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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

Medicinal plants used by the villagers of a Sundanese community in West Java, Indonesia
Katrin Roosita a,b , Clara M. Kusharto a , Makiko Sekiyama b,c, , Yulian Fachrurozi d , Ryutaro Ohtsuka e
Department of Community Nutrition and Family Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University, Jl. Lingkar Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680, Indonesia b Department of Human Ecology, School of International Health, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan c Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan d Herbarium Bogoriense, Center for Research in Biology, LIPI, Jl. Ir. H. Juanda 18, Bogor 16002, Indonesia e National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-8506, Japan Received 24 July 2005; received in revised form 28 August 2007; accepted 9 September 2007 Available online 19 September 2007
a

Abstract Aim of the study: Based on the authors eldwork in a Sundanese village, Indonesia, this paper aimed to elucidate the roles of herbal medicine in treatment of illnesses and to report medicinal plants and their uses, comparing with those mentioned in the encyclopedic book series of Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA). Materials and methods: Interview survey was conducted for all of the 19 herbalist healers about their therapies for the past 1-month period, and the medicinal plants used were botanically identied. For 70 non-healer households, treatments for all members illness episodes in the past 1-month period were asked. Results: Medicinal plants were used in two-thirds of illness cases, either through the villagers self-treatment (60.9%) or by the healers (6.5%). The healers made 96 therapies for illnesses (classied into 23 categories), using 117 plant species. There were 257 types of illnessplant pairs, and only 114 of them (44.4%) were judged conformed to those mentioned in the PROSEA. Conclusion: Sundanese villagers have depended heavily on herbal medicine, and high proportion of non-conformed illnessplant pairs suggests necessity of further studies about Sundanese medicinal plants, particularly their pharmacological effects. 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Traditional medicine; Herbalist healer; Sundanese; West Java; Indonesia

1. Introduction Many kinds of medicinal plants have been used worldwide, especially in rural communities of developing countries. Since several decades ago, benet of traditional medicine has been scientically re-evaluated, for instance, at the WHO Consultation Meeting on the Promotion and Development of
Corresponding author at: Transdisciplinary Initiative for Global Sustainability (TIGS), Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science (IR3S), The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Tokyo 113-8654, Japan. Tel.: +81 3 5841 1549; fax: +81 3 5841 1549. E-mail address: makiko@ir3s.u-tokyo.ac.jp (M. Sekiyama). 0378-8741/$ see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.09.010

Traditional Medicine held in 1977 (Kao, 1978). Consequently, investigations of medicinal plants have been carried out in many developing countries, focusing on their therapeutic effects (WHO, 2000). In Indonesia, where herbal medicine has been popular, more than 1300 species are known as medicinal plants, called Jamu (de Padua et al., 1999; Sangat et al., 2000). They are broadly classied into two categories: commercialized Jamu gendong which are manufactured at small-sized home industries and preserved in fresh status as liquid or other forms (Limyati and Juniar, 1998; Beers, 2001), and non-commercialized medicinal plants which are locally processed for prescription (Grosvenor et al., 1995). In rural communities of Sundanese, who inhabit West Java and

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73

are the second largest ethnic group in this country, traditional herbal medicine has still played an important role in treatment of illnesses. Based on the authors survey in a rural Sundanese community and botanical identication of medicinal plants used by the local herbalist healers, this paper aims to elucidate the role of herbal medicine in Sundanese villagers and to report their medicinal plants, with special concern in comparison with the plants and their uses described in the encyclopedic book series of Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA). 2. Subjects and methods 2.1. Study village The present study was conducted in Sukajadi village, located in Tamansari subdistrict, Bogor district, Jawa Barat province, Indonesia (Fig. 1). Geographically, this village is situated about 700 m above sea level on a gently sloped hill around Mt. Salak. Temperature scarcely uctuates in the year, with the mean monthly minimum and maximum temperatures of 20 and 29 C, and annual rainfall reaches 40005000 mm. It takes about 2 h to travel from this village to Bogor City, the administrative and commercial center with about 750,000 inhabitants, by public vehicles served frequently. Sukajadi village, the land area of which is 304 ha, was inhabited by about 6500 people in the authors survey period in 2004. Most occupations of the villagers were farming and small-scale businesses like retails, although some of them relied on cash income from work in Bogor and other nearby towns. In Sukajadi, there was not a hospital but a health center, which was stationed by one doctor, three midwives, and four nurses. Commercial

drugs, which were not Jamu gendong, were available to the villagers at many retailers. On the other hand, there were 19 (10 males and 9 females) villagers, who were recognized as herbalist healers by themselves and many other villagers, although they were basically farmers or housewives and spent most of their time on farming or housekeeping. These healers raised medicinal plants, either cultivars or transplanted wild species, in their home gardens and collected wild medicinal plants in and out of the village settlement. Less frequently, however, many nonhealer villagers raised and collected such plants. Thus, the role of herbalist healers in Sukajadi differs from that in some societies where professional herbalist healers work for the inhabitants (Pinkoane et al., 2005; Abel and Busia, 2005). Since the 1990s, the authors have conducted eld investigations in Sukajadi village from the aspects of community nutrition and health (Agustina et al., 2003; Sekiyama and Ohtsuka, 2003, 2005). The protocol of this survey was approved by the Reviewers Board of the Bogor Agricultural University (on 26 July 2004) and the community leaders of Sukajadi village. The interview surveys for the healers and non-healer villagers were done with full agreement of these leaders and each participant. 2.2. Data collection The eld survey in Sukajadi, on which this paper is based, was conducted for 2 months in 2004. In the interview survey for the 19 herbalist healers, the authors used two kinds of semi-structured questionnaires. In one, the questionnaire items included each healers age, experience of school education, and his/her age at the rst practice of herbal therapy. In the other, each healers therapeutic practices in the past 1-month period were asked; the name of illness diagnosed, medicinal plant(s) used, and the amount of payment for each practice were recorded. Another interview survey was conducted for adult members of 70 households, which were randomly selected from all Sukajadi households which had no healer. The authors asked about all illness cases, from which all members of each household had suffered in the past 1-month period. Then, the villagers were asked to answer any treatments for each illness case from the ve alternatives, i.e. visit to a medical doctor at the hospital, visit to the village health center, visit to a herbalist healer, self-treatment with medicinal plants, and self-treatment with commercial drugs. For the medicinal plants, which were used by the healers in the 1-month period, their vernacular names in Sundanese and/or Indonesian languages were recorded. Then, the specimens were made in the eld and carried to the laboratory of the Research and Development Centre for Biology, the Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI) in Bogor. For all specimens, the voucher numbers were given, and their scientic names were identied by one of the authors (YF) and his colleagues, comparing with the herbarium specimens. 2.3. Comparison with the PROSEA The authors surveyed whether each medicinal plant used in Sukajadi, in terms of scientic name, is listed in the book

Fig. 1. The location of Sukajadi village in Bogor district, Indonesia.

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K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

series of PROSEA, consisting of 21 volumes. Of them, three volumes of Numbers 12 (1), (2) and (3) are titled Medicinal and Poisonous Plants (de Padua et al., 1999; van Valkenburg and Bunyapraphatsara, 2001; Lemmens and Bunyapraphatsara, 2003); since the plants used for medicinal purposes are also mentioned in many other volumes, however, the authors checked thoroughly the 11 following volumes, i.e. Number 1: Pulses (van der Maesen and Somaatmadja Sadikin, 1989), Number 2: Edible Fruits and Nuts (Verheij and Coronel, 1991), Number 5 (1): Timber Trees (1) Major Commercial Timbers (Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993), Number 5 (3): Timber Trees (3) Lesser-known Timbers (Sosef et al., 1998), Number 7: Bamboos (Dranseld and Widjaja, 1995), Number 8: Vegetables (Siemonsma and Piluek Kasem, 1993), Number 9: Plants Yielding Non-seed Carbohydrates (Flach and Rumawas, 1996), Number 10: Cereals (Grubben and Partohadjono Soetjipto, 1996), Number 13: Spices (de Guzman and Siemonsma, 1999), Number 15 (2): Cryptogams: Ferns and Fern Allies (de Winter and Amoroso, 2003), and Number 19: Essential-oil Plants (Oyen and Nguyen Xuan Dung, 1999). The Sukajadi healers diagnosed illnesses of their patients, using Sundanese and/or Indonesian languages. On the other hand, names of illnesses in the PROSEA are mentioned in English (together with Indonesian names in a few cases). Through careful comparison between a Sundanese (or Indonesian) name of each illness diagnosed by the Sukajadi healers and an English name of illness, for which the same plant is mentioned to be efcacious in the PROSEA, the authors judged whether they were identical or not.

Fig. 2. Percent distributions of 92 treatments for 63 illness cases of the villagers, broken down into ve treatment categories, self-treatment with medicinal plants by villagers, visit to herbalist healers, self-treatment with commercial drugs, visit to the village health center, and visit to a medical doctor at the hospital.

3.2. Illnesses and herbal therapies The total number of herbal therapies conducted by the 19 healers in the past 1-month period was 96; when the same healer treated the same patient for the same illness for 2 or more days, all treatments were counted as one case. The 96 illnesses were classied by the healers into 23 categories. As shown in Table 2, fever was most frequent, followed by postpartum remedy, dermatitis, stomachache, muscle pain, and hepatitis. The frequencies of the 23 illnesses were judged not to be largely biased from the usual pattern, owing to less-changed climate throughout the year in the study area. Table 3 lists all medicinal plants in terms of scientic names, 117 in total, which were used for treatment of the abovementioned 96 illness cases. Also shown in Table 3 are the voucher number (at the Research and Development Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute for Science in Bogor), local (Indonesian or
Table 1 Percent distributions of the herbalist healers in Sukajadi village by basic characteristics Male (n = 10) Current age <55 years 55+ years 40.0 60.0 Female (n = 9) 44.4 55.5 22.2 77.8 0 11.1 88.9 Total (n = 19) 42.1 57.9 31.6 47.3 21.1 31.6 68.4

3. Results 3.1. Villagers choice of treatment methods and characteristics of healers The interview survey for Sukajadi villagers of the 70 households without a healer revealed that there were 63 illness episodes, from which all members of these households suffered in the 1-month period, and that the total number of treatments taken for them was 92. As shown in Fig. 2, of the ve alternatives for treatment the villagers self-treatment with medicinal plants was most frequent, accounting for 56 (60.9%). When the visit to herbalist healer (n = 6, 6.5%) was added, two-thirds of the villagers illnesses were treated with herbal medicine. According to the interview survey for the Sukajadi healers, their age at becoming a healer varied largely, although the mean age of the male and female healers scarcely differed, being 42 and 40 years, respectively (Table 1). It was also revealed that only one-third of the healers were educated at school. The payment per treatment (separately for each day in cases that the healer treated the same patient for the same illness for 2 or more days) averaged 5600 Rp, ranging from 1000 to 15,000 Rp (8940 Rp was equivalent to US$ 1 in the study period).

Age at becoming a healer <35 years 40.0 3554 years 20.0 55+ years 40.0 School education Yes No 50.0 50.0

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281 Table 2 Names of diseases in English and Indonesian/Sundanese, and the number of cases treated by the 19 village healers in a 1-month period Disease English Fever Postpartum remedy Dermatitis Stomachache Muscle pain Hepatitis Toothache Dysentery Cough Lung disease Hookworm Eye disease Headache Measles Diarrhea Breathless Vomit Urinary disease Hemorrhage Typhus Lack of appetite Gastritis Edema Total Indonesian or Sundanese Demam; Suhu badan tinggi Tidak teratur menstrasi; Involusi uterus; Inveksi vagina; Kekurangan produksi susu Itching; Scabies; Exceema; Abses (Bisul) Sakit perut; Mulas; Kembung Sakit otot; Pegal; Sakit punggung; Sakit otot kaki Hepatitis; Konengeun; Sakit kuning Sakit gigi; Gigi berlubang Demam; Berak darah Batuk TBC (Tuberculosis); Muntah darah Cacingan Sakit Mata; Nyeri panon Sakit kepala; Pusing Cacar (Kulit bintik-bintik merah demam) Diare; Mencret Sesak nafas biasanya menyertai penyakit asma Mual; Ingin muntah Sukar kencing; Kencing batu Menghentikan pendarahan Tipes Kurang nafsu makan Sakit maag Bengkak-bengkak (Bareruh) 24 12 10 7 5 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 96

75

Number of cases

Sundanese) name, parts of plant used (11 categories, including the whole plant), illnesses treated, methods of preparation (5 categories), methods of prescription (4 categories), and the total time of uses; the plant-illness pairs conformed to those described in the PROSEA (as explained later) are marked in the column of Illness and the number of such cases is mentioned in the column of No. of conformed cases/No. of uses. For the botanical parts, one specic part was used in most species, although the whole body was done in four species and two or three parts, i.e. leaf and bark, stem and fruit, and leaf, gum and bark, were done in other three species. Except the four species, the whole plant of which was used, the total number of botanical parts of the 113 species amounted to 118, consisting of 72 for leaf, 11 each for tuber and seed, 6 each for fruit and bark, 5 for root, 3 for stem, 2 for pseudo leaf, and 1 each for ower and gum; a very high proportion of leaves was also observed in an ethnobotanical survey in Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia (Mahyar et al., 1991). The number of uses markedly varied from species to species. Of the 117 species, 84 (71.8%) were used only once or twice, 21 species 3 or 4 times, 7 species 5 or 6 times, and 5 species 710 times. The preparation of medicinal plants from raw materials is one of the most important processes in herbal therapies. The healers used ve preparative methods: pounding, heating (not in water), decocting (in water), squeezing (not in water, not with heat), and none. Since there were many cases, in which different methods (e.g. pounding and then decocting or heating) were applied to the same plant, the total number of preparative methods applied to the 117 species was 220, consisting of 90

for pounding, 65 for heating, 39 for decocting, 24 for squeezing, and 2 for none. The two none cases implied that a large number of plants were assembled and hung from the clients neck like a necklace; therapeutic effect of this method was questionable. The prescriptive methods of herbal medicines were categorized by the healers into four, i.e. oral ingestion, topical application, pouring water, in which the plant was admixed onto the clients body, and washing the clients wound or painful part with water, in which the plant was admixed. Since some medicinal plants were prescribed by different ways, the total number of applications of these four prescriptive methods amounted to 142; oral ingestion (84 cases) and topical application (50 cases) were much more popular than the other two methods.

Fig. 3. Proportions of conformed and non-conformed illnessplant pairs for the medicinal plants, broken down into four categories according to the uses by the healers (N: the number of plant-illness pairs).

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K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

Table 3 The list of medicinal plants used by the 19 healers in Sukajadi during a 1-month period, with the part used, illness treated, preparative method, prescriptive method, the number of conformed illnessplant pairs, and the total number of uses Species Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata (Brum. f.) Nees Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau Gendarussa vulgaris Nees Graptophyllum pictum Griff. Hemigraphis colorata (Blume) Hallier f. Strobilanthes crispa (L.) Blume Agavaceae Pleomele angustifolia (Roxb.) N.E.Br. Alliaceae Allium cepa L. Voucher no.a Local name Part used Illnessb Preparative method sq dc pd, dc dc, ht, pd ht, pd ht, pd, dc Prescriptive method oi oi ta, oi ta, oi oi oi No. of conformed case/no. of uses 1/1 0/2 2/2 0/2 1/1 0/2

KR 005 KR 006 KR 001 KR 002 KR 004 KR 075

Sambiloto Kitajam Handarusa Handeuleum Remek daging Kibeling

LF LF LF LF LF LF

Feverb Dysentery Breathlessb Fever, Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy, Hepatitis Cough, Lung disease

KR 018

Suji

LF

dc, sq

oi

0/3

KR 009

Bawang merah

TB

Allium sativum L. Annonaceae Annona muricata L. Goniothalamus macrophyllus (Blume) Hook.f. & Thomson Apiaceae Eryngium foetidum L. Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Metroxylon sagu Rottboell Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertner Durio zibethinus Murray Brassicaceae Nasturtium indicum DC. Cannaceae Canna indica L. Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Chlorantaceae Chloranthus elatior Link Compositae Ageratum conyzoides L.

KR 010 KR 012 KR 011

Bawang putih Nangka walanda/Sirsak Kicantung

TB LF LF

Feverb , Postpartum remedyb , Stomachacheb , Measles Feverb , Measles Dermatitis Postpartum remedyb

pd, ht

oi, ta

8/9

pd pd ht, pd

ta ta oi

4/5 0/1 1/1

KR 015 KR 016 KR 098 KR 026 KR 025 KR 079

Walang Kelapa Kirai/Rumbia Kapas/Randu Duren Sasawi jarian

LF SM, FR PS LF BK LF

Fever Fever, Hepatitis Stomachache Dermatitis Dysenteryb Stomachache, Lack of appetiteb Postpartum remedy Fever, Postpartum remedy, Muscle pain Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedyb , Lung disease, Lack of appetiteb Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy Hepatitis Postpartum remedy

ht pd, sq pd dc dc pd, ht

ta ta, oi ta pw oi ta, oi

0/1 0/2 0/1 0/1 1/1 1/2

KR 028 KR 029

Ganyong Gedang gandul

LF LF

pd dc, sq

ta oi

0/1 0/3

KR 060 KR 017

Karastulang Babadotan

LF LF

ht, pd ht, pd, sq

oi oi, ta

1/1 2/3

Artemisia vulgaris L. Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC. Blumea chinensis DC. Erigeron sumatrensis Retz. Mikania micrantha (L.) Kunth

KR 046 KR 023 KR 099 KR 021 KR 074

Siang Sembung Sariawan usus Monyenyen (Henya) Sapituher

LF LF LF LF LF

ht, pd dc, ht, pd ht, pd dc ht, pd

oi oi oi oi oi

1/1 3/3 0/1 0/1 0/1

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281 Table 3 (Continued ) Species Pluchea indica (L.) Less. Sonchus arvensis L. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. Cucurbitaceae Sechium edule (Jacq.) Swartz Dryopteridaceae Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Swartz Euphorbiaceae Bridelia monoica (Lour.) Merr. Claoxylon polot Merr. Euphorbia hirta L. Glochidion borneense (M.A.) Boerl. Jatropha curcas L. Manihot esculenta Crantz Phyllanthus urinaria L. Ricinus communis L. Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. Gramineae Andropogon citratus DC. Bambusa vulgaris Schrader ex Wendland Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeuschel Oryza glutinosa Auct. Oryza sativa L. Zea mays L. Labiatae Hyptis brevipes Poit. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. Voucher no.a KR 087 KR 003 KR 108 Local name Beluntas Tempuyung Buntiris Part used LF LF LF Illnessb Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy Fever Preparative method dc, ht, pd ht, pd pd Prescriptive method oi oi ta

77

No. of conformed case/no. of uses 2/2 0/1 0/1

KR 031

Gambas (Labu)

LF

Fever

pd

ta

0/1

KR 067

Rane

RT, PL

Feverb , Dermatitis, Measles Lack of appetite Breathlessb Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy Stomachache Eye disease Postpartum remedyb Stomachache Postpartum remedy, Edema Muscle painb Hepatitisb , Hookworm Fever, Postpartum remedy, Muscle pain, Hepatitisb , Typhus Postpartum remedy Fever, Dermatitis Postparum remedy Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy b Muscle pain, Hepatitisb , Urinary diseaseb Postpartum remedyb , Dermatitis, Stomachacheb , Muscle pain, Cough Lack of appetiteb Postpartum remedy, Hepatitis Postpartum remedy, Coughb , Urinary disease Postpartum remedy Dermatitisb Postpartum remedy, Lack of appetiteb Dermatitis, Vomit

pd, dc

ta, pw

2/4

KR 035 KR 032 KR 038 KR 036 KR 019 KR 061 KR 103 KR 092 KR 101

Kanyere Kalingkup Nanangkaan Mareme Jarak kosta Singkong Memeniran Jarak Tangkil

RT LF PL LF LF LF PL LF LF

pd, ht pd, dc ht, pd ht, pd ht sq ht, pd ht pd, dc

ta ta, oi oi oi ta ws oi ta ta, pw

0/1 2/2 1/1 0/1 0/1 0/1 1/1 0/1 0/3

KR 030 KR 089 KR 034

Sereh (Serai) Bambu kuning Alang-alang/Eurih

SM RT, SM RT

dc nn, dc dc, sq

oi ta, oi oi

1/1 1/2 1/5

KR 095 KR 091 KR 115 KR 050 KR 088 KR 080

Ketan hitam Beras Jagung Kikarugrag Jukut bau Kumiskucing

SD SD SD LF LF LF

ht, pd, dc dc, pd ht, pd ht, pd ht, pd dc, ht, pd

oi ta, pw oi oi oi oi

0/3 0/2 0/1 0/1 1/1 4/5

Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth.

KR 048

Jawerkotok

LF

dc, pd, ht, sq

oi, ta, pw

6/10

Lauraceae Litsea resinosa Blume Persea americana Miller Leguminosae Abrus precatorius L.

KR 008 KR 055

Meuhmal Alpukat

LF LF

pd, ht ht, pd, dc

ta oi

1/1 0/2

KR 047

Saga

LF

dc, ht, pd

oi

1/3

Arachis hypogaea (L.) Merr. Cassia alata L. Desmodium heterophyllum (Willd.) DC. Erythrina lithosperma Miq.

KR 058 KR 042 KR 045 KR 041

Kacang tanah Daun ketepeng Kimulas Dadap

SD LF LF LF

ht, pd pd ht, pd sq, pd

oi ta oi, ta ta

0/1 1/1 1/2 0/2

78 Table 3 (Continued ) Species Glycine max (L.) Merr. Parkia speciosa Hassk. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Pithecellobium jiringa (Jack) Prain ex King Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Voucher no.a KR 057 KR 085 KR 037 KR 086 KR 039 KR 033

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

Local name Kacang kedelai Daun peuteuy Kacang dadap Jengkol Jaat Angsana

Part used SD LF SD BK LF LF, GM, BK

Illnessb Postpartum remedy Dermatitis Postpartum remedy Dysentery Postpartum remedy, Eye disease Fever, Toothache, Dysenteryb , Lung disease Feverb , Postpartum remedy, Measles Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedy, Muscle painb Urinary disease Postpartum remedyb , Toothache Postpartum remedy

Preparative method ht, pd pd ht, pd dc sq, ht, pd pd, sq

Prescriptive method oi ta oi oi ws, oi ta, oi

No. of conformed case/no. of uses 0/1 0/1 0/1 0/2 0/2 2/7

Tamarindus indica L. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek Magnoliaceae Michelia montana Blume Malvaceae Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik Sida rhombifolia L. Melastomataceae Melastoma malabathricum L. Meliaceae Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr. Menispermaceae Cyclea barbata Miers Tinospora tuberculata (Lamk.) Beumee ex K. Heyne. Moraceae Artocarpus communis J.R. Forster & J.G. Forster Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk. Ficus edelfeltii King. Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lamk. Musaceae Musa paradisiaca L. Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myrtaceae Eugenia malaccensis L. Psidium guajava L.

KR 064 KR 090 KR 072 KR 020 KR 105 KR 078

Asam Kacang ijo Manglit Kalingsir Sadagori Harendong

FR SD LF LF LF LF

pd, dc ht, pd ht, pd dc dc pd, ht

ta, oi oi oi oi oi ta, oi

5/8 0/1 0/1 1/2 0/1 1/2

KR 063

Kecapi

LF

dc

pw

0/1

KR 065 KR 056

Cincau/Taulu Antawali

LF SM

Feverb Postpartum remedyb , Muscle pain

pd dc, ht, pd

ta oi

1/1 2/3

KR 068 KR 070 KR 069 KR 073 KR 027 KR 096 KR 076 KR 054

Kelewih Nangka Kikanceh Kelor Pisang Pala Jambu bol Jambu batu

LF LF, BK LF LF PS SD BK LF

Postpartum remedy, Muscle pain, Hepatitis Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedy Fever, Stomachache Fever, Dysenteryb Postpartum remedy Dysenteryb Postpartum remedy, Dermatitis, Stomachacheb , Diarrheab Dysentery

dc pd ht, pd pd, dc pd, sq ht, pd dc pd, sq, ht

oi ta oi ta, oi ta, oi oi oi ta, oi

0/3 0/1 0/1 0/3 1/2 0/1 3/3 4/6

Syzygium polycephalum (Miq.) Merr. & Perry Oleaceae Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Pandanaceae Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. Piperaceae Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth Piper betle L.

KR 040

Kupa

BK

dc

oi

0/1

KR 049 KR 043

Srikuning Pandan

LF LF

Postpartum remedyb Typhus

dc, ht, pd dc

oi oi

3/3 0/1

KR 052 KR 083

Suruhan Seureh

LF LF

Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedyb , Coughb

ht, pd dc, ht, pd

oi oi

0/1 3/3

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281 Table 3 (Continued ) Species Piper nigrum L. Piper retrofractum Vahl Plantaginaceae Plantago major L. Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylanica L. Rosaceae Rosa damascena Miller Rubiaceae Argostemma montanum Blume ex DC. Gardenia augusta (L.) Merr. Morinda citrifolia L. Paederia foetida L. Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia (Christm. & Panzer) Swingle Citrus maxima (Brum.) Merr. Micromelum pubescens Blume Sellaginellaceae Selaginella plana Hieron. Selaginella wildenowii (Desv. ex Poir.) Baker. Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Solanum torvum Sw. Solanum tuberosum L. Physalis angulata L. Umbelliferae Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Coriandrum sativum L. Verbenaceae Clerodendron serratum Moon. Lantana camara L. Zingiberaceae Alpinia galangal (L.) Willd. Amomum cardamomum L. Curcuma aerugenosa Roxb. Curcuma domestica Valeton Curcuma xanthorhiza D. Dietr Curcuma zedoaria (Berg.) Roscoe Kaempferia galanga L. Voucher no.a KR 082 KR 044 KR 007 KR 077 Local name Lada Cabe Jawa Kiurat Kirematik (Kiencok) Ros/Mawar Reundeu Daun kaca piring Mengkudu (Pace) Kahitutan Part used SD FR LF LF Illnessb Postpartum remedy, Muscle pain Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedy Muscle painb , Toothache, Headacheb Eye disease Feverb , Measles Fever Dermatitis, Muscle pain Postpartum remedy, Lack of appetite Fever Preparative method ht, pd, dc ht, pd ht, pd ht Prescriptive method oi oi oi ta

79

No. of conformed case/no. of uses 0/2 1/1 0/1 2/3

KR 062 KR 093 KR 094 KR 071 KR 081

LF LF LF FR LF

sq pd pd dc, sq ht, pd

ws ta ta oi, ta oi, ta

0/1 4/5 0/4 0/2 0/2

KR 097

Jeruk nipis

LF

pd

ta

0/1

KR 066 KR 022

Jeruk bali Mangkokan

LF LF

Toothache Postpartum remedy

pd ht, pd

ta oi

0/1 0/1

KR 100 KR 059

Kiranediuk Kiranelalap

LF LF

Postpartum remedyb , Hemorrhageb Postpartum remedyb

pd, ht ht, pd

oi oi

2/2 1/1

KR 102 KR 104 KR 024 KR 084

Cabe Takokak Kentang Cecendet

LF FR LF RT

Toothache Toothache Fever Postpartum remedy, Muscle pain, Hepatitis Lack of appetite Postpartum remedyb Muscle painb , Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedyb , Stomachacheb Muscle pain Postpartum remedy Postpartum remedyb Postpartum remedyb , Dermatitisb Postpartum remedyb , Muscle pain, Hepatitisb Hepatitisb , Lack of appetiteb Fever, Postpartum remedyb , Muscle painb

pd pd pd dc

ta ta ta oi

0/1 0/1 0/1 0/4

KR 013 KR 014 KR 107 KR 053

Antanan Ketumbar Singugu Cente

PL SD LF LF

pd, ht ht, pd dc, ht, pd ht, pd

ta oi oi ta, oi

0/1 1/1 3/3 2/2

KR 106 KR 110 KR 114 KR 111 KR 113

Lengkuas (Laja) Kapulaga Panglai hideng Koneng Koneng gede

TB SD TB TB TB

dc ht, pd ht, pd pd, dc, ht ht, pd, dc

oi oi oi oi, ta oi

0/1 0/1 1/1 5/5 3/4

KR 112 KR 116

Koneng bodas Kencur

TB TB

dc, pd, ht dc, pd, ht

oi, ta ta, oi

2/2 4/6

80 Table 3 (Continued ) Species Zingiber aromaticum Valeton Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Voucher no.a KR 117 KR 109

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

Local name Lempuyang Panglai

Part used TB TB

Illnessb Postpartum remedyb , Hookworm, Vomit Feverb , Postpartum remedyb , Dermatitis, Hookworm, Diarrheab , Gastritisb Postpartum remedyb , Muscle painb , Headacheb

Preparative method ht, pd, sq pd, sq, nn

Prescriptive method oi ta, oi

No. of conformed case/no. of uses 1/4 5/8

Zingiber ofcinale Roscoe

KR 051

Jahe

TB

pd, dc, ht

ta, oi

4/4

Notes: for part usedBK: bark; FL: ower; FR: fruit; GM: gum; LF: leaf; PL: whole plant; PS: pseudo leaf; RT: root; SD: seed; SM: stem; TB: tuber, for preparative methoddc: decocting (in water, with or without heat); ht: heating (not in water); nn: none; pd: pounding; sq: squeezing (not heated, with or without water), and for prescriptive methodoi: oral ingestion; pw: pouring water in which the plant is admixed; ta: topical application; ws: washing with water in which the plant is admixed. a Voucher number at the Research and Development Centre for Biology, the Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia. b Conformed illnessplant pair (see text for details).

3.3. Comparison with the PROSEA As mentioned previously, the medicinal plants used by the healers numbered 117 and the illnesses diagnosed by them numbered 23. When the plant and the illness were combined, there were 257 types of illnessplant pairs. The authors thoroughly checked about whether each type of illnessplant pair was conformed to that mentioned in the PROSEA book series (Table 3). A plural number of plants were sometimes used together for the same illness, especially for postpartum remedy. In these cases, the conformity of illnessplant pair was judged independently for each plant, regardless of synergistic effects. As the results, 44.4% (114/257) of illnessplant pairs were judged conformed. The proportions of the conformed and non-conformed pairs are shown in Fig. 3, in which the plants are grouped into four according to the total number of uses by all healers. The mean proportion of conformed pairs for the plants used 12, 34, 56, and 7+ times was, respectively, 28.4% (31/109), 49.3% (34/69), 62.2% (23/37) and 61.9% (26/42). 4. Discussion This study revealed that herbal medicine has played a signicant role in treatment of illnesses in the study village, as represented by the nding that the medicinal plants were used in two-thirds of illness cases, either through the villagers selftreatment (60.9%) or by the herbalist healers (6.5%). One of the reasons of their high dependence on herbal medicine came from low cost expended. According to this survey, the average payment to the healer per treatment was 5600 Rp, about one-fth that expended to the health center or hospital. Many villagers also pointed out two other reasons, i.e. closer location of the healers house than the health center or hospital and their familiar feeling with medicinal plants or herbal medicine. The number of medicinal plants used by the Sukajadi healers in the 1-month period, i.e. 117 species, can be compared with that reported from the tropical rainforest area in the Riau

Province (Sumatra, Indonesia), where the Talang Mamak and Orang Melayu peoples inhabit (Mahyar et al., 1991; Grosvenor et al., 1995). In the Riau study, the specialists of ethnobotany asked the local herbalist healers (herbal doctors) and other elders in 22 villages, which were located in an area of approximately 1000 km2 , about their knowledge of medicinal plants, and identied 114 species (Grosvenor et al., 1995). Taking into account differences in the methods of collecting data, it can be judged that the number of medicinal plants used by Sukajadi villagers was large, reecting their heavy dependence on herbal medicine. Another characteristic was seen in the nding that among these 117 plants, 84 (71.8%) were used once or twice and 21 (17.9%) three or four times; the remaining 12 (10.3%) only were used ve times or more. Although the distribution of plants by use frequencies has not been reported from other populations, the authors have considered that Sukajadi villagers use of many plants differs from the common pattern in some other societies, where a limited number of medicinal plants are used frequently (Heinrich et al., 1998; Bonet et al., 1999). This unique pattern may be related with Sundanese peoples rich knowledge of medicinal plants. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that many plants, especially those used infrequently, are of less therapeutic effect. The nal discussion focuses on the proportions of the conformed and non-conformed illnessplant pairs. Of the 257 pairs, 114 (44.4%) were conformed, implying that more than half pairs were not recognized in the PROSEA. There was a tendency that the more frequently used a plant the higher rate of conformity in illnessplant pairs. Nonetheless, it is also the case that the conformity rate of the illnessplant pairs of the frequently used species was only about 60%. The present study did not examine therapeutic effects of the medicinal plants but investigated conformity of illnessplant relations through comparison with the PROSEA only. Nonetheless, high proportion of non-conformed illnessplant pairs suggests necessity of further studies about Sundanese medicinal plants, particularly their pharmacological effects, to upgrade herbal therapy of Sundanese people.

K. Roosita et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 115 (2008) 7281

81

Acknowledgments This study was nancially supported, in part, by the JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science) Core University Program between the University of Tokyo and Bogor Agricultural University. The authors thank many botanists in the Research and Development Centre for Biology, the Indonesian Institute of Science (LIPI), Bogor, Indonesia for collaboration in identication of plant specimens, all healers and non-healer villagers in Sukajadi village for kind participation in this study, and Ria Dahlianti and Herman for assistance in the eld survey. References
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