Chapter 2

Technical challenges of wireless communications

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The major challenges

Multipath propagation

Spectrum limitations
Limited energy User mobility

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Multipath propagation

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Small-scale fading
Signal on reflected path arrives later

TX Constructive (self-)interference + =

Signal on direct path arrives first

RX

Destructive (self-)interference + =

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Large-scale fading

Received power at distance d [log scale]

D C

d
Position
A B C C
A

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Consequences of fading
Error probability is dominated by probability of being in a fading dip Error probability decreases only linearly with increasing SNR Fighting the effects of fading becomes essential for wireless transceiver design Deterministic modeling of channel at each point very difficult Statistical modeling of propagation and system behavior

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Intersymbol interference (1)

Channel impulse response is delay-dispersive

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Intersymbol interference (2)

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Spectrum assignment
<100 MHz: CB radio, pagers, and analogue cordless phones. 100-800 MHz: broadcast (radio and TV) 400-500 MHz: cellular and trunking radio systems 800-1000 MHz: cellular systems (analogue and secondgeneration digital); emergency communications 1.8-2.0 GHz: main frequency band for cellular and cordless 2.4-2.5 GHz: cordless phones, wireless LANs and wireless PANs (personal area networks); other devices, e.g., microwave ovens. 3.3-3.8 GHz: fixed wireless access systems 4.8-5.8 GHz: wireless LANs 11-15 GHz: satellite TV
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Frequency reuse
Available spectrum is limited -> the same frequency (range) has to be used at many different locations Regulated spectrum:
a single operator owns the spectrum, and can determine where to put TXs cell planning so that interference adheres to certain limits

Unregulated spectrum:
Often only one type of service allowed, Nobody can control location of interferers Power of interferers is limited by regulations

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Duplexing and multiple access

Within each frequency band, multiple users need to communicate with one BS (multiple access)

Mobile telephony, wireless LAN, ...

Cellphones have to be able to transmit and receive voice communications (duplexing)

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DUPLEX Frequency-division Duplex (FDD)

Down link

Up link

Duplex filter

Transmitter Receiver

Frequency
FDD gives a more complex solution (the duplex filter). Can be used for continuous transmission. Examples: Nodic Mobile Telephony (NMT), Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
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DUPLEX Time-division duplex (TDD)

Down link

Down link

Down link

Up link

Up link

Up link

Transmitter Receiver

Time TDD gives a low complexity solution (the duplex switch). Cannot be used for continuous transmission. Duplex switch

Examples: Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), Wideband CDMA (WCDMA)
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MULTIPLE ACCESS Freq.-division multiple access (FDMA)

Users are separated in frequency bands.

Examples: Nordic Mobile Telephony (NMT), Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
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Code

(Frequency Division Multiple Access)

FDMA

Frequency User n
User 2

User 1

Time

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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FDMA Bandwidth Structure

Frequency

Total bandwidth

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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FDMA Channel Allocation

User 1 Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency n

User 2
User n

Mobile Stations

Base Station
15

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

Frequency Hopping
Frequency
Frame
f1 f2

Slot

f3
f4

f5

Time
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MULTIPLE ACCESS Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

Users are separated in time slots.

USER 1

Code

USER 2

USER 3

USER 1

Example: Global System for Mobile communications (GSM)

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USER 2

(Time Division Multiple Access)

TDMA

Frequency

User n

User 1

User 2

Time
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TDMA Frame Structure

1 2 3 Frame 4 n Time

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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TDMA Frame Illustration for Multiple Users

User 1 User 2 Time 1 Time 2

User n Mobile Stations

Time n

Base Station
18

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

MULTIPLE ACCESS Code-division multiple access (CDMA)

Users are separated by spreading codes.

Code Examples: CdmaOne, Wideband CDMA (WCDMA), Cdma2000

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(Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA

Frequency

User n

..

User 2

User 1

Time

Code
Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved 19

Transmitted and Received Signals in a CDMA System

Information bits Code at transmitting end Transmitted signal Received signal Code at receiving end Decoded signal at the receiver
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MULTIPLE ACCESS Carrier-sense multiple access (CSMA)

Users are separated in time but not in an organized way. The terminal listens to the channel, and transmits a packet if its free. USER 3 USER 2

Code

USER 1

Example: IEEE 802.11 (WLAN)

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USER 2

Collissions can occur and data is lost.

(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

OFDM

Frequency Conventional multicarrier modulation used in FDMA

Frequency Orthogonal multicarrier modulation used in OFDM

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved 21

OFDM Analog View

Digital Implementation

MINO beamforming diversity (Tx & Rx) spatial multiplexing*

*Each Rx antenna will see all Tx signals

User mobility
User can change position

Mobility within one cell (i.e., maintaining a link to a certain BS): mostly effect on propagation channel (fading) Mobility from cell to cell:

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Fundamentals of Cellular Systems

Ideal cell area (2-10 km radius)
BS

Cell

MS

Alternative shape of a cell

MS

Hexagonal cell area used in most models

Illustration of a cell with a mobile station and a base station

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved 12

Cellular System Infrastructure

Service area (Zone) BS

Early wireless system: Large zone

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Cellular System: Small Zone

BS BS

Service area

BS

BS

BS

BS

BS

Copyright 2011, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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MS, BS, BSC, MSC, and PSTN

Home phone PSTN

MSC BSC

MSC

BSC

BSC
BS MS BS MS

BSC

BS MS

BS MS

BS MS

BS MS

BS MS

BS MS

Copyright 2010, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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Control and Traffic Channels

Mobile Station (MS)

Base Station (BS)

26

Copyright 2011, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

Call Setup from MS (Cell Phone) to BS?

BS 1. Need to establish path MS

2. Frequency/time slot/code assigned (FDMA/TDMA/CDMA)

3. Control Information Acknowledgement 4. Start communication

Copyright 2011, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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Steps for A Call Setup from BS to MS

BS 1. Call for MS # pending
2. Ready to establish a path 3. Use frequency/time slot/code (FDMA/TDMA/CDMA) 4. Ready for communication

MS

5. Start communication

Copyright 2011, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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A Simplified Wireless Communications System Representation

Antenna Information to be transmitted (Voice/Data)

Coding

Modulator Carrier

Transmitter

Antenna

Information received (Voice/Data)

Decoding

Demodulator Carrier

Receiver

Copyright 2011, Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved

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