Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
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9 Culture
9.1 Art and architecture
9.2 Literature
9.3 Performing arts
9.4 Motion pictures
9.5 Society
9.6 Clothing
9.7 Cuisine
9.8 Science and technology
9.9 Sport
10 See also
11 Notes
12 Citations
13 References
14 External links
Etymology[edit]
Main article: Names of India
The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word
Hindu . The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the histor
ical local appellation for the Indus River.[14] The ancient Greeks referred to t
he Indians as Indoi (??d??), which translates as "the people of the Indus".[15]
The geographical term Bharat (pronounced ['b?a?r?t?] ( listen)), which is recogn
ised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used b
y many Indian languages in its variations.[16] The eponym of Bharat is Bharata,
a theological figure that Hindu scriptures describe as a legendary emperor of an
cient India. Hindustan ([??nd??'st?a?n] ( listen)) was originally a Persian word
that meant "Land of the Hindus"; prior to 1947, it referred to a region that en
compassed northern India and Pakistan. It is occasionally used to solely denote
India in its entirety.[17][18]
History[edit]
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India
Ancient India[edit]
The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia date from app
roximately 30,000 years ago.[19] Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art site
s have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent, including at the Bhi
mbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[20] Around 7000 BCE, the first known Neo
lithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in w
estern Pakistan.[21] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisatio
n,[22] the first urban culture in South Asia;[23] it flourished during 2500 1900 B
CE in Pakistan and western India.[24] Centred around cities such as Mohenjo-daro
, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan, and relying on varied forms of subsistence
, the civilization engaged robustly in crafts production and wide-ranging trade.
[23]
During the period 2000 500 BCE, in terms of culture, many regions of the subcontin
ent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age.[25] The Vedas, the oldes
t scriptures of Hinduism,[26] were composed during this period,[27] and historia
ns have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upp
er Gangetic Plain.[25] Most historians also consider this period to have encompa
ssed several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the northwest.[28][26][29] The caste system, which created a hierarchy of priests, warrio
rs, and free peasants, but which excluded indigenous peoples by labelling their
occupations impure, arose during this period.[30] On the Deccan Plateau, archaeo
logical evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of
political organisation.[25] In southern India, a progression to sedentary life i
s indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period,
[31] as well as by nearby traces of agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft tra
ditions.[31]
Damaged brown painting of a reclining man and woman.
many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts in
to their languages.[55]
After the 10th century, Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, using swift-horse ca
valry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly overr
an South Asia's north-western plains, leading eventually to the establishment of
the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[56] The sultanate was to control much of N
orth India, and to make many forays into South India. Although at first disrupti
ve for the Indian elites, the sultanate largely left its vast non-Muslim subject
population to its own laws and customs.[57][58] By repeatedly repulsing Mongol
raiders in the 13th century, the sultanate saved India from the devastation visi
ted on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of migration of fl
eeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that r
egion into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture i
n the north.[59][60] The sultanate's raiding and weakening of the regional kingd
oms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire.[61] Emb
racing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of
the sultanate, the empire came to control much of peninsular India,[62] and was
to influence South Indian society for long afterwards.[61]
Early modern India[edit]
Scribes and artists in the Mughal court, 1590 1595
In the early 16th century, northern India, being then under mainly Muslim rulers
,[63] fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of C
entral Asian warriors.[64] The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the loc
al societies it came to rule, but rather balanced and pacified them through new
administrative practices[65][66] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[67] le
ading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[68] Eschewing tribal bo
nds and Islamic identity, especially under Akbar, the Mughals united their far-f
lung realms through loyalty, expressed through a Persianised culture, to an empe
ror who had near-divine status.[67] The Mughal state's economic policies, derivi
ng most revenues from agriculture[69] and mandating that taxes be paid in the we
ll-regulated silver currency,[70] caused peasants and artisans to enter larger m
arkets.[68] The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th
century was a factor in India's economic expansion,[68] resulting in greater pat
ronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture.[71] Newly cohere
nt social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, the Rajput
s, and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, wh
ich, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military
experience.[72] Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian c
ommercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India.[7
2] As the empire disintegrated, many among these elites were able to seek and co
ntrol their own affairs.[73]
By the early 18th century, with the lines between commercial and political domin
ance being increasingly blurred, a number of European trading companies, includi
ng the English East India Company, had established coastal outposts.[74][75] The
East India Company's control of the seas, greater resources, and more advanced
military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle
and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite; both these
factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal re
gion by 1765 and sideline the other European companies.[76][74][77][78] Its furt
her access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and siz
e of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s.[79] Indi
a was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had, but was instea
d supplying the British empire with raw materials, and many historians consider
this to be the onset of India's colonial period.[74] By this time, with its econ
omic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively m
ade an arm of British administration, the Company began to more consciously ente
r non-economic arenas such as education, social reform, and culture.[80]
Modern India[edit]
The British Indian Empire, from the 1909 edition of The Imperial Gazetteer of In
dia. Areas directly governed by the British are shaded pink; the princely states
under British suzerainty are in yellow.
Historians consider India's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1
885. The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East I
ndia Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state. These includ
ed the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty, the surveillance of the pop
ulation, and the education of citizens. Technological changes among them, railways
, canals, and the telegraph were introduced not long after their introduction in E
urope.[81][82][83][84] However, disaffection with the Company also grew during t
his time, and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Fed by diverse resentments a
nd perceptions, including invasive British-style social reforms, harsh land taxe
s, and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes, the rebellion rock
ed many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Compa
ny rule.[85][86] Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858, it led to the di
ssolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by
the British government. Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited B
ritish-style parliamentary system, the new rulers also protected princes and lan
ded gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest.[87][88] In the decades f
ollowing, public life gradually emerged all over India, leading eventually to th
e founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885.[89][90][91][92]
Two smiling men in robes sitting on the ground with bodies facing the viewer and
with heads turned toward each other. The younger wears a white Nehru cap; the e
lder is bald and wears glasses. A half-dozen other people are in the background.
Jawaharlal Nehru (left) became India's first prime minister in 1947. Mahatma Gan
dhi (right) led the independence movement.
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second ha
lf of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks many small farmers became d
ependent on the whims of far-away markets.[93] There was an increase in the numb
er of large-scale famines,[94] and, despite the risks of infrastructure developm
ent borne by Indian taxpayers, little industrial employment was generated for In
dians.[95] There were also salutary effects: commercial cropping, especially in
the newly canalled Punjab, led to increased food production for internal consump
tion.[96] The railway network provided critical famine relief,[97] notably reduc
ed the cost of moving goods,[97] and helped nascent Indian-owned industry.[96] A
fter World War I, in which some one million Indians served,[98] a new period beg
an. It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislation, by more st
rident Indian calls for self-rule, and by the beginnings of a non-violent moveme
nt of non-cooperation, of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the lead
er and enduring symbol.[99] During the 1930s, slow legislative reform was enacte
d by the British; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting el
ections.[100] The next decade was beset with crises: Indian participation in Wor
ld War II, the Congress's final push for non-cooperation, and an upsurge of Musl
im nationalism. All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947, but tempe
red by the partition of India into two states: India and Pakistan.[101]
Vital to India's self-image as an independent nation was its constitution, compl
eted in 1950, which put in place a secular and democratic republic.[102] In the
60 years since, India has had a mixed record of successes and failures.[103] It
has remained a democracy with civil liberties, an activist Supreme Court, and a
largely independent press.[103] Economic liberalisation, which was begun in the
1990s, has created a large urban middle class, transformed India into one of the
world's fastest-growing economies,[104] and increased its geopolitical clout. I
ndian movies, music, and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global c
ulture.[103] Yet, India has also been weighed down by seemingly unyielding pover
ty, both rural and urban;[103] by religious and caste-related violence;[105] by
Maoist-inspired Naxalite insurgencies;[106] and by separatism in Jammu and Kashm
ir and in Northeast India.[107] It has unresolved territorial disputes with Chin
a, which escalated into the Sino-Indian War of 1962;[108] and with Pakistan, whi
ch flared into wars fought in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999.[108] The India Pakistan
nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998.[109] India's sustained democratic freedo
ms are unique among the world's new nations; however, in spite of its recent eco
nomic successes, freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a go
al yet to be achieved.[110]
Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of India
See also: Geology of India
Map of India. Most of India is yellow (elevation 100 1000 m). Some areas in the so
uth and mid-east are brown (above 1000 m). Major river valleys are green (below
100 m).
A topographic map of India
India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent and lies atop the minor Indi
an tectonic plate, which in turn belongs to the Indo-Australian Plate.[111] Indi
a's defining geological processes commenced 75 million years ago when the Indian
subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastward drift across the then-unformed Indian Ocean that lasted fifty million y
ears.[111] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with, and subduction under, t
he Eurasian Plate bore aloft the planet's highest mountains, the Himalayas. They
abut India in the north and the north-east.[111] In the former seabed immediate
ly south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that ha
s gradually filled with river-borne sediment;[112] it now forms the Indo-Gangeti
c Plain.[113] To the west lies the Thar Desert, which is cut off by the Aravalli
Range.[114]
The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India, which is the oldest and
geologically most stable part of India; it extends as far north as the Satpura a
nd Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel chains run from the Arabian S
ea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkha
nd in the east.[115] To the south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan
Plateau, is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western
and Eastern Ghats;[116] the plateau contains the nation's oldest rock formation
s, some of them over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India l
ies to the north of the equator between 6 44' and 35 30' north latitude[e] and 68 7
' and 97 25' east longitude.[117]
A shining white snow-clad range, framed against a turquoise sky. In the middle g
round, a ridge descends from the right to form a saddle in the centre of the pho
tograph, partly in shadow. In the near foreground, a loop of a road is seen.
The Kedar Range of the Greater Himalayas rises behind Kedarnath Temple, which is
one of the twelve jyotirlinga shrines.
India's coastline measures 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) in length; of this distan
ce, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi) belong to peninsular India and 2,094 kilometres
(1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep island chains.[118] Accordin
g to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coastline consists of th
e following: 43% sandy beaches; 11% rocky shores, including cliffs; and 46% mudf
lats or marshy shores.[118]
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the
Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[119] Imp
ortant tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's e
xtremely low gradient often leads to severe floods and course changes.[120] Majo
r peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding,
include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also dra
in into the Bay of Bengal;[121] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into
the Arabian Sea.[122] Coastal features include the marshy Rann of Kutch of weste
rn India and the alluvial Sundarbans delta of eastern India; the latter is share
d with Bangladesh.[123] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atoll
s off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcan
Flag
Tricolour
Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
Anthem Jana Gana Mana
Song
Vande Mataram
Calendar
Saka
Game
Not declared[157]
Flower Lotus
Fruit Mango
Tree
Banyan
Bird
Indian Peafowl
Land animal
Royal Bengal Tiger
Aquatic animal River Dolphin
River Ganga (Ganges)
The federal government comprises three branches:
Executive: The President of India is the head of state[158] and is elected indir
ectly by a national electoral college[159] for a five-year term.[160] The Prime
Minister of India is the head of government and exercises most executive power.[
161] Appointed by the president,[162] the prime minister is by convention suppor
ted by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lowe
r house of parliament.[161] The executive branch of the Indian government consis
ts of the president, the vice-president, and the Council of Ministers the cabinet
being its executive committee headed by the prime minister. Any minister holding a
portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament.[158] In the Indi
an parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature; the pr
ime minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parl
iament.[163]
Legislative: The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament. It operates u
nder a Westminster-style parliamentary system and comprises the upper house call
ed the Rajya Sabha ("Council of States") and the lower called the Lok Sabha ("Ho
use of the People").[164] The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body that has 245 membe
rs who serve in staggered six-year terms.[165] Most are elected indirectly by th
e state and territorial legislatures in numbers proportional to their state's sh
are of the national population.[162] All but two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members
are directly elected by popular vote; they represent individual constituencies v
ia five-year terms.[166] The remaining two members are nominated by the presiden
t from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that they
are not adequately represented.[167]
Judicial: India has a unitary three-tier independent judiciary[168] that compris
es the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, 24 High Courts, and
a large number of trial courts.[168] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction
over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and th
e centre; it has appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[169] It has the po
wer both to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contrav
ene the constitution.[170] The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of
the constitution.[171]
Subdivisions[edit]
A clickable map of the 28 states and 7 union territories of India
Main article: Administrative divisions of India
See also: Political integration of India
India is a federation composed of 28 states and 7 union territories.[172] All st
ates, as well as the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Te
rritory of Delhi, have elected legislatures and governments, both patterned on t
he Westminster model. The remaining five union territories are directly ruled by
the centre through appointed administrators. In 1956, under the States Reorgani
sation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[173] Since then, thei
r structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is fur
ther divided into administrative districts. The districts in turn are further di
vided into tehsils and ultimately into villages.
States
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal
Union territories
A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
D. Daman and Diu
E. Lakshadweep
F. National Capital Territory of Delhi
G. Puducherry
Foreign relations and military[edit]
Main articles:
Two seated men
sits before an
fore a Russian
Manmohan Singh meets Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 summit. India and Russia sha
re extensive economic, defence, and technological ties.
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most
nations. In the 1950s, it strongly supported decolonisation in Africa and Asia
and played a lead role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[174] In the late 1980s, the
Indian military twice intervened abroad at the invitation of neighbouring countr
ies: a peace-keeping operation in Sri Lanka between 1987 and 1990; and an armed
intervention to prevent a coup d'tat attempt in Maldives. India has tense relatio
ns with neighbouring Pakistan; the two nations have gone to war four times: in 1
947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. Three of these wars were fought over the disputed ter
ritory of Kashmir, while the fourth, the 1971 war, followed from India's support
for the independence of Bangladesh.[175] After waging the 1962 Sino-Indian War
and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India pursued close military and economic ties w
ith the Soviet Union; by the late 1960s, the Soviet Union was its largest arms s
upplier.[176]
Aside from ongoing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide-ranging defen
ce relations with Israel and France. In recent years, it has played key roles in
the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organi
sation. The nation has provided 100,000 military and police personnel to serve i
n 35 UN peacekeeping operations across four continents. It participates in the E
ast Asia Summit, the G8+5, and other multilateral forums.[177] India has close e
conomic ties with South America, Asia, and Africa; it pursues a "Look East" poli
cy that seeks to strengthen partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan, and Sout
h Korea that revolve around many issues, but especially those involving economic
investment and regional security.[178][179]
The HAL Tejas is a light supersonic fighter developed by the Aeronautical Develo
pment Agency and manufactured by Hindustan Aeronautics in Bangalore.[180]
China's nuclear test of 1964, as well as its repeated threats to intervene in su
pport of Pakistan in the 1965 war, convinced India to develop nuclear weapons.[1
81] India conducted its first nuclear weapons test in 1974 and carried out furth
er underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and military sanctions, India
has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty nor the Nuclear Non
-Proliferation Treaty, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[182] In
dia maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad
capability as a part of its "minimum credible deterrence" doctrine.[183][184] It
is developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in collaboration with Rus
sia, a fifth-generation fighter jet.[185] Other indigenous military projects inv
olve the design and implementation of Vikrant-class aircraft carriers and Arihan
t-class nuclear submarines.[185]
Since the end of the Cold War, India has increased its economic, strategic, and
military cooperation with the United States and the European Union.[186] In 2008
, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed between India and the United States. A
lthough India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and was not party to the Nuc
lear Non-Proliferation Treaty, it received waivers from the International Atomic
Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group, ending earlier restrictions on I
ndia's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India became the sixth
de facto nuclear weapons state.[187] India subsequently signed cooperation agre
ements involving civilian nuclear energy with Russia,[188] France,[189] the Unit
ed Kingdom,[190] and Canada.[191]
The President of India is the supreme commander of the nation's armed forces; wi
th 1.6 million active troops, they compose the world's third-largest military.[1
92] It comprises the Indian Army, the Indian Navy, and the Indian Air Force; aux
iliary organisations include the Strategic Forces Command and three paramilitary
groups: the Assam Rifles, the Special Frontier Force, and the Indian Coast Guar
d.[193] The official Indian defence budget for 2011 was US$36.03 billion, or 1.8
3% of GDP.[194] For the fiscal year spanning 2012 2013, US$40.44 billion was budge
ted.[195] According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure
in terms of purchasing power stood at US$72.7 billion,[196] In 2011, the annual
defence budget increased by 11.6%,[197] although this does not include funds tha
t reach the military through other branches of government.[198] As of 2012, Indi
a is the world's largest arms importer; between 2007 and 2011, it accounted for
10% of funds spent on international arms purchases.[199] Much of the military ex
penditure was focused on defence against Pakistan and countering growing Chinese
influence in the Indian Ocean.[197]
Economy[edit]
Main article: Economy of India
See also: Economic history of India, Economic development in India, and Transpor
t in India
A farmer in Rajasthan milks his cow. Milk is India's largest crop by economic va
lue. Worldwide, as of 2011, India had the largest herds of buffalo and cattle, a
from drinking contaminated water or breathing polluted air.[243] There are arou
nd 50 physicians per 100,000 Indians.[244] The number of Indians living in urban
areas has grown by 31.2% between 1991 and 2001.[245] Yet, in 2001, over 70% liv
ed in rural areas.[246][247] According to the 2001 census, there are 27 millionplus cities in India;[245] among them Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore
, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad are the most populous metropolitan areas. The literacy
rate in 2011 was 74.04%: 65.46% among females and 82.14% among males.[6] Kerala
is the most literate state;[248] Bihar the least.[249]
India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of
the population) and Dravidian (24%). Other languages spoken in India come from
the Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. India has no national lan
guage.[250] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers, is the official language
of the government.[251][252] English is used extensively in business and admini
stration and has the status of a "subsidiary official language";[253] it is impo
rtant in education, especially as a medium of higher education. Each state and u
nion territory has one or more official languages, and the constitution recognis
es in particular 21 "scheduled languages". The Constitution of India recognises
212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about 7.5% of the country'
s population.[254] The 2001 census reported that Hinduism, with over 800 million
adherents (80.5% of the population), was the largest religion in India; it is f
ollowed by Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%),
Jainism (0.4%), Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Bah' Faith.[255] India has the wo
rld's largest Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Zoroastrian, and Bah' populations, and has the th
ird-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim
majority country.[256][257]
Culture[edit]
Main article: Culture of India
A Warli tribal painting by Jivya Soma Mashe from Thane, Maharashtra
Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[258] During the Vedic perio
d (c. 1700 500 BCE), the foundations of Hindu philosophy, mythology, and literatur
e were laid, and many beliefs and practices which still exist today, such as dhrm
a, krma, yga, and mok?a, were established.[15] India is notable for its religious
diversity, with Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Jainism among the na
tion's major religions.[259] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped
by various historical schools of thought, including those of the Upanishads,[26
0] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[259] and by Buddhist philosophy.[261]
Art and architecture[edit]
Much of Indian architecture, including the Taj Mahal, other works of Mughal arch
itecture, and South Indian architecture, blends ancient local traditions with im
ported styles.[262] Vernacular architecture is also highly regional in it flavou
rs. Vastu shastra, literally "science of construction" or "architecture" and asc
ribed to Mamuni Mayan,[263] explores how the laws of nature affect human dwellin
gs;[264] it employs precise geometry and directional alignments to reflect perce
ived cosmic constructs.[265] As applied in Hindu temple architecture, it is infl
uenced by the Shilpa Shastras, a series of foundational texts whose basic mythol
ogical form is the Vastu-Purusha mandala, a square that embodied the "absolute".
[266] The Taj Mahal, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by orders of Emperor Sh
ah Jahan in memory of his wife, has been described in the UNESCO World Heritage
List as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired mas
terpieces of the world's heritage."[267] Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, de
veloped by the British in the late 19th century, drew on Indo-Islamic architectu
re.[268]
Literature[edit]
The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1400 BCE and 1200 CE,
were in the Sanskrit language.[269][270] Prominent works of this Sanskrit litera
ture include epics such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the dramas of Kalid
asa such as the Abhijanasakuntalam (The Recognition of Sakuntala), and poetry suc
have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urb
an areas.[296] An overwhelming majority of Indians, with their consent, have the
ir marriages arranged by their parents or other family members.[297] Marriage is
thought to be for life,[297] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[298] Child
marriages are common, especially in rural areas; many women in India wed before
reaching 18, which is their legal marriageable age.[299] Many Indian festivals a
re religious in origin; among them are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Na
vratri, Makar Sankranti or Uttarayan, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Ch
ristmas, and Vaisakhi. India has three national holidays which are observed in a
ll states and union territories: Republic Day, Independence Day, and Gandhi Jaya
nti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially obs
erved in individual states.
Clothing[edit]
Main article: Clothing in India
Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 B.C.E. Traditional Indian dress varies
in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors, including cli
mate and faith. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari
for women and the dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes, such as the shalwar
kameez for women and kurta pyjama combinations or European-style trousers and shi
rts for men, are also popular.[300] Use of delicate jewellery, modelled on real
flowers worn in ancient India, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 yea
rs; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans.[301]
Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Indian cuisine
Chicken tikka, served in Mumbai. A popular dish in India and around the world.
Indian cuisine features an unsurpassed reliance on herbs and spices, with dishes
often calling for the nuanced usage of a dozen or more condiments;[302] it is a
lso known for its tandoori preparations. The tandoor, a clay oven used in India
for almost 5,000 years, grills meats to an "uncommon succulence" and produces th
e puffy flatbread known as naan.[303] The staple foods are wheat (predominantly
in the north),[304] rice (especially in the south and the east), and lentils.[30
5] Many spices that have worldwide appeal are native to the Indian subcontinent,
[306] while chili pepper, native to the Americas and introduced by the Portugues
e, is widely used by Indians.[307] Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine, u
sed six rasas and three gu?as to help describe comestibles.[308] Over time, as V
edic animal sacrifices were supplanted by the notion of sacred-cow inviolability
, vegetarianism became associated with high religious status and grew increasing
ly popular,[309] a trend aided by the rise of Buddhist, Jain, and bhakti Hindu n
orms.[310] India has the world's highest concentration of vegetarians: a 2006 su
rvey found that 31% of Indians were lacto vegetarian, and another 9% were ovo-la
cto vegetarianism.[310] Common traditional eating customs include meals taken on
or near the floor, caste and gender-segregated dining,[311][312] and a lack of
cutlery in favour of the right hand or a piece of roti.
Science and technology[edit]
Main article: Science and technology in India
India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in th
e United States.[313] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in
2002 2003.[314] The ancient institutions of Taxila and Nalanda are sometimes cons
idered the world's first universities.[315][316]
In mathematics, the positional Hindu Arabic numeral system was developed and the u
se of zero as a number was introduced. Brahmagupta discovered the rules of arith
metic governing negative numbers and zero.[317] In physics, theories about atoms
date as early as the 5th century B.C.E.[318] Satyendra Nath Bose, after whom th
e class of particles Bosons are named after, provided the foundation for Bose Eins
tein statistics and the Bose Einstein condensate. Jagadish Chandra Bose worked on
wireless communication and was named one of the fathers of radio science by the
IEEE.[319] In biological sciences, variolation, a form of inoculation to produce
immunity to disease, probably originated in India and reached Europe by the 18t
eedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status
with it." (Constituent Assembly of India 1950).
^ "The country's exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disput
ed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 km2 (1,269,220 sq mi
) and the total land area as 3,060,500 km2 (1,181,700 sq mi); the United Nations
lists the total area as 3,287,263 km2 (1,269,219 sq mi) and total land area as
2,973,190 km2 (1,147,960 sq mi)." (Library of Congress 2004).
^ See also: Official names of India
^ The Government of India regards Afghanistan as a bordering country, as it cons
iders all of Kashmir to be part of India. However, this is disputed, and the reg
ion bordering Afghanistan is administered by Pakistan. Source: "Ministry of Home
Affairs (Department of Border Management)" (DOC). Retrieved 1 September 2008..
^ The northernmost point under Indian control is the disputed Siachen Glacier in
Jammu and Kashmir; however, the Government of India regards the entire region o
f the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, including the Northern Areas a
dministered by Pakistan, to be its territory. It therefore assigns the longitude
37 6' to its northernmost point.
Citations[edit]
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^ Wolpert 2003, p. 1.
^ a b "National Symbols | National Portal of India". India.gov.in. Retrieved 201
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^ "Eighth Schedule". Retrieved 1 July 2013.
^ "Chief Justice of India & Sitting Hon'ble Judges". Supreme Court of India.
^ a b c d e Ministry of Home Affairs 2011.
^ a b c "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". Imf.org. 14 September 2006
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^ "GDP (current US$) Data in 2012". IMF. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
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^ a b c d Singh 2009, p. 319.
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^ Thapar 2003, p. 166.
^ Stein 1998, p. 21.
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^ Singh 2009, pp. 312 313.
^
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^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
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^
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