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Set Theory deals with fundamental questions about the nature of math-
ematics.
• Set theory is a branch of mathematics.
N, Z, Q, R, C.
Set of Sets. If the element of a set are sets themselves, then such a set is
said to be ’class of sets’ or a ’family of sets’.
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0.2 Axiom of Set Theory
• Axiom of Extension Tow sets are equal iff they have same members:
A = B if x ∈ A ⇔ x ∈ B.
Theorem 0.1. If a finite set A has n elements, then the power set of A has
2n element.
Theorem 0.2. If A is any set, then φ ⊆ A, i.e., then empty set is a subset
of every set.
Proof. Let φ & A. Then ∃ at least one element x such that x ∈ φ and
x∈/ A. But ∀x, x ∈
/ φ, since φ is the null set. Therefore ∃ no element x such
that x ∈ φ and x ∈ / A. This contradict our initial assumption. Hence we
must have φ ⊆ A.
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Proof. If A = B, Then by the Axiom of Extension every element of A
is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A. Hence A ⊆ B
and B ⊆ A.
Conversely, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then every element of A is an element
of B and every element of B is an element of A. Hence by the Axiom of
Extension, A = B.
Union of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the union of A and B
is the set of all elements which are either in A or in B. Union of A and B is
denoted by A ∪ B.
Mathematically,
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
Intersection of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the intersection of A
and B is the set of all elements which are common in A and B. Intersection
of A and B is denoted by A ∩ B.
Mathematically,
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Difference of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the difference of A
and B is the set of elements which belongs to A but not belongs to B. The
difference between A and B is denoted by A − B, A \ B or A ∼ B.
Mathematically,
A \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B c }.
Symmetric difference of two sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the
symmetric difference of A and B is define as the union of A \ B and B \ A
and is denoted by A∆B.
Index Set. A non-empty set, I,(say) having the property that to each
of its element, i ∈ I, there is corresponds a set Ai . Such a set is known as
index set.
Let A be the collection of sets such that to each member i of I there corre-
sponds a member of Ai ∈ A. Then A is called an index family of sets with
index set I. Mathematically,
A = {Ai : i ∈ I}.
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Ordered Pair. Let A and B be two sets. Let a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Then (a, b)
called an ordered pair.
Cartesian Product of sets. Let A and B be two sets, then the set
of all distinct ordered pairs whose first coordinate in an element of A and
second coordinate is an element of B is called the cartesian product of A
and B, and is denoted by A × B.
Mathematically,
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
Relation. Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation from A to B is a
subset of A × B.
Mathematically, R is a relation from A to B iff R ⊆ A × B. Example. Let
Z be a set of all integers. The statement ”x is less than y”, where x, y ∈ I
determines a relation in I. If we denote this relation by R, then
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functions on a single set.
Then,
3 4 4 7
AB = 6= = BA.
11 16 8 15
5
Associative. A binary operation ∗ is called associative iff (a∗b)∗c = a∗(b∗c)
for all a, b, c ∈ S.
e∗a=a =a∗e ∀a ∈ A.
0.4 Group.
Groupoid. A groupoid(magma) is a basic kind of algebraic structure.
Specifically, a magma consists of a set A equipped with a single binary
operation A × A → A. A binary operation is closed by definition, but no
other axioms are imposed on the operation.
Groupoids are often used to capture information about geometrical objects
such as manifolds. Groupoids were first developed by Heinrich Brandt in
1926.
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Example. The algebraic structure (N, +) is a groupoid.
Example. The algebraic structure (N, −) is not a groupoid.
Semigroup. A semigroup is an algebraic structure consisting of a set S
closed under an associative binary operation. In other words, a semigroup
is an associative magma.
Mathematically, Let (A, ∗) be an algebraic system where ∗ is a binary oper-
ation on A. Then (A, ∗) ia called semigroup if the following conditions are
satisfied:
• ∗ is closed operation,
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
Solution.
• ∗ is closed operation,
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a∀a ∈ S.
Example. Let Z be the set of integers, and + (addition) be the set opera-
tion on it. Then (Z, +) is a monoid.
Solution.
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• Closure: If x1 and x2 are integers then x1 + x2 is an integer.
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a∀a ∈ S.
Solution.
• Closure: If x1 and x2 are integers then x1 + x2 is an integer.
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Example.
Lemma 0.5. A group G has exactly one identity element ‘e’ satisfying ex =
x = xe for all x ∈ G.
Uniqueness of inverse.
Proof. we know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one
element x−1 which satisfies xx−1 = e and x−1 x = e. If z is any element of
G which satisfy xz = e then z = ez = (x−1 x)z = x−1 (xz) = x−1 e = x−1 .
Similarly, if w is any element of G which satisfies wx = e the w = x−1 . Hence
we conclude that the inverse x−1 of x is uniquely determined, as required.
Similarly, (y −1 x−1 )(xy) = e, and thus (y −1 x−1 ) is the inverse of xy, as re-
quired.
Note that (x−1 )−1 = x for all elements x of a group G, since x has the
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properties that characterize the inverse of the inverse x−1 of x.
Example. A set G = {0o , 120o , 240o }, with the binary operation ∗ which
is define as the rotation of a line at 120o in the plane, is a group (G, ∗), of
order 3.
a0 = e.
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In place of a0 we write 0a. Thus we define 0a = e where e is the identity of
G.
If n is a positive integer, then in place of a−n we write (−n)a. Thus we
define (−n)a = −(na), where −(na) denotes the inverse of na ∈ G.
Example. A set G = {0o , 120o , 240o }, with the binary operation ∗ which
is define as the rotation of a line in the plane, is a group, (G, ∗). Then order
of 0o is three, 120o is two and 240o is one.
0.6 Subgroup.
Let (G, ∗) be a group with binary operator ∗, and let H be a non empty
subset of G. Then we say that H is a subgroup of G if the following are
satisfied:
•
a ∗ b ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H.
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• H is closed under the binary operation of G;
• the identity e of G is in H;
x1 ∗ (x2 ∗ x3 ) = (x1 ∗ x2 ) ∗ x3 ∀ x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ G.
This implies
x1 ∗ (x2 ∗ x3 ) = (x1 ∗ x2 ) ∗ x3 ∀ x1 , x2 , x3 ∈ H.
a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H.
a ∗ b−1 ∈ H, ∀a, b ∈ H.
a ∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ a ∗ a−1 ∈ H ⇒ e ∈ H.
e ∈ H, a ∈ H ⇒ e ∗ a−1 ∈ H ⇒ a−1 ∈ H.
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Thus each element of H possesses inverse in H.
1−3 = (13 )−1 = −3, 1−2 = (12 )−1 = −2, 1−1 = −1, 10 = 0, 11 = 1, 12 = 1+1 = 2,
and so on.
Example. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin
through an integer multiple of 2π/n radians is a cyclic group of order n for
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all integers n. This group is generated by an anticlockwise rotation through
an angle of 2π/n radians.
H = {xn | n ∈ Z}
If x1 and x2 are any two elements of G, there exist integers r and s such
that x1 = xr and x2 = xs . Then
x1 ∗ x2 = xr xs = xr+s = xs+r = x2 ∗ x1 .
H = {xn | n ∈ Z}
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Proof. To prove H be a subgroup of G, we must show that it is close
under group operation of G, must have identity element and must contains
inverse element of every element in H.
Since xr xs = xr+s ∈ Z, ∀xr , xs ∈ Z. Thus H is closed under the group
operation. Also x0 = e, so e ∈ H, and for xr ∈ H, x−r ∈ H and xr x−r = e.
Hence H satisfied all the necessary and sufficient conditions for being a sub-
group.
Also every subgroup of G containing ‘x’ must contain H. This implies H be
the smallest subgroup of G containing ‘x′ .
Lemma 0.14. Let (G, ∗) be a group and x be an element of G. Then the set
of all elements of G that are of the form xn for some integer n is a subgroup
of G.
• SX is the set of all mappings of the non empty set X with itself.
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Consequently
x′ (στ ) = (x′ σ)τ = x′′ τ = x
and hence στ is onto. If x(στ ) = y(στ ), then (xσ)τ = y(στ ) by
he definition of composition of mappings; this means τ is one-to-one,
that xσ = yσ. This in turn implies, since σ is one-to-one, that x = y.
Therefore στ is also one-to-one. Thus composition of mapping is a
binary operation in SX .
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Example. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let σ and τ be two permutation of
A. Then
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
σ= , τ= .
4 2 5 3 1 3 5 4 2 1
Then,
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
στ = = .
4 2 5 3 1 3 5 4 2 1 2 5 1 4 3
Lemma 0.15. The composite function στ will be a permutation if it is
one-to-one and onto G.
Proof. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ∈ G. To show composite function στ on G is
one-to-one. Let x1 (στ ) = x2 (στ ), then
Example. Let
1 2 3 4 3 2 4 1
f= and g =
2 3 4 1 4 3 1 2
are two permutations of degree 4, then we have f = g. Hence we see that
both f (a) = g(a) ∀a ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Theorem 0.16. Let G be a non empty set, and let SG be a collection of all
permutations of G. Then SG is a group under permutation multiplication.
Proof. To show that SG is a group. We have to show that SG satisfies
the three axioms of group. Existence of identity and inverse is very simply
to prove. Now we have to show that function composition is associative, i.e.,
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for permutations σ, τ and µ of G. for this we have to show that each com-
posite function maps each x ∈ G into the same image in G, i.e.,
We have
x[(στ )µ] = x[(στ )]µ = [(xσ)τ ]µ = x[σ(τ µ).
Thus, (στ )µ and σ(τ µ) map each x ∈ G into the same element [(aσ)τ ]µ and
hence the same permutation.
x1 → x2 , x2 → x3 , . . . , xn → x1
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Also, if f, g, h are three cycles, then
[(1 2 3)(4 5)(2 6)] = (2 6)−1 (4 5)−1 (1 2 3)−1 = (6 2)(5 4)(3 2 1).
Example.
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Proof. Let x ∈ G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity element of G.
Also, e ∈ H. It follows that x ∈ xH. This prove the first condition.
Let x, y ∈ G, where y = xa for some a ∈ H. Then yh = (xa)h = x(ah) and
xh = y(a−1 h) for all h ∈ H. Moreover ah ∈ H and a−1 h ∈ H for all h ∈ H,
since H is a subgroup of G. It follows that yH ⊂ xH and xH ⊂ yH, and
hence xH = yH. This completes the prove of second condition.
Finally suppose that xH ∩ yH is a non empty for some elements x and y
of G. Let z be an element of xH ∩ yH. Then z = xa for some a ∈ H, and
z = yb for some b ∈ H. It follows from second condition that zH = xH and
zH = yH. therefore xH = yH. This completes the proof.
Lemma 0.18. Let (G, ∗) be a group and H be a subset of G. Then each left
coset of H in G has the same number of elements as H.
xh1 = xh2
⇒ xh1 h−1 −1
1 = yh2 h1
⇒ xe = y(h2 h−1
1 )
⇒ x = y(h2 h−1
1 )
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Lemma 0.20. Let (G, ∗) be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Let a, b ∈ G.
Then
a ∈ Hb ⇔ Ha = Hb and a ∈ bH ⇔ aH = bH.
ab−1 ∈ Hbb−1
⇒ ab−1 ∈ H
⇒ Hab−1 = H
⇒ Hab−1 b = Hb
⇒ Ha = Hb.
Ha = {h1 a, h2 a, . . . , hm a}
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Ha has m distinct members, since hi a = hj a ⇒ hi = hj . Therefore each
right coset of H in G has m distinct members. Also any two right cosets
of H in G are disjoint. Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct
right cosets of H in G will be finite, say, equal to k. Then union of these
k distinct right cosets of H in G is equal to G. Thus, if Ha1 , Ha2 , . . . , Hak
are k distinct right cosets of H in G. Then
⇒ o(G) = km ⇒ n = km
n
⇒k= ⇒ o(H) is a divisor of o(G).
m
Index. Let G be a group, and let H be a subgroup of G. If the number of
left cosets of H in G is finite then the number of such cosets is referred as
the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].
0.10 Homomorphism.
A homomorphism f : G → K from a group (G, ∗) to a group (K, ∗) is a
function with property that f (x1 ∗ x2 ) = f (x1 )f (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 ∈ G.
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Kernel. The kernel, ker f of the homomorphism f : G → K is the set
of all elements of G that mapped by f onto the identity element of K.
0.11 Isomorphism.
An algebraic systems (G, ∗) is isomorphic to the algebraic systems (K, o),
if one can obtain (G, ∗) from (K, o) by renaming the elements and/or the
operation in (K, o.)
Mathematically, An isomorphism f : G → K between groups G and K is a
one-to-one function f mapping from G on to K, such that for all x and y in
G,
f (x ∗ y) = f (x)of (y).
The groups G and K are the isomorphic. The usual notation for isomor-
phism is ≃ .
Two groups G and K are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism mapping
G on to K.
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Therefore f (a−1 ) is the inverse of f (a) in K. Thus
f (a−1 ) = [f (a)]−1 .
an = e
⇒ f (an ) = f (e)
⇒ f (a . . . a, n times) = f (e)
⇒ f (a) . . . f (a), n times = f (e)
⇒ [f (a)]n = f (e)
⇒ o(f (a)) ≤ n. (1)
Now,
[f (a)]m = f (e)
⇒ f (a) . . . f (a), m times = f (e)
⇒ f (a . . . a, m times) = f (e)
⇒ f (am ) = f (e)
⇒ am = e
⇒ o(a) ≤ m. (2)
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Thus for every x′ ∈ K, we have
Similarly,
ef = (aa−1 )f = (af )(a−1 f ).
Thus a−1 f = (af )−1 .
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The notation ‘N ⊳ G’ signifies ‘N is a normal subgroup of G’.
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Proposition 0.30. A subgroup H of G is normal iff xHx−1 = H, ∀x ∈ G.
Proof. Let xHx−1 = H, ∀x ∈ G. Then xHx−1 ⊆ H, ∀x ∈ G. Therefore
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, Let H be an normal subgroup of G. Then
xHx−1 ⊆ H, ∀x ∈ G. (3)
Also x ∈ G ⇒ x−1 ∈ G. Therefore
x−1 H(x−1 )−1 ⊂ H, ∀x ∈ G
⇒ x−1 Hx ⊂ H, ∀x ∈ G
⇒ x(x−1 Hx)x−1 ⊂ xHx−1 , ∀x ∈ G
⇒ H ⊂ xHx−1 , ∀x ∈ G (4)
From equ.(3) and equ.(4), we have
xHx−1 = H, ∀x ∈ G.
Conjugate. Two subgroups H and K of a group G are conjugate if H =
a−1 Ka for some a ∈ G, i.e., if one is mapped onto the other by some inner
automorphism of G.
Lemma 0.31. Let G and K be groups, and let f : G → K be a homomor-
phism from G to K. Then the kernel ker f of f is a normal subgroup of
G.
Proof. Let x and y be elements of ker f. Then f (x)eK and f (y) = eK ,
where eK denotes the identity element of K. But then f (xy) = f (x)f (y) =
eK eK = eK . Thus xy belongs to kerf. Also f (x−1 ) = f (x)−1 = e−1
K eK . Thus
−1
x belongs to ker f. We conclude that kar f is a subgroup of K. Moreover
ker f is a normal subgroup of G, for if k ∈ G and x ∈ ker f then
f (kxk−1 ) = f (k)f (x)f (k)−1 = f (k)f (k−1 ) = eK .
Quotient Homomorphism. If N is a normal subgroup of some group G
then N is the kernel of the quotient homomorphism f : G → G/N tat sends
x ∈ G to the coset xN. It follows therefore that a subset of a group G is
normal subgroup of G iff it the kernel of some homomorphism.
Proposition 0.32. Let G and K be subgroups, let f : G → K be a homo-
morphism from G to K, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Suppose that
N ⊂ ker f. The the homomorphism f : G → K induces a homomorphism
fˆ : G/N → K sending xN ∈ G/N to f (x). Moreover fˆ : G/N → K is
injective iff N = ker f.
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Proof. Let x and y be elements of G. Now xN = yN iff x−1 y ∈ N. Also
f (x) = f (y) iff x−1 y ∈ ker f. Thus if N ⊂ ker f then f (x) = f (y) whenever
xN = yN, and thus f : G → K induces a well define function since fˆ :
G/N → K sending xN ∈ G/N to f (x). This function is a homomorphism,
ˆ )f (yN
since fˆ((xN )(yN )) = fˆ(xyN ) = f (xy) = f (x)f (y) = f (xN ˆ ).
Suppose now that N = ker f. Then f (x) = f (y) iff xN = yN. Thus the
homomorphism fˆ : G/N → K is injective. Conversely if fˆ : G/N → K is
injective then N must be the kernel of f.
Corollary 0.33. Let (G, o) and (K, ) be groups, and let f : G → K be a
homomorphism. Then f (G) ∼= C/ker f.
Lemma 0.34. Let f : G → K be a homomorphism. Then f (eG ) = eK ,
where eG and eK denotes the identity elements of groups G and K. Also
f (x−1 ) = f (x)−1 for all elements of G.
Proof. Let z = f (eG ). Then z 2 = f (eG )f (eG ) = f (eG eG ) = f (eG ) = z.
The result that f (eG ) = eK now follows from the fact that an element z of
K satisfied z 2 = z iff z is the identity element of K.
Let x be an element of G. The element f (x−1 ) satisfies f (x)f (x−1 ) =
f (xx−1 ) = f (eG ) = eK , and similarly f (x−1 )f (x)eK . The Uniqueness of
the inverse of f (x) now ensures that f (x−1 ) = f (x)−1 .
Lemma 0.35. Let (G, ∗) be a group, let H be a subgroup of G, and let
N be a normal subgroup of G. The the set HN is a subgroup of G, where
HN = {hn : h ∈ H, n ∈ N }.
Proof. The set HN clearly contains the identity element of G. Let x
and y be elements of HN. We have to show that xy and x−1 belongs to
HN. Now x = hu and y = kv for some elements h and k of H and for some
elements u, v ∈ N. Then xy = (hk)(k−1 ukv). But k−1 uk ∈ N, since N is
normal. It follows that (k−1 ukv) ∈ N, since N is a subgroup and (k−1 ukv)
is the product of the elements (k−1 uk and v of N. Also hk ∈ H. It follows
that xy ∈ HN.
We must also show that x−1 ∈ HN. Now x−1 = u−1 h−1 = h−1 (hu−1 h−1 ).
Also h−1 ∈ H, since H is a subgroup of G, and hu−1 h−1 ∈ N, since N is a
normal subgroup of G, as required.
Theorem 0.36. (First Isomorphism Theorem) Let (G, ∗) be a group,
let H be a subgroup of G, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then
HN ∼ H
= .
N N ∩H
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Proof. Every element of HN/N is a coset of N, i.e., of the form hN
for some h ∈ H. Thus if f (h) = hN ∀h ∈ H then f : H → HN ?N is
a surjective homomorphism, and ker f = N ∩ H. But f (H) ∼ = H/karf.
Therefore HN/N ∼ = H/(N ∩ H).
G ∼ G/M
= .
N N/M
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