Fractures

Fractures
Objectives of this Chapter: The characterization of fractures from electrical images. This includes the classification of fractures into open, mineral-filled, or vuggy and whether the fractures are: natural; polygonal; or mechanically includes. And the fracture strike/dip orientation.

Unwrapped Image of Borehole Wall

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Fractures

Fractures
Naturally occurring open fractures are very important to producibility in many carbonate and sandstone reservoirs. There are two methods of interpretation: fracture characterization (visual inspection of the electrical images) and fracture analysis (computer assisted evaluation). There are three factors which affect the electrical images and must be considered before an accurate interpretation is possible: Rm, resistivity of the mud at formation temperature; Rxo, resistivity of the flushed zone; Fracture geometry. Characterization of fracture systems from electrical images includes: the identification of the fracture type as to vertical, polygonal, or mechanically induced; the definition of the fracture morphology as to open, mineral-filled, or vuggy; and the dip/strike orientation.

Fracture Identification
Vertical fractures in a vertical borehole can be identified as a high amplitude feature which crosses other bedding planes. The feature is conductive if open and resistive if mineral-filled. Vertical fractures may be oriented by normal dip computation methods. Producibility and recovery efficiency in some reservoirs is influenced by the fracture angle. The angle most often used as criteria is 75. Fractures with dip angles of more than 75 are vertical fractures while those less than 75 are high angle fractures. Polygonal (syneresis) fractures are caused by the chemical or mechanical dewatering of a carbonate or by tectonic forces. The type of fractures often appears at changes in the lithology. Polygonal fractures have a braided appearance and are often referred to as chicken-wire fractures. These cannot be oriented. Mechanically induced fractures are created by the drilling process or by a hydraulic frac. These fractures are always open and may be oriented by conventional dip methods. The strike orientation of mechanically induced fractures reflects the present day least principle stress direction.

Fracture Morphology
Fractures may be open, mineral-filled, or vuggy. Open fractures are more conductive than the surrounding matrix. The degree of conductivity depends on the resistivities of the mud and the flushed-zone, and the fracture geometry. Visual inspection of the images may be used only as a guide to interpretation. A salt mud system will enhance the appearance of fracture while a fresh mud system will reduce the appearance. Mineral-filled fractures will appear less conductive than open fractures. Vuggy fractures exhibit irregular enlargements along the fracture plane.

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Fracture Identification

Natural - angles from 60 to vertical Polygonal (Syneresis, Chicken-wire)

Mechanical: Hydraulic Stress

Fracture Morphology (Open, Mineral-Filled, Vuggy )

N E S W N

N W S E

Open Partially filled Mineral filled Solution enhanced (vuggy)

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0 6'' Fe e t S p ec tras c opy Gamma Ray Ca liper 125 16'' 30% Ne utron/De ns i ty Poros ity 20% 10% 0% Me te rs X530 X300 00 X535

Neutron/ Density Log

X540

X545 X350 X550

X555

X560 X400 00 X565

GR 0 150

Meters X545

Feet
30 60 90

120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

Orientation: North

X350

Carbonate Vertical Fractures

X546

X352

Flowed 511 BOPD No Water X354

X356 X547

X358 1/15

X548 X360

1/5 Resistivity Calibrated

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Fractures

Fracture Orientation
Accurate orientation of fractures is required to properly locate offset development or injection wells. Often the orientation of mechanically induced fractures is used to decide the practicality of hydraulic fracs. A sine wave is fit through the fracture, in a BORMAP presentation, to compute the dip. If this is done manually, then the dip is apparent and not borehole compensated. Strike of the fracture is measured perpendicular to the fracture azimuth. The angle of the fracture from horizontal is used to classify the fracture as either vertical (greater than 75) or high angle (less than 75). The dip computation may be from overlays, geologic workstation, FMS Dip, or Fracview. Computer assisted interpretation programs allows statistical plots of the data. Straight line image plots from the two pad tools are more challenging to interpret. The fracture must be present on both pads or data from multiple passes must be used to determine the fracture orientation. The Pad No. 1 azimuth is determined from the borehole drift plot. The small arrow is the azimuth of Pad No. 1. Pads 3 and 4 are oriented clockwise from the Pad No. 1 azimuth. If the fracture is present on both pads, then the strike of the fracture can be plotted on an azimuth diagram and measured. Multiple passes may be handled in a similar manner.

Fracture Orientation (From BORMAP)

Fracture Orientation (From Straight Line Images)

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Fractures

Fracture Example 1
Objective of this example: Fracture Characterization. Geological Background: Jurassic Carbonate. Available Data: Equalized and Enhanced Images, Litho-Density and Neutron Logs, Perforation as marked. Evaluation: 3 Identification: o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 Morphology: o Open o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Orientation: Fracture Angle: 85/113 Fracture Strike: 23 - 203 Azimuth Diagram:

XX998

XX999

XX000

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Fracture Example 2
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Characterization of a vertical fracture. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images, NGT, Natural Gamma Ray.
3 Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o 3 3 3 o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Vertical Fracture Strike: 38 - 218

Meters

URAN 10 RSGR FVA PVPA 150 0.12 0.10

0 0 0 0

Carbonate
Orientation: North 0 30 60 90 120 150 180210 240 270300 330

THOR 10 URAN 0 10 POTA 0.01 0.01 RSGR 0 150 0

Feet

North 0 330 30 38 - 218 60 38

XX35
300

X335 XX36

270

90

240

120

210

150 180

XX37

X340

XX38 X345 XX39

XX40 X350 Equalized 1/30 (FMSCAL) THOR - Thorium URAN - Uranium POTA - Potasium

1/6

RSGR - Total Gamma Ray FVA - Mean Fracture Aperture PVPA - Total Fracture Porosity

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 1
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Characterization of a vertical fracture. Cretaceous Reef. Equalized Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:
North 0 330 30 300 60

Static Images Cretaceous Reef

Meters
45 Orientation: North 90 135 180 225 270 315

270

90

Feet
45

Orientation: North 90 135 180 225 270 315

240

120

210 180

150

XX456 X00.0

TD:84/179

XX457

X00.5

XX458

XX459

X01.0 XX460 1/7 1/7

Equalized

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 2
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Azimuth Diagram:
300

Characterization of a vertical fracture. Pennsylvanian Sand. Equalized Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: North 0 Fracture Strike:
330 30 60

270

90

240

120

Fractures, Pennsylvanian Sand

X00.0 X00 X010 X01 X030 X02 X015
30 60

210 180

150

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

TD: 20/359 X03 X00.5 X020 X04 X031 TD: 17/353 X05 TD: 87/112 X025 TD: 17/344 TD: 18/358

X06 X032 X030 X07 X01.0

TD: 17/340

TD: 9/353 TD: 6/1 TD: 3/348

X08

X035 X033 Feet Equalized 1/5 1/5

Meter s

Feet Equalized

Meter s 1/40 1/10

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 3
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Azimuth Diagram:
300

Characterization of a vertical fracture. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: North 0 Fracture Strike:
330 30 60

Carbonate
Display 1 ; scale 1/5
0 30 60 90 120 Orientation: North 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

270

90

240

120

210 180

150

60

61

62

63

Feet

Resistivity Calibrated 1/5::1/5

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 4
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:

Carbonate
Display 1; scale 1/5
0 30 60 90 120 Orientation: North 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

29.0 57

29.2

58 29.4

29.6 59

29.8

60 Meters Feet Resistivity Calibrated 1/5::1/5

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Fractures

Mechanically Induced Fractures

Fractures are also caused by the drilling process. These are often interpreted from other logs as open fractures. These can be recognized on electrical images by: Never crosses the borehole, i.e., does not make a sine-wave. Often has curvature at termination; Always open - no vugs or mineral-filled; Cannot be micro-faulted; Oriented parallel to maximum and intermediate principle stresses; usually vertical; and Oriented along the least principle stress direction. A primary use of drilling induced fractures is to orient the direction of hydraulic fracs. A frac will propagate along the strike of the drilling induced fractures.

30

60

Orientation: North 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

X431 X000.0

X000.2 X432

Stri

ke

X000.4

TD: 89/341 X000.6 X433

X000.8 X434

Meters

Feet

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Fractures

Mechanically Induced Fractures, Open Hole Hydraulic Frac

Display 1 ; scale 1/10 0 60 Orientation: North 120 180 240 300

70.5 18

19 71.0

20

71.5

21

22

72.0 23

24 72.5

Meters

Feet

Equalized 1/10::1/10

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 5
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:

Carbonate
0 90 180 270 360

XX052

XX053

XX054

Feet

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Fractures

Fracture Example
Objective of this example: Evaluation of unconformities. Geological Background: Available Data: Electrical Images.

XX380

XX390

Tadpoles BoreHole drift

1:48 ft

Deg

10

C2.FBSTB.0 6 16

AHT60.HILTC FMI EID (C600926) 0.2 2000 Horizontal Scale: 1:11 (ohm.m) Orientation North AHT30.HILTC 0 120 240 360 0.2 2000 (ohm.m) FMI Image Resistive Conductive AHT20.HILTC 0.2 2000

FMI EID (C600914) Horizontal Scale: 1:11 Orientation North 0 120 240 360
Resistive

FMI Image Conductive

San d DPHZ.HILTC.0 0.3 0.1 (ft3/ft3) NPHI.HILTC.0 0.3 0.1

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 6
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Electrical Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:

Carbonate
Display 1 ; scale 1/4
0 1292.2 30 60 90 120 Orientation: North 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

4240 1292.4

1292.6 4241

1292.8

4242 1293.0

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 7
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images, Straight Borehole. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:
Orientation: North 120 180 240 300

Display 1 ; scale 1/8

0 8199 60

8200

2499.5

8201

8202 2500.0

8203

2500.5 8204

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 8
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Azimuth Diagram:
300

Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: North 0 Fracture Strike:
330 30 60

270

90

240

120

Carbonate

210 180

150

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise 9
Objective of this example: Geological Background: Available Data: Evaluation: Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Fracture Characterization. Carbonate. Resistivity Calibrated Images. o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Fracture Strike:

Ordovician Carbonate
Display 1 ; scale 1/5
0 30 60 Orientation: North 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330

46 46.0

TD: 80/227

46.2 47 TD: 51/339

46.4

48 46.6 TD: 69/215

TD: 23/343 46.8 49

47.0

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise - Answers

Exercise 1 Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Azimuth Diagram:
330

3 o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 3 Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o 3 Vuggy o Open o Fracture Angle: 84/179 Fracture Strike: 89 - 269 (E-W)
North 0 30

300

60

270

Strike

90

240

120

210 180

150

Exercise 2 Identification: Morphology: Orientation: Azimuth Diagram:

3 Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o 3 Open o 3 Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy o Fracture Angle: 87/112 Fracture Strike: 22 - 202
North 0 330 30

300

60

270

90

Strike 240 120

210 180

150

Exercise 3 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

3 Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o 3 Mineral-Filled o Vuggy o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Fracture Angle: 50/140 Fracture Strike: N50E - S50W

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise - Answers

Exercise 4 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

(continued)

3 o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy 3 Open o o Fracture Angle: NA Fracture Strike: NA

Exercise 5 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

3 o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Vertical Fracture Strike: 30 - 210

Exercise 6 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

3 o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 Vuggy 3 Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o o Fracture Angle: NA Fracture Strike: NA

Exercise 7 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

3 Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced o 3 Mineral-Filled o Vuggy o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Fracture Angle: High > 80 Fracture Strike: ENE - WSW *Note: There is a fault at 2,500.4 meters

Exercise 8 Identification: Morphology: Orientation:

3 o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 o Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Fracture Angle: Vertical Fracture Strike: NE - SW

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Fractures

Fracture Exercise - Answers

(continued)

Exercise 9 - Equalized Images 3 Identification: o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 Open o Partially Mineral-Filled o Mineral-Filled o Vuggy Morphology: o Orientation: Upper Fracture: Fracture Angle: 80/227 Fracture Strike: 137 - 317 Lower Fracture: Fracture Angle: 69/215 Fracture Strike: 125 - 305 Exercise 9 - Resistivity Calibrated Identification: o Natural Vertical o Polygonal (Syneresis) o Mechanical Induced 3 Morphology: o Open (very low flow rate) Orientation: Fracture Angle: Vertical Fracture Strike: NW - SE Comments: The figure on the following page shows both the fraction image and the computed hydraulic aperture. Normally, a minimum of 0.05 mm in gas reservoirs is required to be commercially productive. The image of a fracture is affected by the surrounding rock resistivity and the mud resistivity. The large fracture appearance is a result of a very resistive formation with a very conductive mud system. This allows a low aperture fracture to have the appearance of an open fracture due to the resistivity contrast. Caution: The only positive method of fracture evaluation is to calculate the hydraulic fracture aperture through fracture analysis programs. This is discussed in a later chapter.
Display 1; scale 1/5

0 30 60 90120 150180210 240270300330

46
46.0

Orientation: North

Well Overview: 12376.1 - 12949.5 ft

0.001

10

46

Hydraulic Aperture (mm)

46.2

47

47

46.4

48
46.6

48

46.8

49
47.0

49

Meters

Feet

Resistivity Calibrated 1/6::1/6 Hydraulic Aperture

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