and incorrect handwriting. Dyscalculia is a neurological condition characterized by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this condition can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction.

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Facts and statistics

Between 5 and 15 percent of the population can be diagnosed as suffering from various degrees of dyslexia. Dyslexia's main manifestation is a difficulty in developing reading skills in elementary school children. Those difficulties result from reduced ability to associate visual symbols with verbal sounds. While motivational factors must also be reviewed in assessing poor performance, dyslexia is considered to be present from birth. Most scientific criteria for dyslexia exclude cases that can be explained as arising from environmental factors such as lack of education or sensory deficits. Current scientific theories focus on the hypothesis that dyslexia stems from a deficit in phonological awareness. This hypothesis suggests that affected individuals have difficulty analyzing the words they hear into discrete segments (such as phonemes), which in turn leads to difficulty learning spelling-sound correspondences. Dyslexia can be substantially compensated for with proper therapy, training, and equipment. The current consensus is that dyslexia occurs in both sexes with equal frequency. It was previously reported more frequently in males, likely due to selection factors and bias. Although they are different conditions, dyslexia co-occurs with attention deficit disorders (ADD or ADHD) at a rate of 30-50%. [edit]

Treatment
Only traditional educational remedial techniques have any record of improving the reading ability of those identified with dyslexia [17]. Remedial efforts focusing on phonological awareness training (often involving breaking words into their basic sounds and rearranging these sounds to produce different words)

can improve reading skills. The earlier the phonological regimen is taken on, the better the overall result. There is no evidence that colored lenses, any visual training, or similar proposed treatments are of any use. Anecdotal reports of success can be explained by other factors. Similarly, the belief that keeping a child active, perhaps through housework or physical exercise, will help with dyslexia is false [18]. [edit]

Physiology
Researchers studying the brains of dyslexics have found that during reading tasks, dyslexics show reduced activity in the left inferior parietal cortex. It is anecdotally claimed that it is not that uncommon for dyslexics who have trained themselves to cope with their affliction to develop uncannily efficient visual memories which aid in reading and comprehending large quantities of information much faster than is typical. Some dyslexics may show a natural dislike of reading and, in consequence, compensate by developing unique verbal communication skills, interpersonal expertise, visual-spatial abilities, and leadership skills. In 1979, anatomical differences in the brain of a young dyslexic were documented. Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that the language center in a dyslexic brain showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias and microgyria. Both affect the normal sixlayer structure of the cortex. An ectopia is a collection of neurons that have pushed up from the lower cortical layers into the outermost one. A microgyrus is an area of cortex that includes only four layers instead of six. These flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to auditory processing and visual processing, which seems consistent with the hypothesis that dyslexia stems from a phonological awareness deficit. Another study regarding genetic regions on chromosomes 1 and 6 have been found that might be linked to dyslexia. Presenting the argument, dyslexia is a conglomeration of conditions that all affect similar and associated areas of the cortex. [edit]

Characteristics
Diagnosis of dyslexia is made by a qualified professional. It is typically made on an exclusionary basisthat is, dyslexia is only identified when reading difficulties cannot be explained as resulting from a more general impairment affecting sensory or neurological abilities. Recent advances in neuroimaging and genetics could help identify children at risk of dyslexia before they learn to read, however none of these techniques are currently being

used for this purpose. Currently, the only way to positively diagnose dyslexia is through behavioral testing. The following characteristics have been adapted from R. D. Davis, 37 Common Characteristics of Dyslexia.[22] [edit]

General
Individuals with dyslexia:

Appear bright, intelligent, and articulate but are unable to read, write, or spell at an age-appropriate level. Have average- to above-average intelligence, yet may have poor academic achievement; may have good oral language abilities but will perform much more poorly on similar written-language tests. Might be labelled lazy, dumb, careless, immature, "not trying hard enough," or as having a "behavior problem." Because dyslexia primarily affects reading while sparing other intellectual abilities, affected individuals might be categorised as not "behind enough" or "bad enough" to receive additional help in a school setting. Might feel dumb and have poor self-esteem, and might be easily frustrated and emotional about school reading or testing. Might try to hide their reading weaknesses with ingenious compensatory "strategies". Might learn best through hands-on experience, demonstrations, experimentation, observation, and visual aids. Can show talents in other areas such as art, drama, music, sports, mechanics, story-telling, sales, business, designing, building, or engineering. Have related problems with inattention in a school setting; for instance they might seem to "zone out" or daydream often; get lost easily or lose track of time; and have difficulty sustaining attention.

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Writing and motor skills

Because of literacy problems, an individual with dyslexia may have difficulty with handwriting. However, slow or messy handwriting should not be confused with dyslexia. Some studies have also reported gross motor difficulties in dyslexia, including motor skills disorder. This difficulty is indicated by clumsiness and poor coordination. The relationship between motor skills and reading difficulties is poorly understood but could be linked to the role of the cerebellum in the development of reading and motor abilities. [24] .

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Math abilities
Dyslexia should not be confused with dyscalculia, a learning disability marked by severe difficulties with mathematics. Individuals with dyslexia can be gifted in math while having poor reading skills. However, in spite of this they might have difficulty with word problems (i.e., math problems that rely on written text rather than numbers or formulas).