Local uses of tree species and contribution of mixed tree gardens to livelihoods of Saleman village near the Manusela

National Park, Seram Island, Maluku (Indonesia)

Masters thesis Ariane Cosiaux Master Biodiversit Vgtale Tropicale 2012

Ariane Cosiaux 2012

Masters internship from 7 March to 17 August 2012 at : Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede Bogor Barat 16115 Indonesia

Supervisor : Yves Laumonier CIRAD scientist in the research unit Tropical Forest Goods and Ecosystem Services

Universit Montpellier II Masters thesis Master Biodiversit Vgtale Tropicale

Local uses of tree species and contribution of mixed tree gardens to livelihoods of Saleman village near the Manusela National Park, Seram Island, Maluku (Indonesia)
Ariane Cosiaux 2012

Masters internship from 7 March to 17 August 2012 at : Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede Bogor Barat 16115 Indonesia

Supervisor : Yves Laumonier CIRAD scientist in the research unit Tropical Forest Goods and Ecosystem Services

Aknowledgments

I first want to thank Yves Laumonier for allowing me to do this internship, for his availability and advices. And I want to thank him for allowing me to discover the amazing Island of Seram. I would like to thank also Pak Purwanto from LIPI for his invaluable advices and kindness for the ethnobotanical part of my study. I am grateful to him for his help to the realization of my questionnaire in bahasa Indonesia and his encouragements during the first two weeks of my field work. I am so grateful for the hospitality of the Saleman village. First I want to thank Nenek In and Hapipa for hosting me during my field work. Then I want to thank my field assistant Jul who help me and take care of me. A special thank goes to Bapak Hadir who taught me the name of plants in bahasa Saleman, for his kindness and availability. I also would like to thank Bapak Mustafa and Mama Ratna who also take care of me and help me for collecting voucher specimens. Finally, I like to thank fAndre, Yaren and all the member of Nenek In family. At CIFOR, I want to thank the other member of the Colupsia project, Pak Wyono and Pak Danan for their help and thanks to Popi Astriani who took care of all the administrative documents. I am also grateful to Pak Yan for drying my voucher specimen and to Pak Ismael, Bogor Herbarium, for all species identification. A final thank to my friends and family for their support.

Contents
Introduction A. General context 1) 2) Deforestation and forest degradation in Indonesia Importance of human-modified landscapes

B. The Colupsia project 1) 2) 3) Partners A study area in Maluku Challenges

C. My study within the Colupsia project 1) 2) Complex agroforestry systems in Indonesia Aim of the study

Site and Methods A. Study area 1) 2) Island of Seram a The village of Saleman )

B. Participatory mapping and identification of local practices 1) 2) Participatory mapping Management of mixed tree gardens: identify local practices

C. Typology of mixed tree gardens 1) 2) 3) Sampling design Recorded variables Data analysis

D. Ethnobotanical knowledge 1) 2) 3) Results A. 1) 2) of Saleman Customary governance of landscape management Participatory mapping and folk classification of landscapes Interviews on local uses of tree species in mixed tree gardens Free listing Plant voucher specimens

3)

Mixed tree gardens: general characteristics and

Kebun

B. Structure and floristic composition of mixed tree gardens 1) 2) Structure Floristic composition

C. Local uses of tree and other plant species 1) 2) 3) Local uses of mixed tree garden species The other plants used by communities Important species for each use

Discussion A. Mixed tree gardens: an integrated land use B. Mixed tree gardens: complex agroforestry systems similar to natural forest C. Importance of mixed tree gardens for local population D. The mixed tree gardens inside the Manusela National park Conclusion

Introduction
A. General context
1) Deforestation and forest degradation in Indonesia Currently, there is little doubt that tropical ecosystems are exceptionally rich and contain much of the terrestrial biodiversity. However, the rapid and extensive forest degradation, involving modification of ecosystems and fragmentation of habitats lead to an alarming loss of biodiversity (Laurence 1999). by Myers et al. (2000) are located in the tropics and characterized by high level of endemism and habitats loss. Indonesia overlaps with two of these: the Sundaland (Western Indonesia) and the Wallacea (Eastern Indonesia, between West Malesia (Sumatra, Borneo) and Papua). As part of the South Est Asia, the environmental degradation was severe during the recent decades in Indonesia (Sodhi et al. 2004). From 1990 to 2005, Indonesia has lost 21,32 Mha of forest (17,56% of the forest cover), with a mean rate of deforestation on the period 1990-2000 (1,78 Mha/year) three times bigger than on the 2000-2005 period (0,58 Mha/year) (Hansen et al. 2009). Even if the deforestation rates have decreased, the loss of forest still high with more than 500000ha/year lost on the period 2005-2010 (FAO, 2010). These high rates of deforestation are due to conversion of forest in agricultural lands, commercial logging, fire or mining (Sodhi et al. 2004). 2) Importance of human-modified landscapes Facing this severe forest loss, one challenge for the conservationists is the creation of new protected areas (Sodhi et al. 2004). However, the Indonesian protected areas (24Mha) varies widely in their effectiveness (Curran et al. 2004), and may be the source of dispute with local populations (Aumeeruddy 2003, Hariyadi et al. 2012) which are seen as responsible of the forest degradation by governments in tropical countries. In many cases, when protected areas are created, local populations are not allowed to carry on natural resource extraction or agricultural activities leading to conflicts with the local authorities. Moreover, in the tropical regions, 70% of the land is pastures, agriculture or a mixture of managed landscapes (Perfecto and Vandermeer 2008) and the remnant forests cannot all be put under protection status. Indeed, the challenge is finding approaches which can reduce the decrease of forest cover, assure livelihoods for rural communities and conserve biodiversity outside protected areas (Bhagwat et al. 2008). Complex agroforestry systems is a type of land use which can provides solutions to these challenges (Michon and De Foresta 1995, Swallow et al. 2006, Perfecto and Vandermeer 2008, Harvey et al. 2008).

B. The Colupsia project

1) Partners In this context of forest degradation an conversion in other land uses, the Center for International Research on Agronomy and Development (CIRAD), together with its partner the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) are conducting a four year project called

land

cing by

the European Commission. The project works in two regions: Kalimantan and Maluku. 2) A study area in Maluku In Maluku, the pilot site is on the island of Seram. The island is part of the Wallacea biogeographic region and harbors a large diversity of vegetation types, from coastal mangrove to tropical alpine vegetation (Edwards et al. 1993, Monk et al. 1997). In the central part of the island lies the Manusela National Park, a conservation area created in 1997, covering an area of 189 000 ha which represents about 10% of the total island area. The island still largely

plantations. Historically, Seramese people were practicing subsistence activities like huntinggathering and swidden agriculture or more intensive forms of permanent agriculture on the coast (Ellen 1997). Like in Papua and all the Moluccas, a common characteristic of Seramese people is their dependency to the sago palms (Metroxylon sagu) that constitutes staple food. Sago starch is extracted both from swamp forest area and from gardens closer to settlement where it is planted. This habit reduces considerably the need to cut forests since highland rice and subsequent forest opening is not needed (Ellen 1993, 1999, Sasaoka and Laumonier (Myristica fragrans) and clove (Syzygium aromaticum) occurred very early in the Moluccan history because of the European demand for spices since the sixteenth century (Ellen 1997). Several agricultural practices still occur today in Seram: swidden, slash and burn and permanent cultivation described as complex agroforestry systems including home gardens and mixed tree gardens (Monk et al. 1997). 3) Challenges For the collaborative land use planning process, it is important to identify and characterize the different land uses and understand their importance for the local communities. into account the perception of the local

communities toward forested landscape and natural resources which enables a better

understanding of local priorities, local challenges according to rural livelihoods, management of the forested landscape and biodiversity conservation.

C. My study within the Colupsia project

1) Complex agroforestry systems in Indonesia Definitions and examples Complex agroforestry systems are tree-crop based systems with a forest-like structure (Michon and De Foresta 1995, Torquebiau 2007). Such systems account a high number of component (trees, lianas, herbaceous) and present a multistoried structure close to those observed in primary or secondary forests (Michon and De Foresta, 1995, 1995). In Indonesia, Pekarangan in Java (Wiersum 1982, Christanty et al. 1986). Homegardens are fenced-in gardens surrounding individual houses, in which several fruits and others trees are planted together with vegetable herbs and annual crops (Kumar and Nair 2004). They are generally intensively tended. However most of complex agroforestry systems are smallholder mixed tree plantations or ged than homegardens. the Indonesian word for tree garden (Michon and De Foresta 1995), are complex mixed tree plantations with high species diversity, tree density and a complex vertical structure. In the literature t et al. -

Ruokolainen 2003, Wiersum 2004, Belcher et al. 2005). When the term agroforest is

similar agroforestry plots. Then, forest gardens is employed as synonym of agroforest but it often corresponds to tree based systems with a higher proportion of wild trees (Wiersum 1997a, 1997b, 2004). As example we can cite the multistoried agroforestry gardens in West Sumatra known as characterized by a complex association of fruit trees like

(Durio zibethinus), species for commercial purposes (Myristica fragrans, Cinnamomum burmani) and others useful trees (Michon et al. 1986). In the southeast

diversity (268 plant species) and a structure similar to secondary forest (Gouyon et al. 1993). In West Java, bamboo-tree gardens with high species diversity have been studied by Okubo et al. (2010). According to Michon and De Foresta (1995), the villages in the island of Ambon are surrounded by agroforests which combine nutmeg and clove trees with fruit trees and forest nut trees. On the Saparua Island, there are examples of complex agroforestry systems

dusun

et al. (2002). The major components of these agroforestry

systems are clove, nutmeg and coconut palms (Cocos nucifera) with a cortege of other tree species. In the North of Seram (Masihulan village), complex agroforestry systems such as durian, coffee or cocoa (Theobroma cacao) gardens have been studied by Vallet (2011). Local management

new agroforestry plot starts by a total removal of patch of primary or secondary forest (Foresta and Michon 1996, Michon and De Foresta 1997, Gouyon et al. 1993). Sometimes wild trees are maintained on the plot to make shade or supply woody. These mixed tree gardens are generally established after a phase of slash and burn agriculture based on food crops and thus, closely associated with sifting cultivation (De Foresta and Michon 1996, Michon and De Foresta 1997, Kaya et al. 2002). The management of the agroforestry systems by farmers presents an intermediate level of input (clearing, cutting, and planting) and is complemented by the utilization of natural processes to assure soil fertility, tree regeneration or control weeds (Michon et al. 1986, Belcher et al. 2005). Contribution to rural livelihoods The first purpose of most of mixed tree gardens is supplying cash incomes to rural households. In all of them, a commercially valuable main tree crop is planted to assure the main or only source of cash income to farmers (De Foresta and Michon 1996, Belcher et al. 2005). In the mixed tree gardens of West Sumatra, cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmani), nutmeg and coffee are planted for commercial purpose (Michon et al. 1986). In the South-Est

rubber latex exported from Indonesia is produced by smallholders in rubber gardens (Gouyon et al. 1993, Belcher et al. 2005). In bamboo-tree gardens of Java, clove and coffee assure the same economic function. In Maluku, nutmeg and clove also assure cash income for local communities (Kaya et al. 2002) like in forest gardens of Sulawesi where cocoa, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and nutmeg are the main cash crops. Moreover, supplementary incomes are generated when farmers sell fruits or other commercially valuable products (Wiersum 1982, Gouyon et al. 1993, Murniati et al. 2001) in the local market. Finally, the tree gardens systems provide lots of subsistence products like firewood, house construction, fruits, vegetables or medicines. In bamboo tree garden of Sumatra, 8 categories of uses and 42 tree species have been identified which assure the daily needs of farmers (Okubo et al. 2010). In et al. 1986). In traditional gardens of Central Sulawesi, Brodbeck et al. (2003) have inventoried a

total of 43 to 95 species with subsistence uses. In the traditional tree farming systems in West Java, tree species assure the household subsistence needs in supplying food, medicines, construction wood, and firewood (Manurang et al. 2004). Contribution in biodiversity conservation As multistoried tree base systems which mimic natural forests with a high species diversity, agroforestry systems can contribute to biodiversity conservation. First, tree gardens et al. 2006, Perfecto and Vandermeer 2008) like the indigenous fruit tree species. Secondly, tree gardens may

Indeed, many wild spontaneous tree species are found in tree gardens and are maintained and managed by farmers (Michon et al. 1986, Gouyon et al. 1993, Kaya et al. 2002). Moreover, lots of shrub, lianas or epiphytes and herbs are found in complex tree base systems like in the rubber jungle of Sumatra where 268 plants species in which 91 tree, 27 shrubs, 97 lianas and 28 epiphyte species have been inventoried (Gouyon et al. 1993, Michon and De Foresta 1995). Then, many of these systems are viewed to be important for the conservation of wild fauna in supplying a diversity of habitat (Bhagwat et al. 2008 Swallow et al. 2006) and facilitating the movement of mammals, birds of butterflies between patches of natural forest. Finally, complex agroforestry systems is an opportunity to reduce the pressure on the protected areas in forming forested transition zone between protected forests and human dominated areas (Murniati et al. 2001). 2) Aim of the study In this study we investigate the importance of mixed tree gardens for the Saleman community, a village near the Manusela National Park, on Seram Island, Maluku. The study is divided in three key points. The first one is understand the place occupied by the mixed tree gardens in the village territory. The second one consist of describing the structure and tree species composition of the mixed tree gardens and the third one is assess the importance of mixed tree gardens as regards to livelihoods through the inventory of useful plant species and products supplied by these agroforestry systems.

Central Maluku Regency

Figure 1: Map of Seram Island, Maluku, Eastern Indonesia

Source: Colupsia project

Figure 2: Draft vegetation map of the study site, North coast of Seram Island Maluku, Indonesia
Source: Colupsia project

Site and Methods

A. Study area
1) Island of Seram and the regency of Central Moluccas ( Maluku Tengah ) Seram, the second largest island in Maluku, Eastern Indonesia (Figure 1), covers 17 429 km, being about 340 km long and 60 km wide. The island is very mountainous with the highest peak culminating at 3027 m. The island is non-volcanic, mainly composed of sedimentary rocks including limestone massifs and metamorphic rocks (Payton 1993). The

temperatures at sea level varying between 25 to 30C. The climate is less humid in the North coast, with a mean annual rainfall about 2 000 mm with a drier season from April to September (Lembaga Meteorologi dan Geofisika, 1969), whereas the south coast receives more than 3 000 mm, with a precipitation peak in July. The Central Maluku regency ) covers 11 595 km (275 097 km when including the sea territory) and encompasses other islands such as Ambon, Haruku, Saparua and Banda (PBS 2009) (Figure 1). ). In 2010, the regency had a total

population of 361 698 people, with an average density of 31 persons/km (PBS, 2012), and livelihoods is mainly based on agriculture and fisheries. 2) The village of Saleman () and its surrounding agroforests and forested landscape during a period of three months. The village is located on the north coast near the north-west edge of the Manusela National Park (Figure 2). The total population reaches 1666 inhabitants (BPS, 2010). At the et al. 1993). The villagers are Muslim, and the two most common occupations for livelihood are agriculture and fisheries. The level of education is low; few people have college diplomas or bachelor degrees. Historically, Saleman people belong to the Seramese Nuaulu indigenous bahasa Indonesia bahasa saleman phylum (Ellen 2006).

The village is on the beach, and is surrounded by hilly landscape (Figure 3, 4). The most common vegetation types around the village are lowland and hill limestone forest, logged-over (depleted) lowland forest and mixed gardens (Figure 2). Mixed gardens are a source of conflict with the neighboring national Manusela park authorities because 600 ha gardens are inside the Park (Pers. com., Park authorities, 2012). In addition in 2006 a conflict

A.Cosiaux 2012

Figure 3: the village of Saleman, Seram Island

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Figure 4: The village of Saleman surrounded by a hilly landscape

arose between Saleman village and the neighboring village Horale: 10 000 ha of lands are mutually claimed between Saleman village and Horale village. In 2008, Horale village has even been attacked by Saleman people, many houses have been burnt.

B. Participatory mapping and identification of local practices

1) Participatory mapping At the beginning of the study a mapping exercise has been conducted following general principles of IFAD 2009. The mapping has been conducted with customary leaders adat to understand their perception of their territory and the place occupied by the gardens in the landscape. A base map has been previously drawn on a transparency paper, representing neighboring villages, roads, principal rivers and mountain peaks around the village (Bujang 2004). Firstly, informants were asked to give the name of the main rivers, mountains, and locations around the village and draw the boundaries of the village lands, the borders of the Manusela National Park and the eventual conflict areas. Secondly, I asked them to enumerate and describe the different land uses found inside the village territory and sketch them on the map (Martin 1995, Vogl et al. 2004). Once the generic categories of land use to describe each land use in order to identify the

vegetable

fruit garden

et al. 2004). Finally, they have

been asked about activities inside each land use type. This exercise was crucial to identify the different land use around the village, especially the mixed tree gardens for which I will conduct study in detail. 2) Management of mixed tree gardens: identify local practices To identify the local practices of management of mixed tree gardens, 15 structured interviews of farmers have been conducted. A set of questions have been previously prepared, written that guides interviews. Questions have been asked about the attributes of the garden and then farmers have been asked about the management practices, from the creation of a new garden to the usually management practices in an old garden. Other questions address harvest, tree diseases or problems met by farmers (Appendix 1). All the interviews have been conducted in Indonesian without translator.

C. Typology of mixed tree gardens

1) Sampling design The selection of the sample sites have been based on the participatory map and discussions with local informants. A total of 22 gardens (approximately 28ha). All the gardens were located no more than 4 km from the village. In order to study the vegetation characteristics, small plots of 20 x 20 m has been established in each garden. Plots have been selected as much as possible at similar elevation, when possible on similar slopes and in area relatively homogeneous according to environmental conditions. The mean slope within type of gardens varies between 4 (6) and 16 (9). All the studied gardens are old gardens established more than 30 years ago. A total of 5 plots (0.2 ha) in each mixed tree garden type have been sampled. Plot size has been decided according to the methods and empirical knowledge developed previously by the Colupsia project while studying other agroforestry systems in other locations. A 400m plot sizes enables to visit several gardens encompassing all garden diversity, and assure a relative homogeneity inside each plot (slope, soil etc) and involve a compromise between covering a wide sample of gardens and limit the work time attributed for each plot. 2) Recorded variables m have been inventoried, height estimated, vernacular names recorded and voucher specimens collected.

The position of the tree inside the plot, the height and the crown span has been respected. Moreover, in each garden visited, other tree species found outside the plot have also been inventoried (local name and voucher specimens). 3) Data analysis Structure nsity, the relative

diameter classes (5-9,9cm, 10-19,9cm, 20-29,9cm etc). In order to analyze height distribution in each type of garden, all trees were allocated to 1 of 4 height classes (2-7m, 7,1-15m, 15,125m, >25). Then for each type of garden the number of continuous layers have been determined based on the observation on the field and the previously heights distribution. The mean heights of the continuous layers have been calculated. The total basal area G has also been calculated. Density, relative density and the total basal area have been systemically

Parameters and indexes

Formulas

Explanations

Variables and indexes used to analyze the structure and floristic composition of gardens Density Relative density Individual basal area g Total basal area G Relative frequency Relative dominance Importance Value Index (IVI) Species richness The index of Margalef Dmg Simpson diversity index (1D) -diversity Index of Sorensen Cs G= N (Ni/N)*100 Number of tree per unit area With Ni the number of individuals of one species With D diameter of the tree N the number of individuals

(number of plots containing a taxon / total frequencies of all taxa)*100 (basal area of a taxon/total basal area of taxa)*100 (relative density + relative frequency + relative dominance) Number of species This species richness index take into account the total number (S-1) / ln N of inventoried individuals Probability that two randomly selected individuals will not -1)/N(N-1) belong to the sames species. It ranges from 0 to 1. Where j the number of species common to both sites, a the 2j / (a + b) number of species in the site A andd b thee number of species in thee site B With ns the number of shared species by men and women, n m the number of species cited by men and n w the number of species mentioned by women. S

Index use to compare free lists content Similarity index SI = ns / (nm + nw ns) * 100

Table 1: Biodiversity and species richness indexes and others variables

determined for all mixed tree gardens (25 plots) and for each type of mixed tree garden (5 plots). Floristic composition The number of family and the species richness (S) have been determined at garden scale (based on all tree species inventoried in one gardens) and at plots scale (based on the tree species inventoried inside the plots only). The index of Margalef (D mg) was calculated (Magurran 2004) at plots scale. The importance value index (IVI) (Cottam and Curtis 1956) of each species was calculated as the sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance. For relative dominance, we use the basal area. Based on the IVI the most important species have been identified for each type of garden and for all gardens. With regards to vertical structure for each type of garden, the dominant species of each layer have been identified based on their relative dominance. Then, the Simpson diversity index (1 D)

-diversity of all gardens and of each garden type. We also used the index of Sorensen (Magurran 1988) of plant similarity to determine the -diversity among the type of gardens. All the formulas to calculate all the indexes and variables are summarized in the (Table 1).

D. Ethnobotanical knowledge
In order to determine the role of mixed tree gardens in household livelihoods, ethnobotanical data have been collected on the local uses of plants by the Saleman people. 1) Interviews on local uses of tree species in mixed tree gardens To identify the local uses of tree, 15 structured interviews (the same farmers interviewed on garden management) have been conducted. During these interviews, I walk with the farmer through his garden, and ask the vernacular names of each tree species. After that, for each inventoried species, questions have been asked about the local uses following procedure recommended by Martin (1995) and Vogl et al. 2004 (Appendix 1). When a species was commercial, the selling prices and locations have been recorded. Theses interviews have led to identify one part of the local uses of each tree species, and one part of the use categories supplied by mixed tree gardens. 2) Free listing Data collection Free listing is a structured interviewing method used in ethnographic research for eliciting nlan

2005). The free listing consists of asking the respondents to list as many names of X as he or

Table 2: An example of how determinate the salience S of each item (illness) mentioned by a freelister (Quilan 2005) the list.

Table 3: An example of how calculate the Composite Salient Value of each item (illness) cited by 3 free listers (Quilan 2005). The composite salience value of one item is the sum of all Salience score of that item, then divided by the number of free lister.

she can, where X is the cover term for a cultural domain (e.g. kind of wood for building). Free listing generates two type of information about a cultural domain: which items belong to it and how items are structured inside the list (Gravlee 1998). A total of 27 household heads have been asked to list all the plants they know for a set of 16 uses. For most coherent domains, 20 to 30 informants are usually sufficient (Weller and Romney 1988). The 27 respondents have been randomly selected to ensure including inhabitants from all parts of the village. Finally, 15 men and 12 women have been interviewed. The uses have been previously

free listing exercise is to identify the plants known by villagers for each use and the second purpose is to determine the most culturally important plants for each use. All growth forms and all origins (gardens and forest) have been included in the free listing exercise, in order to encompass all plant diversity used by communities. This method allows collecting supplementary data about local uses of mixed tree gardens species and identify other important useful species. Data analysis The two most important results from free listing is the frequency and order with which each item is cited across all respondents (Gravlee 1998, Quinlan 2005). According to cognitive anthropology, items frequently mentioned and in the top of the lists are culturally important. Moreover, lists are mostly featured by a core-periphery structure: a small set of core items are cited by most respondents, while a much larger set of peripheral items are mentioned a single respondent (Gravlee 1998). Another result is the differences in list length and content which light the intranlan,

2005). First of all, to determine if there are quantitative differences between men and women mentioned species, mean list length of men and women for each use have been compared -test. Next, for each use, regarding to frequency of each species mentioned, the core species have been identified. The following analysis focuses only on the core species. To quantify the qualitative differences between men and women species a similarity index (%) has been calculated for each use (Table 1). Then, the composite salience value of each species for each use has been determined for men and women separately. Salience is a statistic accounting for rank and frequency of each item cited in the list (Smith 1993). First, for each use, the salience of listed species (S) has been calculated for each freelister (See an example from Quilan 2005 in Table 2). Then, for each use, a composite salience value of each species has been calculated (See an example in Table 3). For each use, and for men and women, bar graph has been realized, representing the species classified by descendent order

Cocoa
gardens area Nutmeg gardens area Coconut gardens area

Durian gardens area

Clove gardens area

New National Park boundary requested by customary leaders Conflict area with the village of Horale

Figure 5: Participatory map of the "Petuanan desa" of Saleman, Seram Island

The gps points correspond to the 25 sampled plots. tanah marga

regarding to composite salience value enabling to determined highly salient, salient, less salient plant species based on the observation of salience breaks (or salience threshold) (Quinlan 2005). The free lists have been analyzed using the software ANTHROPAC 4.0 Analysis has been conducted based on the vernacular names of species. 3) Plant voucher specimens Plant voucher specimens of each tree species inventoried in mixed tree gardens and each species mentioned in the free listing have been collected (leaves, fruit and flowers when possible) in 5 duplicates. The specimens have been conserved in newspapers soaked with denatured alcohol (spiritus) before drying, and brought to Bogor Herbarium for identification. It was not possible to collect voucher specimens of 30 species known only through their vernacular names (Appendix 2).

Results
A.
The village of Salem

of Saleman
Negeri Saleman , is an old village established since more

1) Customary governance of landscape management

than a century which still apply customary rules as regards to local governance, land soa ) are represented in the village: Makuituin, Aloatuan, Rumaolat, Ialuhun, Aloahiit, Upuolat and Makatita cited in their order of arrival during the establishment of the village. Makuituin is the founder clan of ) assures the management of the everyday pemerintah adat ) is in charge of customary rules, traditional rituals, allocation and management of the village land 1. Makuituin Raja tanah ) while Makatita clan is heading the local government ( Raja ). The Rumaolat clan assures the function of war leader Kapitan ). The Makatita clan, which had last arrived, is not a member of the customary government and has no responsibilities or decision regarding the land. The village land petuanan desa lahan soa ) (Figure 5) but

Makatita has no lands. Since the first settlement, all the lands belonged to Makuituin the founder clan, which later distributed land for each other clan except to Rumaolat which shares the same lands as Makuituin..

kepala desa representative as regard to the Indonesian administration.

Figure 6a: A small garden surrounding a house ("Kebun kecil" or "Aka kiiti")
A.Cosiaux 2012

Figure 6b: Coconut seedlings in the small garden

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Figure 7: A mixed tree garden ("Kebun coklat" or "Aka coklat")

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Figure 8: A managed swamp forest: the "dusun sagu"

A.Cosiaux 2012

2) Participatory mapping and folk classification of landscapes ewang dusun . Ewang is the natural forest not-disturbed by human activities or natural hazards. Aung corresponds to a forest already disturbed by human activities (e.g. timber extraction) or natural hazards (e.g. fire, landslip). It hutan sudah ditebang bekas Bekas kebun or bekas or aung aka and

correspond to secondary regrowth, abandoned

gardens (fallow) regenerating into secondary forest. Saleman farmers often leave their tree gardens if they find better job outside the village. Kebun aka in Saleman language describe the gardens where

people plant perennial, annual crops or both. This category includes three subcategories: Kebun kecil or aka kiiti or and or

are small gardens (fenced) surrounding individual houses where people plant a few trees and mostly annual crops (Figure 6a). Small gardens are not developed , are not-fenced gardens outside the village in which several tree species are planted (and sometimes a few non tree species). These mixed tree gardens are

kebun pala kebun kelapa kebun coklat kebun langsat

kebun cengkeh ) (Figure 7), kebun durian Kebun khusus roads.

Lansium domesticum kebun uri/aka uri

dusun dusun dusun dusun damar dusun sagu

(Figure 8) where damar resin (Agathis dammara) and sago starch (Metroxylon sagu) are dusun damar sagu 3) besar As one can see on the figure 5, and providing that the official park boundary is really at that location (no markers in the field), a lot of mixed tree gardens are located inside the Manusela National Park. When the park border has been created, gardens were already there. Kebun dusun

Type of gardens

Density all trees

density trees <10cm

Density trees

relative density trees <10cm 30 31

relative density trees 10cm 70 69 66

mean dbh all trees (cm)

mean dbh trees 10 cm (cm) 25 25 26 20 20 15 4

G all trees (m)

G trees dbh 10 cm (m)

all (1ha) cocoa (0,2ha) coconut (0,2ha) clove (0,2ha) durian (0,2ha) nutmeg (0,2ha)

609 170 130 114 116 79

181 52

428 118 86

20

19

35 4

34

15 10 20 15 18 13 24 25 31 20

6 4 14 6

34

80

30

70

22 13 32 29 34 20

14

Table 4 : Density, relative density, mean dbh and total basal area of the 1ha of garden sampled and of each 0,2ha (each type of gardens)

percent

cocoa garden

clove garden coconut garden

nutmeg garden

durian garden

5-9,9cm 10-19,9cm 20-29,9cm 30-39,9cm 40-59,9cm >60cm

Figure 9: Relative distribution of trees (dbh diameter classes for 0,2ha of each type of gardens

percent

cocoa garden

clove garden

coconut garden

nutmeg garden

durian garden

2-7m

7,1-15m

15,1-25m

>25m

Figure10 height classes for 0,2ha of each type of gardens

Since the border creation, six villagers have been arrested by the national park guards and put in jail for a few months because they had opened new gardens inside the park. Currently, the customary leaders request moving the border of the park. Saleman is also at the same time in conflict for land dispute with the neighboring village Horale: people have abandoned their langsat Langsat

they are in the conflict area (Figure 5). The size of the mixed tree gardens is usually between 0,5 and 1,5 ha. The farmers plant trees like or maintain big wild trees to set the

limits. A mixed tree garden is a private land, managed by a family and transmitted by heritage. When a new garden is created, it belongs to the person who opened the forest and planted trees. Like in many places in traditional rural Indonesia, planting a tree is considered as a way to get property rights on the land. Creating a new mixed tree garden starts by cutting the vegetation, then burning it (but not always). The small gardens surrounding houses are used as nursery in preparing seedlings (Figure 6b) to be planted inside the new plot. In the past, the establishment of new garden started by a period of a few months, during which taro (Colocasia esculenta) or cassava (Manihot esculenta) were planted, and the garden was systematically fenced. Currently, farmers directly plant tree seedling and abandoned this practice (with the exception of few people). The period from opening the forest to plant the seedlings is of approximately 3 months. The first fruiting period varies between species (Appendix 3). Farmers used to work in their gardens 3 day per week and usually have several gardens (1 to 5).

B. Structure and floristic composition of mixed tree gardens

1) Structure Density, diameter and basal area A total of 609 trees has been recorded in the 1ha of mixed tree garden (25 plots). The highest tree density is found in the cocoa garden (170 trees/0,2ha), and the lowest in nutmeg

varies from 19% for nutmeg gardens to 34% for coconut gardens (Table 4). Durian gardens have the highest total basal area (14m/0,2ha) twice bigger than coconut and nutmeg gardens which both have a total basal area of 6m/0,2ha. Cocoa and clove gardens both have the lower total basal areas (4m/0,2ha) more than 3 times lower than durian gardens. The mean diameters of trunks (dbh) vary from 15cm (10) for cocoa gardens to 25 (20) for nutmeg gardens (Table 4). In cocoa, clove, coconut and durian gardens, most of individuals (From more than 50 to 80%) were in the small diameter size classes (between 5

Species composition (cocoa garden plot) Lower layer: : 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, Theobroma cacao 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25. Coffea canephora Cinnamomum verum 1. Upper layer: Spondias cytherea Syzygium malaccense

Figure 9: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in cocoa garden

Ariane cosiaux 28/05/12

Figure 12: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in clove garden

Ariane Cosiaux 8/05/12

Species composition Lower layer : Theobroma cacao coklat : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27. Gliricidia sepium Upper layer : Syzygium aqueum jembu air : 5. Syzygium aromaticum cengkeh : 7, 8, 12, 22, 26. Cordia myxa Mallotus ricinoides Lansium domesticum
cocoa coconut gardens gardens lower layer 2-7m low layer 7,1-15m medium layer 15,1-25m upper layer > 25m 5 1 10 2 5 1 11 3 3 clove gardens 5 1 12 2 durian gardens 1 11 3 18 3 37 7 nutmeg gardens 11 2 21 3 -

Figure 13: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in durian garden. Ariane Cosiaux 10/05/12 Species composition Lower layer 2-15m: Theobroma cacao coklat : 1, 2, 10, 16, 23, 25. Syzygium aromaticum Mangifera odorata Hibiscus tiliaceus Mangifera indica Lansium domesticum langsat : 22. Medium layer 15,1-25m : Areca catechu 6, 7, 17. Durio zibethinus Upper layer : Durio zibethinus

Tableau 5: Mean heights (m) of layers in each type of garden

and 19,9cm) (Figure 9). In nutmeg gardens, more than 70% are distributed in the 3 first diameter classes (5 to 29,9cm). Durian gardens have more individuals in the bigger size class than other type of gardens (>10%), they represent indeed a considerable phytomass. Coconut gardens presents also a high proportion (>20%) of individuals in the diameter class 3039,9cm. Vertical structure The relative distribution oh height varies between garden types (Figure 10). In cocoa, clove, coconut and durian gardens, most of individuals (>70%) are distributed among the height classes 2-7m and 7,1-15m. In nutmeg gardens, most of trees are distributed in the height classes 7,1-15m and 15,1-25m (>70%). In cocoa gardens there is only one continuous layer (2-7m) dominated by a discontinuous layer between 7 and 15m (Figure 11). In the continuous layer, Theobroma Cacao is the most abundant (83%) and the dominant species (73% of the total basal area).In clove gardens, 2 continuous layers (2-7m and 7,1-15m) surrounded by only a few trees >15m can be identified (Figure 12). Theobroma cacao mixed with Syzygium aromaticum are the most abundant (66%) and the dominant species (64%) of the lower layer. The second layer is also dominated by Syzygium aromaticum (44%). In coconut gardens, there are two lower layers more or less continuous (2-7m and 7,1-15m) with no clearly dominant species. The most abundant species of the second one is Cerbera floribunda (20%). The upper discontinuous layer (15,1-25m) is dominated by Cocos nucifera (Appendix 4). Then, nutmeg gardens are characterized by two more or less distinct medium continuous layers (Appendix 5) in which Myristica fragrans are clearly dominant. Finally, durian gardens are the most complex with 4 layers more or less continuous. Durio zibethinus exclusively dominates the canopy layer characterized by a mean height of 37m (7m) (Figure 13). The species is also dominant (76,95%) in the medium layer mixed with S. aromaticum (16,07%). Theobroma cacao is dominant in the lower layer (82,39%) and the two species Syzygium aromaticum (47,07%) and Areca catechu. (16,95%) are dominant between 7 and 15m. The mean height of each layer is summarized in Table 5. The dominant and most abundant species of each layers are summarized in Appendix 6). 2) Floristic composition Within the 22 mixed tree gardens visited (28ha), 110 tree species belonged to 41 families have been inventoried with respectively 76 species in cocoa gardens (8ha), 41 species in coconut gardens (5ha), 40 species nutmeg gardens (5ha), 37 species in clove gardens (5ha) and 32 species in durian garden (5ha) (Appendix 7). With regard to the number of species

At plots scale Number of families (all trees) 27 17 Margalef Index (all trees) 8,11 5,06 6,37 3,38 2,73 Simpson Diversity index (all trees) 0,87 0,54 0,91 0,82 0,84

At gardens scale Number of families 41 37 24 23 23

Plots

S (all trees )

10 cm) 45 22 23 16 9

Type of garden

all (1ha) cocoa garden(0,2ha)

53 27 32 17 14

All (28ha) cocoa (8ha) coconut (5ha) clove (5ha) durian (5ha)

110 81 42 39 34

coconut garden 20 (0,2ha) clove garden (0,2ha) durian garden (0,2ha) nutmeg garden (0,2ha) 13 11

10

0,59

nutmeg (5ha)

21

41

Table 6: Families, Species richess and diversity indexes for each type of garden at plots scale and at gardens scale

type of garden cocoa durian nutmeg coconut clove

cocoa -

durian 0,44 -

nutmeg 0,32 0,50 -

coconut 0,41 0,39 0,24 -

clove 0,36 0,52 0,37 0,37 -

Table 7

-diversity between the 5 types of garden based on the qualitative Sorensen index

Distribution of IVI (%)

Durio zibethinus Murr. Theobroma cacao Myristica fragrans Cocos nucifera Syzygium aromaticum Lansium domesticum Corr. Figure 14: The distribution of the Importance Value Index among the 53 species. The six most important species are listed on the right.
Cocoa gardens Species Theobroma cacao Durio zibethinus Artocarpus heterophylla sum IVI (%) 38,5 7,2 6,1 51,8 Coconut gardens Species Cocos nucifera Cerbera floribunda Kleinhovia hospita IVI (%) 25,1 6,6 6,4 38,1 Species Syzygium aromaticum Lansium domesticum Theobroma cacao Clove gardens IVI (%) 19,6 18,0 16,8 54,4 Species Durio zibethinus Theobroma cacao Syzygium aromaticum Durian gardens IVI (%) 42,3 13,9 10,8 66,9 Nutmeg gardens Species Myristica fragrans Durio zibethinus Lansium domesticum IVI (%) 42,9 16,6 11,5 71,0

Table 8: The three most important species of each type of gardens according to their Importance Value (%)

found within families, Moraceae (8 species) and Fabaceae (8 species) are the most diverse tree families. They are followed by Anacardiaceae (7 species), Euphorbiaceae (6 species), Myrtaceae (6 species) and Verbenaceae (6 species). Then, within the 25 sampled plots (1ha), a total of 53 species belonged to 27 families with 32 species in coconut gardens, 27 in cocoa gardens, 17 in clove gardens, 14 in durian gardens and 10 in nutmeg gardens have been inventoried (Table 6). Based on the qualitative index of Sorensen, the highest floristic similarity was found between durian and clove gardens (0,52) as well as durian and nutmeg gardens (0,50) (Table 7). At plots scale level when all garden plots are analyzed together, the Margalef index is 8,11. Among each garden types, the richness index of Margalef varies from 2,06 (nutmeg garden) to 6,37 (coconut gardens) (Table 6). For the 25 plots, the Simpson index is 0,87 and it varies within garden types from 0,91 (coconut gardens) followed by durian gardens (0,84), clove garden (0,82) nutmeg garden (0, 59) and cocoa gardens (0,54)(Table 6). Indeed, in taking in account the relative abundance of each species, coconut gardens stills the most diversified whereas cocoa gardens are the less one. Nutmeg gardens with the lower species richness have also a low Simpson index value. Among the 53 tree species inventoried in the 25 plots, 6 species have a major role according to their importance value index. Not surprisingly Durio zibethinus, Theobroma cacao, Myristica fragrans, Cocos nucifera, Syzygium aromaticum and Lansium domesticum account for 62,94% of the importance value (Figure 14). The three most important species of each type of gardens are summarized in the Table 8. They encompass 8 species. In each garden type the species which give its name to the garden have the highest IVI.

C. Local uses of tree and other plant species

1) Local uses of mixed tree garden species Among the 110 tree species inventoried in the mixed tree gardens (Appendix 7), 108 are useful, 19 species have 1 use only, 67 species between 2 and 5 uses, 15 species between 6 and 6 uses and just 1 species with more than 10 uses. Only 8 species are not used by the local population. The 8 species with no use are spontaneous and among the 102 useful species, 43 are planted and 59 are spontaneous. The number of uses per species varies between 1 and 18 (Appendix 7). During the interviews of farmers, 23 uses have been identified (Table 9). The two uses cash crops

supply cash income. The 4 species Myristica fragrans, Syzygium aromaticum, Theobroma cacao and Coffea canephora are the main source of cash income of farmers in Saleman (See the selling prices and estimation of one year production in Appendix 8). The productions are

Category of uses Source of income

Uses Cash crops Supplementary cash crops House construction

Number of species 4 17 58 32 27 81 8 7 5 38 8 15 10 2 1 27 13 10 4 2 1 1 4 1

Proportion of planted species (%) 100 94 26 16 26 38 38 43 100 84 63 67 70 50 100 59 62 90 50 50 100 100 75 100

Proportion of spontaneous species (%) 0 6 74 84 74 62 63 57 0 16 38 33 30 50 0 41 38 10 50 50 0 0 25 0

Construction

Canoe contruction House furniture Firewood Fishing tools

Tools Rope Staple food Fruit for food Vegetable Food Condiment Drink Sugar Oil Medecine Cosmetic Ornemental Fence Garden management Fertiliser Protection tree Basketery Ritual Other

Table 9: Number of tree species per use and proportion of planted and spontaneous species for each use.

Uses house construction firewood canoe contruction house furniture rope fishing tool staple food fruit vegetable condiment sugar drink oil medicine ornemental cosmetic

Table 10: The 16 uses studied through the free listing

sold in a cooperative in Masohi (the closest city). Coffee is only planted by a few people and Durio zibethinus, Cocos nucifera or Mangifera indica, may supply supplementary incomes. Farmers sell fruits in the village or sometimes in the city when the production is important.

materials, 3 us Intsia bijuga is used for house construction, Canarium oleosum for the construction of canoe or Polyalthia lateriflora used to make furniture. Next, 81 species is used as firewood like clove tree or Cryptocarya densiflora. Regarding species used to make tools, people use 8 species for making fishing tools (e.g. sago palm) and 7 species for making rope (e.g. Kleinhovia hospita). Then, 7 uses cover food supply: 5 staple food species, 38 fruit tree species, 8 vegetable species, 15 condiment species, 10 species used to make drink, 2 species for making sugar (Cocos nucifera and Arenga pinnata) and 1 species for oil production have been identified. Next, 27 medicinal trees, 13 species used as cosmetic and 10 ornamental trees have been recorded. Cocos nucifera is used for basketry, and Musa sp., Arenga pinnata and Areca catechu are used during customary rituals. Finally, Saleman villagers use 3 species to make fence, 2 species as fertilizer and 1 species as shade tree. Among all the mixed tree gardens species, the five one which have the more uses are coconut palm, sago palm, banana trees, Canarium oleosum and Areca catechu which count respectively 18, 8, 8, 8 and 7 uses. Generally speaking, we note that species used for firewood, construction and tools are mainly wild species (more than 50%), whereas species assuring other uses are mainly planted species (Table 9). 2) The other plants used by communities During the free listing a total of 125 other species belonged to 58 families have been identified (Appendix 7). Among these 125 species, 43 are trees and 82 are herbaceous and lianas species. Regarding to tree species, 17 have been sampled in small gardens surrounding houses and 26 in forest (secondary forest and dusun). Concerning non tree species, 24 have been sampled in mixed tree gardens, 54 in small gardens surrounding houses and 14 in forest. Indeed we can see that mixed tree gardens can also contain herbaceous or lianas useful species and small gardens surrounding houses supply more useful non tree species than other land use type. To summarize, a total of 235 species have been inventoried including 227 useful species.

Figure 15a: Composite Salience Value of construction wood (Women)

Figure 15b: Composite Salience Value of construction wood (Men)

Figure 16a: Composite Salience Value of staple food species (Women)

Figure 16b: Composite Salience Value of staple food species (Men)

Figure 17a: Composite Salience Value of species used as fishing tool (Women)

Figure 17b: Composite Salience Value of species used as fishing tool (Men)

3) Important species for each use Intracultural variations For the 16 use studied during the free listing exercise (Table 10), the number of species mentioned (using vernacular names) varies between men and women. Significant difference has been identified for 6 uses (Appendix 9). Next, qualitative differences exist between species which men and women have mentioned. The number of shared species is low for 10 uses for which the similarity inde than 60% for 6 uses (Appendix

10). Indeed, differences in list length and content highlight intra-cultural variations in local knowledge. From highly salient to less salient species Highly salient, salient and less salient items have been identified for men and women for each use (Appendix 11). In order to illustrate the results 3 uses have been chosen. Firstly, for the construction of house, the highest salient item is according to men and

women (Figure 15a, b) with a high composite salience value. The local name encompass 2 species: Intsia bijuga and Pongamia pinnata (Vitew cofassus (Pterocarpus indicus) can be identified as salient kayu besi (Figure 15a). Indeed a threshold in the composite salience value is observed between the first item and the second one. Next, another salience threshold is distinguished between less and the following item which enables to identify the (Octomeles moluccana) and (Durio zibethinus).

These species are less salient, but they have been mentioned by about a half of the can also be identified as salient species following the highly salient species (Figure 15b). Finally kayu palaka can be

also encompass 2 species: Palaquium obovatum and Palaquium obtusifolium item for men and women is esculenta (Colocasia) and (Musa sp.) and (Ipomea batatas) (Fugre 16b) and for women (Figure 16a). Thirdly, the only important species for fishing is (Metroxylon sagu) followed by (Manihot

with a very high composite salience value (Figure 17a, b). The local name refers several species belonged to the sub-family of Bambusoideae. The contribution of mixed tree gardens and other land uses in livelihood For each use, the species identified as highly salient, salient and less salient have different characteristics according to growth form and origin (mixed tree gardens, small

gardens or forest) (Appendix 11). Indeed species used as construction wood, fishing tools, cosmetic, ornamentation and for making drink are tree species found in mix tree gardens apart from kunyit (Curcuma domestica). Then, species used as firewood are mainly found in mixed tree gardens, just two of them (Casearia grewiaefolia) and

(Mallotus peltatus) have been sampled in forest. For cooking oil production, the only used species, coconut tree, is only found in mix tree gardens. On the contrary, salient species used as vegetable and condiment are from small gardens surrounding house. Most of them are herbaceous like (Cymbopogon nardus) or shrub like (Capsicum annuum,

Capsicum frutescens). For staple food, Metroxylon sagu is mainly from managed swamp forest whereas the others important species are found in small garden near houses. All fruit species are trees from mixed tree gardens apart from (Papaya carica) exclusively

planted in small gardens. Finally, the most salient medicinal plants are both from mixed tree gardens and small gardens and are herbaceous or tree species.

Discussion
A. Mixed tree gardens: an integrated land use
The village lands are composed by a mosaic of tree garden systems, secondary forest and not disturbed forests as in many rural areas in Indonesia (Michon et al. 1986, Hariyadi and Ticktin 2012). In the past, there were some upland padi fields (ladang) around the village, like in other part of west Seram (Ellen 1993), but Saleman farmers abandoned this practice. The land use system is still controlled by customary law (adat). The village land is divided among clans and its management is regulated by customary practices which still widespread in Maluku (Ellen 1985). The two categories of gardens in Saleman are agroforestry systems. The small garden surrounding houses may be compared to home-gardens (Kumar and Nair 2004, Kabir and Webb 2009) which are common in Indonesia (Christanty et al. 1986, Kelhenbeck 2004). However, not all households have small gardens. Indeed this kind of land use seems to be a minor component of the land use system. One reason may be the lack of available area between houses or near the village or the soil fertility because the village is on the sandy beach front. The second type of garden is the mixed tree gardens. Their establishment consists in cutting a patch of forest and planting tree seedlings. The slashed plot is not systematically tilizer. Indeed fertility is assured by natural

nutrient cycling processes which constitute one of the characteristic of lots of complex agroforestry systems (Michon et al. 1986, Wiersum 2004, Belcher et al. 2005). In the past the practices were different: in recent decades, farmers abandoned planting food crops in the first phase of establishment of a new tree garden. This change is associated to the abandon of rice fields. One reason may be the increasing need of cash income which leads farmers to plant directly trees and focus their input on commercial crops. Another factor may be the easier

1999) accompanied by the introduction of new cash crops like cocoa (Clough et al. 2009). These smallholders tree plantations integrated in the forested landscape around the village are private plots owned by farmers. In several other regions in Indonesia where lands are historically under customary laws and owned by clans, land tenure gradually shift from common property to more private property when cash crops are introduced in the tree garden systems (Belcher et al. 2005; Hariyadi and Tickin 2012). Then, the mixed tree gardens are a source of conflict with the Manusela National Park authorities. Similar conflicts between local populations and park authorities on the periphery of conservation areas have already been recorded in many areas in Indonesia (Aumeeruddy and Sansonnens 1994, Murniati et al. 2001, Hariyadi and Tickin 2012). Before the creation of the park boundaries in 1997, 600 ha of mixed tree gardens were already established there. Since then, the farmers continue to make new gardens especially because the boundaries are not clear (old original boundaries with concrete post, new boundaries with wood stick only). In this context of conflict, the

get long term use rights on a land (Michon 2003).

B. Mixed tree gardens: complex agroforestry systems similar to natural forest

The mixed tree gardens are multistoried with 2 to 4 layers. Like in others part of Indonesia, durian gardens have the most complex structure (Michon et al. 1986). The less complex coconut gardens are not-shaded. In Sulawesi, lots of smallholder cocoa plantations are also not-shaded and present a simple structure because farmers remove tree cover to increase production yields (Clough et al. 2009) The dominant species of the mixed tree gardens of Saleman, are also dominant dusun system

Kaya et al.(2002). Indeed, similarities exist within agroforestry systems in Maluku. In comparing the 1ha sampled mixed tree gardens with 1ha lowland limestone forest in Seram (Ranlund 2011) (428) is close to the density in primary forest (438). However, the total basal area is clearly

higher in primary forest. As regard to species richness, 95 tree species have been found in primary forest and 45 species in gardens (25 plots). In other study of lowland forest of Seram, 17 to 54 species have been inventoried in 0,25ha plots (Edwards 1993). Indeed, the phytomass and the species richness are lower in mixed tree gardens. However, at gardens scale a total of 110 species belonged to 42 families have been identified in the 22 gardens. These results highlight the effect of sampling effort on the assessment of species richness and also the possible impact of farmer choice and practices on the spatial distribution of species. Some species are always planted or grow spontaneously in border of the garden. A plot settled in the middle of the garden is not able to assure the sample of all species. Finally, we can suggest that the highest floristic similarity observed between durian and clove garden is due to the local agroforestry practices and farmer choices.

C. Importance of mixed tree gardens for local population

The mixed tree gardens, with 110 trees and 24 lianas and herbaceous useful species, can supply fruits, medicine, construction wood, vegetable or cash income in selling commercial products like lots of tree garden system in Indonesia (Michon et al. 1986, Brodbeck et al. 2003, Manurang et al. 2004, Okubo et al. 2010). The 3 cash species Theobroma cacao, Syzygium aromaticum and Myristica fragrans are the major source of income for Saleman farmers like Hevea brasiliensis (Gouyon et al. 1993) or Shorea javanica for farmers of Sumatra. Then, mixed tree gardens play a major role in the auto-subsistence of

species), medicines (27 species) or fruits (38 species). These results confirm the key role of complex agroforestry systems in the auto-subsistence of rural households already identified in other tree based systems of Indonesia (Christanty et al. 1986, Michon et al. 1986, Gouyon et al. 1993, Brodbeck et al. 2003, Okubo et al. 2010). use type supply complementary products or incomes. The small gardens surrounding houses are the major source of vegetable, condiment and staple food. They also supply medicinal plants and fruits for the daily auto-consumption. The natural forest and the ma dusun

also supply useful species and contribute to the rural livelihoods (Sunderlin et al. 2004). The dusun dammar , another example of managed forest habitat, takes part in cash income supply although the market has been up and down. Indeed I confirm here that the mixed tree gardens are integrated in an overall land use system, complementing other land uses and complemented by other land uses (Belcher et al. 2005, Wiersum 2004).

D. The mixed tree gardens inside the Manusela National park

Thus, the local challenge is the reconciliation between the management of the conservation area with the social and economic needs of the local population. The mixed tree gardens currently inside the boundaries of the Manusela National Park are characterized by a forest like structure more or less complex and account an appreciable amount of wild tree species. Indeed, these gardens may be an opportunity to conserve wild tree species outside the natural forest and supply a diversity of habitats for the wild fauna (birds, mammals or insects) and other plant species. Several studies have shown the potential of agroforests to conserve biodiversity (Michon and De Foresta 1995, Bos et al. 2007, Beukema et al. 2007,). A solution to present conflicts could be the promotion of this agroforestry system as a buffer zone limiting further access to the park (Aumeeruddy and Sansonnens 1994, Murniati et al. 2001,), a transition zone between the park and the surrounding villages.

Conclusion
The results of this study have shown that tree gardening systems of Seram Island are another example of reconstructed-forest by tropical farmers. These tree gardens, characterized by a multistoried structure and high species richness play a key role in the economy of Saleman farmers. The two mains socio-economic function of mixed tree gardens consist of assuring cash incomes and supplying forest products essential for poor-rural communities. Moreover, this land use is not isolated, but integrated in a complex land use system where each land use assure different socio-economic functions and complement each others. Then, in providing diverse habitats for wild species (plant and animals), the promotion of mixed tree gardens as a buffer zone between the park and the surrounding villages may be a solution to the conflict with the Manusela National Park authorities. Moreover, it would be interesting to study the potential of conservation of these gardens as regards to wild fauna, or other taxa, and also the role of these systems according to ecosystems services. In the framework of Colupsia project, the present results associated with the previously studies in others villages around the Manusela National Park, may offer interesting propositions concerning the land use planning which take in account the local population priorities.

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Appendixes
Appendix 1: Questionnaire for farmers interviews used on the field
Respondant: Date: Age: Sex:

Attributes of the mixed tree garden Type of garden: Location name: Clan: Size: Age: Type of soil: Boundary: Way to get the garden: Do you have other gardens? If yes which type of garden? *Cocoa *Fence *Heritage *Yes *Coconut *Planted trees *Open the forest *No *Clove *Durian *Nutmeg *Wild trees *Buy *Others *Rent *Cocoa *Coconut *Clove *Durian *Nutmeg

Establishment and management of mixed tree gardens A. Establishment of a new garden

Explain step by step, how to make a new garden from opening the forest to plant seeds/seedlings. How long from opening the forest to plant seeds/seedlings? Origin of seeds/seedlings: First fruiting period:

B.

Farming practices *Clearing *Cutting *Remove weeds

Usual activities in gardens: *Planting *Harvest Utilization of fertilizer: Pests/Diseases: *Others *Yes *Yes

*No *No

How to remove pests and diseases?

C.

Main cash crops production (for one garden)

Number of period of harvest per year: Production per period of harvest: Locate of production sale: Selling prices:

D.

Local uses of tree species

For each tree species present in the gardens, the following questions have been asked: Life form: Local names in bahasa Indonesia: Local names in bahasa Saleman: Local uses: Preparation:

Notes:

Appendix 2: The 29 species known only through their vernacular names not possible to sample.

Vernacular names in bahasa indonesia Benteng Buah botol Bunga Kamboja Bunga melati Daun biana Daun Bobo Daun dilan Daun gaga Daun Galiji Daun Santang Daun suplir Daun tikar Jembu kenop Kayu Asoer Kayu Kira kira

Vernacular names in bahasa Saleman Tree

Notes

Vernacular names in bahasa indonesia Kayu Kuning/Mengkudu

Vernacular names in bahasa Saleman Ai kuni Ai Awarela Ai Aati Ai Palun Usi hirin Ayaa luman Liana Liana Liana Tree Tree Tree Tree Araceae Tree

Notes

Lamiaceae

Kayu Makila Kayu Manggi manggi Kayu Manggi manggi Keladi hutan Kersen

Buri buri -

Palm Pandanaceae Tree Tree Tree

Kisasi Lemon suanggi Obat gunung Paha Pohon Galoba hutan Rumput Teki Tali cincin Tali Rumah Tali ruri

Generic name for epiphytes ferns Tree Herbaceous Pandanaceae -

Appendix 3: Local practices of management of the 5 main tree garden species.

Species Theobroma cacao Cocos nucifera Myristica fragrans Syzygium aromaticum Durio zibethinus origin of seeds and/or seedling seeds harvested on old cocoa trees / seedling harvested in gardens seedling from Pulau tujuh (Island near Saleman) seedling from Est Seram or harvested in gardens / seeds harvested on old nutmeg trees Seed harvested on old clove trees seeds harvested on durian trees First fruiting period (in year) 2 to 3 5 to 7 5 to 7 6 to 7 15 desease/pests yes yes no yes no fire Practices to eradicate desease/pests fire fire Fertilizer no no no no no

Species composition Lower layers 2-15m: Cynometre cauliflora : 2, 8, 22. Citrus auranti Cynometre cauliflora namu:2 Mangifera indica Syzygium malaccense Areca catechu Flacourtia rukam Annona muricata Neuburgia moluccana Buchanania arborescens jembu meteng hutan : 25. Upper Layer: Artocarpus altilis sukun : 1. Cocos nucifera kelapa : 3, 4, 16, 19, 20.

Appendix 4: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in coconut garden

Ariane Cosiaux 25/05/12

Species composition Myristica fragrans pala : 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15. Durio zibethinus durian : 2, 10. Lansium domesticum langsat : 3, 11. Areca catechu pinang : 7.

Appendix 5: Sketch profile of a 20x20m plot in nutmeg garden

Ariane Cosiaux 14/05/12

Appendix 6: Dominant and most abundant species of each layer. Rdo is the relative dominance and Rde the relative density.
cocoa gardens Dominant species Theobroma cacao Rdo Most abundant species Theobroma cacao Rde coconut gardens Dominant Rdo species Most abundant species Cerbera floribunda Rde clove gardens Dominant species Rdo Most abundant species Theobroma cacao Syzygium aromaticum Syzygium aromaticum Rde

lower layer 2-7m

73%

83%

Theobroma cacao 65% Syzygium aromaticum Syzygium 44% aromaticum -

66%

low layer 7,1-15m medium layer 15,1-25m upper layer > 25m

durian gardens

Cocos nucifera -

20% 82% -

37%

73% Cocos nucifera -

Dominant species lower layer 2-7m Theobroma cacao Syzygium aromaticum Areca catechu Durio zibethinus Syzygium aromaticum Durio zibethinus

Rdo 82%

Most abundant species Theobroma cacao Syzygium aromaticum Areca catechu Lansium domesticum Durio zibethinus Syzygium aromaticum Durio zibethinus

Rde 56%

nutmeg gardens Most Dominant Rdo abundant species species -

Rde

low layer 7,1-15m

64%

57%

Myristica fragrans

61%

Myristica fragrans

58%

medium layer 15,1-25m

91%

70%

Myristica fragrans -

49%

Myristica fragrans -

66%

upper layer > 25m

100%

100%

Appendix 7: List of all the inventoried plant species Legend: GF: growth form; T: tree; H:herb; L:liana; S:shrub; NU: number of uses Uses: CC: cash crops, SCC: supplementary cash crops, HS: house construction, CaC: canoe contruction, FW: firewood, HF: house furniture, FT: fishing tool, Ro: Rope, SF: staple food, FF: fruit for food, Ve: vegetable, Co: condiment, Dr: drink, Su: sugar, Oi: oil, Me: medicine, Cos: cosmetic, Or: ornamental, Fe: fence, Fer: fertilizer, Pt: protection tree, Ba: basketry, Ri:ritual.
Genus species Family Vernacular name in "bahasa indonesia" Tree species in mixed tree gardens Aglaia sapindina Harms Alangium javanicum (Blume) Wang. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Annona muricata L. Anthocephalus macrophyllus Havil. Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.N. Parker Aquilaria versteegii H. Hallier Areca catechu L. Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr. Artocarpua altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg Melliaceae Alangiaceae Apocynaceae Annonaceae Rubiaceae Melliaceae Thymelaeaceae Areacaceae Arecaceae Moraceae Sukun hutan Nangka bubur Artocarpus heterophylla Lam. Artocarpus integra Merr. Averrhoa carambola L. Averroha belimbi L. Barringtonia sp. Buchanania arborescens (Blume) Blume Buchanania macrocarpa Lautrb. Calophyllum soulatri Burm.f. Cananga odorata Hook.f. & Thoms. Canarium oleosum (Lamk) Engl. Caryota rumphiana Mart. Cerbera floribunda K. Schum Cinnamomum verum J.S.Presl. Citrus aurantifolia Swingle Moraceae Nangka salak Moraceae Oxalidaceae Oxalidaceae Lecythidaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Clusiaceae Annonaceae Burseraceae Arecaceae Apocynaceae Lauraceae Rutaceae Lemon nipis/ Jeruk nipis Lemon manis buah besar Citrus maxima Merr. Rutaceae Lemon papeda Citrus nobilis Lour. Rutaceae Lemon manis buah kecil Usi timun Usi Alata / Usi Mulele maina Usi Kamasi Usi mulele biasa / Usi Mulele kiiti T SCC, FW, FF, Co, Dr SCC, HC, FW, HF, FT, Ro, SP, FF, Ve, Co, Dr, Su, Oi, Me, Cos, Or, Ba, Ri Or T FF, Co Campedak / Campadak Belimbing manis Belimbing asam Jembu Meteng hutan Ketapang hutan Bintanggur/ Bintanggur hitam Kayu kenangan Kayu kenari / kanari Pohon Nibung Kayu mata buta Kayu manis Lemon cina Ai Kaea Ai taun Ai Sipalin Ai Iyan Koran Leka leka Ai Mulele Usi sina / Usi timun T SCC, FW, FF, Co, Me Ai Hutun Laka Laka T A T T T T T T T T T T FW, FF FF FW, FF, Co HC, FW, Co, Dr FW HC, CaC, FW CaC, FW HC, CaC, HF, FT, Cos SCC, HC, CaC, FW, HF, FF, Co, Me HC, HF FW Co Ai Ulun T SCC, FW, FF, Ve Langsa hutan Kayu gufasa talaga / gufasa Ternate Kayu puli / pule Nangka Belanda /Sirsak Kayu samama Kayu mabuk Kayu gaharu Pinang Pohon Aren Sukun Hua Pohon Gamutu/Ai La Ai Suun T Ai Mahu wapa Ai Laharu Ai Itun Duria Arata Ai Kimama Ai museni T T T T T T T T T SCC, HC, HF, FF, Me, Or, Ri HC, HF, Ro, FF, Dr, Su, Ri HC, CaC, FW, FT, SF, FF, Veg, Me FW HC, FW, HF HC, CaC, FW, HF, FT, Me SCC, FW, FF, Dr, Me HC, CaC, FW HC, CaC, FW, HF, Me Vernacular name in "bahasa Saleman" GF CU NU

Cocos nucifera L.

Arecaceae

Pohon kelapa

Luin

Codiaeum variegatum Blume

Euphorbiaceae

Gadihu

Coffea canephora Pierre var RobustaChevai Colona scabra Burret Cordia myxa Forsk. Cryptocarya densiflora Blume Cynometra cauliflora L. Dalbergia sp. Decasperbum bracteatum (Roxb.) A.J. Scott. Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f) Danser Diospyros korthalsiana Hiern. Diospyros pilosanthera Blanco Durio zibethinus Murr. Dysoxylum densiflorum (Blume) Miq. Endospermum moluccanum Becc. Erythrina variegata L. Ficus capiosa Steud. Ficus congesta Roxb. Ficus lepicarpa Blume Ficus septica Reinw.ex Blume Ficus subulata Blume Ficus variegata Blume Flacourtia rukam Zoll.& Mor. Garcinia mangostana L. Garcinia tetrandra Pierre Geunsia pentandra (Roxb.) Merr. Gliricidia sepium H.B.K. Gmelina moluccana Backer ex K.Heyne Gnetum gnemon L. Gulubia costata Becc. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. Homalium foetidum Benth. Horsfieldia bivalvis Merr. Horsfieldia sylvestris Warb. Hydnocarpus sp. Inocarpus fagiferus (Parkinson) Fosberg. Intsia bijuga Kuntze Jatropha curcas Kleinhovia hospita Linn. Lansium domesticum Corr. Laportea decumana Wedd. Leea indica Merr. Litsea diversifolia Blume Macaranga hispida Muell. Arg. Mallotus ricinoides Muell. Arg. Mangifera indica L. Mangifera laurina Blume

Rubiaceae Tiliaceae Borraginaceae Lauraceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Myrtaceae Loranthaceae Ebenaceae

Kopi Kayu marong Kayu semang Kayu samar putih / kayu samarang Namu Namu Kayu Salawaku Kayu merah daun halus Benalu Kayu belo hitam Ai musina Ai Huluti Ai Alupun

T T T T T

CC, FW, FF, Dr HC, CaC, FW, Ro HC, CaC, FW, FT HC, FW FW, FF HC, CaC, FW, Fer FW Me HC, FW, HF SCC, HC, CaC, FW, HF, SF, FF HC, CaC, FW, HF, Me

Ai rola masahun putih Lambuti -

T T T T

Ai Manunpang Alametin Ai museni Ai Kineri

Ebenaceae Bombacaceae Meliaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Moraceae Flacourtiaceae Clusiaceae Clusiaceae Verbenaceae Fabaceae Verbenaceae Gnetaceae Arecaceae Malvaceae Flacourtiaceae Myristicaceae Myristicaceae Flacourtiaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae Sterculiaceae Meliaceae Urticaceae Kayu daun gatal Leeaceae Lauraceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Alpukat hutan Hanua Kayu kapur Mangga Biasa/Pantai/Buah Kecil/Isap/Java/ Mangga golek Mangga hutan/asam Ai Hulua Ai Losa Ai papalam Aun Ai sinatan Alapakan berduri T T T T T T FF HC, FW Me SCC, HC, FW, FF, Dr, Cos, Or HC, CaC, FW, FF kayu beringin Pohon gondal buah besar Tomi Tomi Manggis/Mangustan Manggis hutan/Mangustan hutan Kayu tembakau hutan Pohon pelindung /Kayu hidup Kayu titi Pantai Ganemon Pinang hutan Kayu Baru Kayu samar / Kayu Samarang Lobi lobi buah kecil/lobi lobi makan Lobi lobi buah besar/Lobi lobi hutan Gayang hutan Gayang pantai Kayu besi Jarak pagar Kayu kinar Langsa Daun Gatal Ai Pain Ai Kirama Mapua Ai Halun Ai rola masahun Topi Topi Topi Topi kamuka Ai Ka Ai Ka Ai Tolati Ai Latu Ai Lohan Ai Mahu Sinan T Me Tainuhun Ai tabaku Durian Kayu mabuk Kayu Raja/ Kayu Semut Galala/Kayu dadak Gohi Pohon Gondal buah kecil Sirih Popa Kayohiti Ai Mosu Asapulan Asapulan Waringin/Ai Lulu Ai Mosu Tom Tom T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T HC, FW, FF HC, CaC, FW, HF FW, Me HC, FW, Ro, Me, Or, Fe SCC, FW, FF, Me, Cos, Or FW, Ro, Co HC, CaC, FW, Me FW, FF, Co, Or SCC, FW, FF, Me, Cos HC, FW, Co Fw FW, Fe, Fer, Pt HC, CaC, FW, HF FW, Ve HF, HC, CaC, FW, Me HC, CaC, FW, HF HC, FW, FF HC, CaC, FW HC, FW HC, Co Ve

Mangga Kuini Mangifera odorata Griff. * Manihot esculenta Crantz. Metroxylon sagu Rottb. Musa sp. Mussaenda reinwardtiana Miq. Myristica fatua Houtt. Myristica fragrans Houtt. Neonauclea moluccana Merr. Nephelium lappaceum L. Neuburgia moluccana (Scheff.ex Boerl.) Leenh. Octomeles moluccana Teijsm. & Binn.ex Hassk Palaquium obovatum Engl. Persea americana Mill. Pertusadina multifolia (Havil.) C.E. Ridsdale Piper aduncum L. Podocarpus neriifolia D.Don Polyalthia lateriflora King Pongamia pinnata Merr. Premna sp. Psidium guajava Linn. Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blanco) Merr. Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss Semecarpus forstenii Blume Spondias cytherea Sonnerat Syzygium aqueum Alston Syzygium aromaticum(L.) Merr. & Perry Anacardiaceae Bacang/Becang Euphorbiaceae Arecaceae Musaceae Rubiaceae Myristicaceae Myristicaceae Rubiaceae Sapindaceae Loganiaceae Datiscaceae Sapotaceae Lauraceae Rubiaceae Piperaceae Podocarpaceae Annonaceae Fabaceae Verbenaceae Myrtaceae Fabaceae Sterculiaceae Areacaceae Anacardiaceae Anacardiaceae Myrtaceae Myrtaceae Singkong Pohon sagu Pisang Kayu Ge/Bunga Kupu kupu Pala hutan buah besar/Pala hutan Pala Kayu kasa Rambutan Jati hutan Kayu palaka / pulaka Kayu siki Alpukat Kayu nisan Sirih Hutan Kayu Cina Kayu meranting Kayu besi pantai Kayu titi hutan Giawas/Jembu batu/Jembu biji Kayu lenggua Kayu kalabasa hutan Salak Ninat Kedongdong Jembu Air Cengkeh Jembu Makui / Makui talukun Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr.& Perry Syzygium sp. Tectona grandis L.f. Terminalia catappa L. Terminalia microcarpa Decne Theobroma cacaoL. Trevesia sundaica Miq. Rhus taitensis Guill. Uvaria littoralis Blume Vitex cofassus Reinw.ex Blume Myrtaceae Makui talukun Myrtaceae Verbenaceae Combretaceae Combretaceae Sterculiaceae Araliaceae Anacardiaceae Annonaceae Verbenaceae Kayu meran Jati mas Ketapang pantai Kayu alali Coklat Kayu gurita Belimbing hutan kayu kasa Kayu gufasa / gufasa biasa

Kuin T Pati Kasbi Hatan Uri Kimasi mula Ai Puraran Ai Sirin T T T T T T T T T T T T Ai Losuti/Ai Mahalu Ai Kamu Ai loren Ai Awasan Ai Lusan Ai Lalan Ai Kalabasa apa Ai Ninati Poputi T T T T T T T T T T T T T T HC, FW, HF HC, CaC, FW, HF, Fe HC, FW HC, CaC, FW, HF SCC, FW, FF, Dr, Me HC, CaC, FW, HF, Cos HC, FW SCC, FF FW HC, CaC, FW, FF, Me SCC, HC, FW, FF, Me CC, FW, FF, Co, Me CC, FW, FF, Co, Me, Or HC, FW, Cos SCC, FW, FF HC, FW HC, CaC, FW, HF HC, CaC, FW, HF FF, Dr, Me, Cos HC, CaC, FW, FT FW, SF, FF, Ve HC, HF, FT, Ro, SF, FF, Or, Fe FT, Ro, SF, FF, Ve, Me, Or, Ri SCC, HC, FF, FW Cos

T Ai musina Ai Tanisa Ai Alali Ai Kunita Leusaki Kimasi mula Ai Pasan T T T T T T T T T

SCC, HC, FW, FF, Cos HC, CaC, FW, HF HC, CaC, FW, HF HC, CaC, FW, FF, Me, Cos HC, CaC, FW, Ve, Co, Dr CC, FW, FF Me FW HC, FW, Cos HC, CaC, FW, HF, FT

Other plant species used by local population Tree species Aleurites moluccana Willd. Annona reticulata L. Annona squamosa L. Artocarpus teysmanni Miq. Euphorbiaceae Annonaceae Annonaceae Moraceae Kayu kamiri Buah nona Sirih Kaya Nangka hutan Ai Hau T T T T HC, FF, Co FF FF PC

Bougainvillea sp. Carica papaya L. Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. Casuarina equisetifolia Blanco Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Chrysophyllum roxburghii G. Don Citrus hystrlx OC. Citrus medica L. Clerodendron floribundum R.Br. Duabanga moluccana Blume Eugenia polyantha Wight Fagraea racemosa Jack Ficus sp.1 Gastonia serratifolia (Miq.) W.R.Philoson Graptophyllum pictum Griff. Hydnophytum formicarum Jack Koordersiodendron pinnatum Merrill Lawsonia inermis L. Leea indica Merr. Macaranga involucrata (Roxb.) Baill. Mallotus peltatus Muell. Arg. Maranthes corymbosa Blume Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Palaquium obtusifolium Burck. Phaleria capitata Jack Phyllanthus microcarpus Muell. Arg, Planchonella obovata H.J.Lam Polyalthia rumphii (Blume) Merr. Pometia pinnata J.R.& G.Forst. Sauropus androgynus Merrill Scaevola sericea Forst. f. Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Sindora galedupa Prain Sterculia macrophylla Vent. Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & Perry Tamarindus indica L. Syzygium sp.3 Agathis dammara(Lamb.) Rich.

Nyctaginaceae Caricaceae Flacourtiaceae Casuarinaceae Bombacaceae Sapotaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae Sonneratiaceae Myrtaceae Loganiaceae Moraceae Araliaceae Acanthaceae Combretaceae Anacardiaceae Lythaceae Leeaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Chrysobalanaceae Moringaceae Sapotaceae Thymelaeaceae Euphorbiaceae Sapotaceae Annonaceae Sapindaceae Euphorbiaceae Goodeniaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Sterculiaceae Myrtaceae Fabaceae Myrtaceae Araucariaceae

Bugen fil Papaya Kasawari Kapok hutan Lemon purut Lemon papaya Pohon Matel Giawas hutan Daun Salam Kopi hutan Kayu Ulit Kayu patatulan Alipuru Posi posi Belimbing hutan Pohon pacar Kayu hurori Kayu sihata Kayu mas Kelor Ai Teha Kayu siki Ai tolu Pohon Jiba Kartok Kayu Hitam Kayu pelasun Tawang Kartok Papaceda Kayu turi Kayu minyak Papaya hutan Jembu mawar Asam Java Jembu hutan Agathis/ pohon damar Non tree species Ai Turi Ai Taan Ai Eta Ai Uloati Ai Selang Ai Naka Ai Uliti Ai patatulan Ai Inotu Uri mahu Ai Pakat

T T T

Or FF, Ve, Dr, Me, Cos FW Or Me HC, FW Co

Ai Kapusi yapa Ai lolan Usi matatahi -

T T T T T T T

Ve HC, CaC Co FW FW, FF FW Or HC HC, FW Cos

T T T T

T T T T T T T

Alapakan tidak berduri Ai Hurori Ai Sihata -

FW FW FW Ve, Me HC Ro Ve FW HC, FW HC, FW, HF Ve FW, Me Me HC, CaC, FW, HF, Me HC, HF FW, FF, Me HC, FW, FF, Co, Me, Cos FW, FF HC, FW, Ve

T T T

Gaharu buaya -

T T T

T T

T T T

T T T T T

Acalypha indica Linn. Adenia heterophylla (Blume) Koord. Adenia sp. Aglaonema sp. Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Alpinia sp. Amaranthus hybridus Linn. Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.

Euphorbiaceae Passifloraceae Passifloraceae Araceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Amaranthaceae Menispermaceae Bromeliaeae

Daun pus Matel maraya Patola ular Sri Rejeki Lengkuas merah Lengkuas putih Bayam Buah bori Nanas

Simuliti huan -

H L L H H H H L H

Me Ve Ve Or Co, Me Me Ve FT, Cos FF, Dr, Or

Andrographis paniculata Nees. Arachis hypogaea L. Arcangelisia flava Merr. Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L. Brassica rugosa (Roxb) L. Capsicum annuum Linn. Capsicum frutescens Linn. Casssytha filiformis Linn. Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M.King & H.Robinson Clerodendron fragrans (Vent.) Willd. Clerodendron villosum Blume Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Commelina bengalensis Forst. Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith Crinum asaticum Blanco Cucumis sativus L. Cucurbita moschata Duchesne ex Poir.

Acanthaceae Fabaceae Menispermaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Solanaceae

Sambiloto/Daun Holand Kacang tanah Tali kuning Kol Sawi Cili panjang Cili besar Sasawi manisa manisa manisa Ayaan putri Ayaa Kuni

H H L

Me Ve Ro, Me Ve Ve

H H

Co

Solanaceae Lauraceae Asteraceae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae Araceae Commelinaceae Zingiberaceae Amaryllidaceae Cucurbitaceae Cucurbitaceae

Cili kecil Tali putri Sunga sunga Daun pata Picahpiring Talas Sambung tulang Lampuyang Bawang laut Ketimun/Katimun Labu Kunyit hutan/ Kuning hutan/Kuning pawar Kunyit/Kuning (ditanam) Sare banda Sare Tali Bori Daun bedak Paku Paku/Pakis Galoba Daun Kastarole/Salamake Tali Papua Alang alang / Kusu Kusu Kangkung maraya Patatas/Ubi Jalar Katang Katang Cangkor Patola/Gambas Tomat Tali Hulali/Hulale Papari/Pare

L H H S H H H H H H

FF, Me Me Me Me SF, FF, Or Me Co, Cos Or FF, Ve, Dr SF, Ve

Keladi

Papinyu

Kapali H Kuni Ai Hua gonggong Ayaan minu Manipa Enin tamun Uhin Kasu Ku Tamati Hulanin aan Kaparia Ai toto kapi kapi/Ai totun makapi H H H L H H H H L H H H H H L H L H/L H H H H H L Me Ro Me Ve SF, FF, Ve Me Co, Me Ve FF, Ve, Co, Dr, Cos Ro Ve, Me Cos Me Cos Co Me Ro Ve, Or Cos Co, Cos Cos FT, Ro, Me Co, Me, Cos

Curcuma domestica Valeton Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. Cymbopogon nardus Rendle Cyperus kyllingia Endl. Derris elliptica Benth. Desmodium umbellatum DC. Diplazium esculentum (Retzius) Swartz Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. Smith. Euphorbia prunifolia Hiptage sp. Imperata cylidrica (L.) Beauv. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Ipomoea batatas Poir. Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. Kaempferia galanga Linn. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. Lycopersicon esculentum Merremia peltata Merr. Momordica charantia L. Nasturtium indicum DC. Nomaphila stricta (Vahl.) Nees. Nothopanax scutellarium Merr. Ocimum basslicum Linn. Orthosiphon aristatus Miq. Paederia verticillata Blume Pandanus polycephalus Lam. Pandanus sp. Peperomia pellucida H.B.& K. Phaseolus vulgaris L. Phyllanthus niruri Linn.

Zingiberaceae Poaceae Poaceae Cyperaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Athyriaceae Zingiberaceae Euphorbiaceae Malpighiaceae Poaceae Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae Convolvulaceae Zingiberaceae Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae Convolvulaceae Cucurbitaceae Cruciferaceae Acanthaceae Araliaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Rubiaceae Pandanaceae Pandanaceae Piperaceae Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae

Akar burung Mangkok Kumangi Kumis kucing Tali konto konto Daun tikar Daun Pandan daun dingin Bonces/Bunces Daun cinta cinta Muhu Nalan Ai toto otoki Kihutotun

H H H H

Co, Me Cos Ve Me

Physalis minima Linn. Piper betteL. Piper nigrum L. Piper sp. Pleetranthus rotundifolius (Poir.) Spreng Pluchea Indica (L.) Less. Calamoideae** Saccharum officinarum L. Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. Selaginella wildenowii (Desv.) Bakh. Senna alata Roxb. Sida acuta Burm.f. Solanum melongena Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Gard.. Tecomanthe ternatensis v. Steenis Tetracera nordtiana F.Muell. Tetrastigma papilosum (Blume) Planch. Tinospora crispa Diels. Vanilla mexicana Mill. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilezek Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp Zea maysL. Zigiber officinaleRoscoe Zingiber sp. Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) van Steenis Bambusoidaeae ***

Solanaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Piperaceae Lamiaceae Asteraceae Areacaceae Poaceae Cucurbitaceae Selaginellaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Solanaceae Verbenaceae Bignoniaceae Dilleniaceae Vitaceae Menispermaceae Orchidaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Poaceae Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae Basellaceae Poaceae

Tiplukan Sirih Buah Lada Sirih Lele Kumbili/Ubi Kumbili Beluntas Rotan/Tali Rotan Tebu Labu siam/siang Soka Soka Kupang Kupang Sapu Sapu Ternate Terong/ Aubergine Kakurang Tali bela empat Tali api Tali Saku Antawali Vanili Kacang hijau/Kacang tumbuh Kacang panjang Jagung Halia/Jahe Tumbuh lawan Penahong Bambu Alamahu Sohi Ayaa Solun Tali gurita Paloli Kamu laka Esi Ahu Kamu matan

S L

Me FF, Me, Ri Co

L H Ulesa/Ayaan Ulesa Tohun H L H H H H H H Ayaan Rina rina H L L L L L H H H H H L Tipau/Luleba H

Me SF, FF Me HF, FT, Ro, Or, Ba

Ve Me Me Me VE Me Ro Ro Ro Me CC Ve Ve SF, FF, Ve, Cos Co, Me Cos Me HF, FT, Ro, Ve, Or, Ba

Appendix 8: Selling prices and estimation of one year production of the main cash crops (production/year/garden) Legend: IDR: Indonesia Rupiah

Production

number of harvest per year 1 2 4

production per harvest (kg) (min) 120 24 7 45

production per harvest (kg) (max) 300 70 20 75

production per year (kg) (min) 120 48 14 180

production per year (kg) (max) 300 140 40 300

selling price per kg

cash incomes per year (min) IDR

cash incomes per year (min) IDR

cash incomes per year (min) euros

cash incomes per year (min) euros

Clove Nutmeg Nutmeg "flower" (mace) Cocoa

150000 75000 140000

18000000 3600000

45000000 10500000

1500 300

3750 875

1960000 16000 2880000

5600000 4800000

163 240

467 400

Appendix 9: Mean number of items mentioned by men and women for each use. In comparing the mean list length of men and women for each use, significant difference has been identified for 6 categories of uses. The number of have mentioned more specie
Mean list lenght Women sd Men sd Student t-test p value house construction 7,3 3,5 10,5 6,5 0,210 firewood 8,1 5,0 9,1 4,0 0,409 canoe contruction 3,3 1,7 5,7 2,5 0,007 house furniture 5,0 3,0 5,7 3,0 0,534 rope 3,8 1,7 5,1 3,2 0,196 fishing tools 1,0 0,9 2,3 1,4 0,007

(Figure 5).
staple food 4,6 1,5 5,1 1,7 0,512 fruit 17,1 6,9 13,6 5,4 0,118

vegetable mean list lengt women sd mean list lenght men sd p value 13,6 4,3 8,9 2,6 0,004

condiment 8,8 4,1 7,5 2,8 0,411

sugar 0,9 0,8 1,6 0,5 0,022

drink 2,3 1,6 2,0 1,6 0,640

medicine 10,3 4,8 6,5 2,7 0,027

ornement 3,8 2,0 3,6 1,9 0,738

cosmetic 3,8 2,7 1,1 1,3 0,006

Oil 1 0 1 0 -

Appendix 10: Similarity (%) between species mentioned by men and women for each use during the free listing

Appendix 11: Highly salient, salient and less salient species for each use. Legend: HS: highly salient, S: salient, LS: less salient, MTG: mixed tree gardens, SG: small gardens surrounding houses, F: forest.

Important Species for each use category Use Salience HS House construction S LS HS Canoe contruction S LS Men kayu besi kayu gufasa kayu siki kayu palaka kayu alali kayu titi pantai kayu titi kayu titi hutan kayu palaka kayu lenggua kayu besi kayu gufasa kayu palaka kayu siki kayu gufasa kayu lenggua kayu palaka durian kayu titi durian kayu lenggua kayu besi kayu gufasa kayu siki kayu titi kayu palaka durian kayu besi kayu cengkeh kayu pakat kayu sihata Kayu langsat kayu samar MTG Rotan Bambu Tali hulali F (MTG) Liana Herbaceous Herbaceous MTG Tree MTG Tree Women Origin Growth form

HS

House furniture

MTG

Tree

LS

HS

kayu samar kayu besi kayu belo hitam kayu gufasa kayu cengkeh durian kayu pakat

S Firewood

MTG (F)

Tree

LS Fishing tools HS HS Rope S LS HS Staple food S LS HS

Bambu Rotan kayu beringin Tali hulali Tali bela empat

Pohon Sagu Singkong Keladi Patatas Durian Langsat Papaya Kelapa Lemon manis Pisang Pisang Keladi F/SG (MTG) Herbaceous Tree

Fruit for food

Langsat Pisang

MTG (SG)

Tree

LS HS Vegetable S

Mangga golek Salak Kangkung Bayam

Papaya Singkong Bayam

SG

Herbaceous (Tree)

LS HS S Condiment LS

Kacang panjang Cili Sare Kunyit Pala Cengkeh Lada Lengkuas Gamutu Kelapa Gamutu Kelapa Kelapa Papaya Kumis kucing kunyit Tali kuning Mangga biasa Kelapa Kumis kucing Daun holand Cengkeh Papaya Daun cinta cinta Langsat Kunyit Mangga biasa Kelapa Pinang Gadihu Gadihu Pinang MTG Tree MTG Tree (Herbaceous) MTG/SG Herbaceous (Tree Liana) MTG Tree Kelapa Gamutu MTG/F Tree Sare Lengkuas Cili Cengkeh Kunyit Kayu manis Halia Daun salam Kelapa Gamutu MTG/F Tree SG (MTG) Herbaceous (Tree)

HS Drink S LS HS Sugar S LS Oil HS HS Medecine S LS HS Cosmetic S HS Ornemental S

Abstract Complex agroforestry systems, as tree based systems with a complex structure similar to natural forests and high species diversity are widespread in Indonesia. Most of them are smallholders mixed tree plantations. They play a substantial role in livelihoods of rural households in supplying cash incomes and subsistence products. In this study, we investigate the characteristics of mixed tree gardens in the North of Seram Island, and their importance for the local community. We conducted participatory mapping and structured interviews in order to understand the articulation of mixed tree gardens with others land uses and identify the local farming practices. Twenty two gardens have been visited, 25 plots of 20m x 20m established covering 1ha of gardens in order to characterize their structure and floristic composition. Finally, free listing exercises and structured interviews have been conducted to identify useful plant species. Five types of gardens characterized by a forest like structure and a appreciable amount of wild tree species were identified, 227 useful species and 23 different uses of plants inventoried. The promotion of this agroforestry system as a buffer zone limiting further access to the neighboring Manusela National Park may be a solution to the current conflict between local communities and the Park authorities. Keywords: Buffer zone, Cash incomes, Livelihoods, Mixed tree gardens, Seram, Subsistence. Rsum Les systmes agroforestiers complexes, caractriss par l association multi-tage de plusieurs espces arbores formant un ensemble ressemblant une fort naturelle sont communs en Indonsie. La plupart sont de petites plantations paysannes qui occupent une place essentielle dans l conomie rurale en fournissant la fois des revenus montaires et de nombreux produits destins l autoconsommation. Ce travail a consist caractriser des jardins agroforestiers au Nord de l le de Seram et d valuer leur importance pour les populations locales. Des entretiens semistructurs coupls un exercice de cartographie participative ont t mens afin de comprendre la place occupe par ces jardins au sein du territoire villageois et d identifier les pratiques agricoles locales. Afin de caractriser leur structure et la composition floristique, 25 plots de 20m x 20m couvrant au total 1ha de jardins ont t chantillonns. Enfin, entretiens semi structurs et free listing ont permis d identifier les arbres et autres plantes utiles. La prsente tude a permis d identifier 5 types de jardins ayant une structure complexe et un nombre non ngligeable d arbres spontans, 227 espces utiles et 23 catgories d usage. Ainsi dans le contexte actuel de conflit entre les autorits du Parc National de Manusela et les communauts locales aux abords du parc, la promotion de ces systmes agroforestiers en tant que zone tampon pourraient tre une solution. Mots cls : Autosubsistance, Economie rurale, Jardins agroforestiers, Seram, Zone tampon