[Hyper]polyglotism: Legend, Myth, or Reality? Seminar Paper for: Bilingualism Ao.Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr.phil.

Annemarie Peltzer-Karpf Ferguson, Daniel Scott (1212278) Handed in on 03/03/13 WS 12/13

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Background 2.1. The [Hyper]polyglot 2.2. The Neural Tribe Theory 2.3. The Geschwind-Galabura Hypothesis

3 3 6 8

3. [Hyper]polyglotism Decrypted 3.1. Ideology 3.2. Polyglottery 3.3. The [Hyper]polyglot Project

10 10 13 15

4. Approaching the Analysis 4.1. Cognitivist Language Acquisition Theories

17 17

5. The Analysis

21

6. Conclusions

24

7. Bibliography

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1. Introduction: After the great flood, man regrouped, migrated towards the east, settled in a plain in the land of Shinar, and formed a society of man. Together, they created tools, bricks, and ultimately built an entire city. One day, however, the people decided to create a tower within their city that would stretch all the way to the heavens. Then, the Lord came down and saw the city and the tower built by his children and said, Behold, they are one people, and they have all one language. This is only the beginning of what they will do. And nothing that they propose to do will now be impossible for them. So the Lord God Almighty confused mans language, thereby inhibiting all communication and stopping the construction of the tower. Then, God divided and dispersed man into the four corners of the world. The abandoned city is therefore called Babel and is said to be the place where the God confused all the languages of all earth, dispersing language families of men all around the world. However, were all men affected by Gods wrath or were there some who were able to escape the curse of Babel? Babel No More, written by Michael Erard, is an account of one of the most elusive creatures still in existence today: [hyper]polyglots. It is the first novel of its kind to examine [hyper]polyglotism from a scientific and scholarly perspective, attempting to demystify the secret society of super language learners. Erard sets out to prove his theory that neurological differences exist between ordinary and extraordinary language learners. However, is this really the case? Is language talent merely a gift divinely bestowed upon a select few, or do all humans come equipped with the neurological equipment required for extreme language learning? The purpose of this paper is to give an account of and examine how Michael Erards theories build a case for neurological difference existing between [hyper]polyglots and their counterparts. In particular, this work questions the notion of genetic predisposition as intrinsic in extreme language learning. Are all humans born to be made into super language learning machines? In order to do so, the paper will begin with a profile of [hyper]polyglots and present two major theories proposed by Erard, which together will form the theoretical background. The third section will focus on [hyper]polyglot ideology and methodology . The following section will discuss the approach to the analysis by presenting a cognitivist view of both learning and language acquisition, which will be used in the final analysis of Erards theories, followed by the conclusions.
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2. Theoretical Background 2.1. The [Hyper]polyglot This paper ascertains the notation of [hyper]polyglotism to denote a relationship between polyglots and hyperpolyglots. While both groups exhibit abilities considered to be atypical of mediocrity, the terms differ slightly in meaning. The definition chosen for the number of languages a polyglot aggregates is six to ten; hyperpolyglots are able to use eleven or more. This distinction is made to maintain a clear separation between multilingual and polylingual individuals while distinguishing those who belong to the [hyper] upper echelon of language learning. Furthermore, the term [hyper]polyglot is not to be confused with linguist. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, whereas [hyper]polyglotism is specifically concerned with the ability to speak, read, or write six or more languages. While there are people who are both a linguist and a [hyper]polyglot, non-polyglot linguists and non-linguist polyglots have been advocated as terms of distinction. Unless otherwise noted, the usage of [hyper]polyglot will be used extensively throughout this paper to represent both groups of devout language learners, respectively. Throughout history, [hyper]polyglots have notoriously befuddled, amazed, and even petrified those who had been lucky enough to encounter them. Witnesses tend to be very suspicious of their magical powers, yet bask in their presence with a sense of awe, envy, and fear. While seemingly commanding the respect of the gods, [hyper]polyglots are, in reality, ordinary people living within ordinary communities. Namely, there are no noticeable apparent features that set them apart from any other individual. Yet to some, their very existence lies outside of the realm of normality. According to Erard, [hyper]polyglots are out of time, out of place, and out of scale (Erard 2012: 169): This term fits hyperpolyglots perfectlythey do things with language that are out of scale with what normal people do with language. They dont usually live with other hyperpolyglots, so theyre also out of place. Some of them bear the distinct whiff of the past or are perfumed with the future. That takes them out of time. Perhaps this is due to the lack of research done on [hyper]polyglots that consequently causes an inherent skepticism when discussing [hyper]polyglotism. Who and what is a [hyper]polyglot? How do you define one? What is it that makes them so special? What super powers are they equipped with to navigate from language to language? How many

languages does one need to speak to be able to call oneself a [hyper]polyglot? These questions are at the core of the historical investigation of these language gods. The history of [hyper]polyglotism can be traced back to the 18th Century Bologna, Italy. Known as the father figure of the modern day [hyper]polyglot, Cardinal Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti was both a renowned [hyper]polyglot and linguist. Although disputed, most scholars agree that he was able to speak between 40 and 60 languages. According to Charles Russell (1858), the cardinals biographer, Mezzofanti wrote and read in 15 languages, using four different alphabets. Incredibly, he mastered 30 languages before he was 30 from eleven different linguistic families; five of which gave him the bulk of his acquisitions in the Romance, Slavic, Hellenic, and Semitic families (Erard 2012: 43) Similarly, Erard attests to Russells claims after going through Mezzofantis archives at the Archiginnasio public library in Bologna. Erard reports 56 languages listed in the inventory (Erard 2012: 29). Nonetheless, what is agreed on by both scholars and critics alike is his mastery of 30 languages. While there are other notable [hyper]polyglots who appear throughout history, Giuseppe Mezzofanti is the first who provided a glimpse into a world in which babel was comprehensible. Whenever asked about his language talent, Giuseppe Mezzofanti claimed his gift was God sent. Highly active with the Catholic Church, Mezzofantis description of his virtuosity is not coincidental and would, in turn, substantiate myths shrouding his mysterious, celestial gift. What is even more astonishing is that the cardinal learned these languages without ever leaving Italy. Russell writes that Mezzofantis would actively search for travelers in Bologna, ask questions and make notes about their respective languages, and take pronunciation lessons from them (Russell 1858). Surely there would have to be more to the story than that. How was he able to learn so many languages so quickly? Erard clarifies Mezzofantis language as such (Erard 2012: 12): He had an ability to learn a new language in a remarkably short time, using neither dictionaries nor grammars. Even without a shared language to help him translate, Mezzofanti would ask a speaker to repeat the Lord's prayer until he grasped the language's sounds and rhythms. Then he would break it into the parts of speech: nouns adjectives, verbs. Honed by thousands of hours of practice, his ability to extract a picture of the language from a small slice of it was unusually keen. Erards interpretation of a [hyper]polyglots high language aptitude as unusually keen is what corroborates his argument for neurological differences. Not to mention, Mezzofanti
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just so happened to be the son of a carpenter man (Erard 2012: 32). Perhaps his capability for language was actually a gift from heaven above. However, even the abnormally talented son of a carpenter man had to put in thousands of hours of study; all of which is depicted by his biographers and verified by his extensive vocabulary lists, journal entries, detailed grammar descriptions of languages studied etc.his secret locked away in archives as if it would somehow ruin the illusion. Although Mezzofanti appears to be an anomaly, could it merely be a faade? Nevertheless, there would have to be others who would demonstrate the same or similar characteristics to Mezzofanti in todays society. For Erard, the challenged proved to be where to begin searching. British linguist, Dick Hudson,reports thatcommunity-based multilingualism, where people, not just special individuals, speak many languages, has a ceiling of five languages (Erard 2012: 68). Therefore, Hudson claimed that people who learned more than five languages would have to be outside the realm of normalcy. But is five the magic number? Does language truly have an economic limit? Using game theory, political scientist, Josep Colomer (1996),recorded his calculation of the optimal number of languages a person would have to speak in order to successfully communicate with some random person in the community who may speak a different language. In his definition, Colomer describes a successful interaction as one in which that you know the language of the person you meet (Colomer 1996).He predicts that in a society that has ten languages monolinguals and bilinguals will have many failed interactions; however trilinguals will have the most success. The optimal number in a society that has ten languages is three, which will account for 89% of successful interaction (Erard 2012: 207). Colomer (1996) theorizes three languages as optimal becausethe utility of learning a third language is much higher for a bilingual person in this ten-language society than the utility for a trilingual learning a fourth. However, what is the utility of language learning for [hyper]polyglots? Do the benefits of learning additional languages outweigh the costs thereof? The investment in extreme language learning appears to constitute a will to communicate successfully 100% of the time. The absence of an economic languageprocessorcould possiblyaccount for a [hyper]polyglotal characteristic in as much as it does seem that six or more languages is anomalous.

Correspondingly, part of the difficulty in creating a [hyper]polyglot profile is that there is no tangible place where one is able to locate and collectively study their abilities. Unlike multilingual communities, there are not any real-world [hyper]polyglotal societies in existence. Hyperpolyglots are people who have the multicompetence to belong to a real or imagined global community (Erard 2012: 210) Honing in on the idea of an imagined global community, Erard stumbled upon the polyglot promise land. How-to-learn-anylanguage.com (HTLAL) is a commercial website designed for all foreign language enthusiasts. It serves as the portal that connects the online bilingual, multilingual, and [hyper]polyglot community together (Micheloud 2009). The forum facilitates the discussion of languages, the sharing of language learning experiences, and most importantly provides a place for language talents to meet and stay in touch with each other. HTLAL, amongst other social media websites, provide a hub that connects [hyper]polyglots with one another all over the world. The discovery of these online polyglot communities has shed light on who they are, what they are able to do with languages, and how they learn them. Nevertheless, the factors that create [hyper]polyglots can be widely unpredictable. What is clear, however, is that there is no one defining feature that encompasses [hyper]polyglots as a whole in regards to language usage or preferences. They are regular people who blend into normal society; they have average intelligence quotients and are not any more reclusive than the average person within a social setting (Erard 2012: 216). As second language learners they are not concerned with mastering or sounding like a native in all of their languages, which a common misperception of what it means to be [hyper]polyglot. Stress is placed on the usage of language learning for communicative purposes and gaining the ability to flow between language, culture, and identity. A self-proclaimed monolingual with benefits, Michael Erard tussles with conceptualizing how [hyper]polyglots acquire and categorize a myriad of languages and identities. However, he finds that an avid language learner oftentimes tends to be autodidactic. Although the utilization of classroom instruction is also feasible, it is supplemental at best. The ardent language learner will employ a wide array of methodology in his or her study of languages. Moreover, each language acquired fulfills different functions. For example, [hyper]polyglots do not have to be able speak in all of their

languages. Or it may be the case that the latter languages collected are strictly for reading and writing purposes. The number of languages a [hyper]polyglot knows can be quite large, but the majority of languages need to be warmed up or reactivated. These languages are called surge languages as opposed to the active languages. Sometimes languages that they learn and no longer use are still counted within the languages they say they know. While the collection of languages learned is likely to be very large, the amount of languages, which remain active and easily accessible, that a [hyper]polyglot speaks fluently range from five to nine (Erard 2012: 216). [Hyper]polyglots use tricks to assist them in learning more languages. In essence, these strategies make the cognitive load easier to handle. Therefore, language aptitude is kept at different levels as well as their competenciesreading and writing in a few languages, developing receptive knowledge in others, and learning languages that share vocabulary and similar grammatical structures. It is Michael Erards mission to solve the mystery obscuring the [hyper]polyglot. During his quest, he stumbles upon some of the most incredible language learners existing both in the past and present. Attempting to explain the phenomenon surrounding [hyper]polyglots language aptitude, his research led him to two distinct theories. In order to account for their extraordinary language capabilities, he argues on the grounds of biological and neurological difference amongst talented language learners and the regular human being. The following section will present an overview of his arguments made in his book.

2.2. Neural Tribe Theory The problematic in existence centers on how talent is conceptualized. Loraine Obler (The Exceptional Brain) states that talent is not strictly rooted in genes; rather it is the fusion of genetics and an activity in which the interpretation of talented would be decided by culture. (Erard 2012: 213) For example, proficiency in skiing would not exist before a time in which skiing would be considered part of the culture even though skiing qualities surely existed before skiing became a sport. Similarly, the environment in which one finds himself would also play a role in how a talent could flourish. However, would the same notion of talent apply to gifted language learners as well? Erard posits that [hyper]polyglots must have a pre-existing set of special neurological
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hardware that is selected for in certain environments and exceptionally geared towards language learning, as stated below (Erard 2012: 213) The history of culture is, in a sense, the process of uncovering certain talents while burying otherstaking away the contexts that give certain abilities value. What if there were a neural tribea group of individuals who possess neural hardware thats exceptionally suited for a particular activity, who have a sense of mission about undertaking the activity, and who cultivate a personal identity as someone who does that activity? Their mental ability would predate our civilization and stand outside it, though it would manifest itself according to the social and cultural makeup of the time. Hyperpolyglots dont belong to a country; they work outside of institutions beyond even their own communities. Hyperpolyglots are a neural tribe. Could [hyper]polyglotism be seen as such an activity? According to this theory, members of the tribe would have exceptional cognitive abilities, a divine devotion to language learning, and a uniquely constructed identity as a linguistic outsider within their own communities. In essence, [hyper]polyglots can be seen as people who have the multicompetence to belong to a real or imagined global community (Erard 2012: 210). Additionally, the neural tribe would enable individuals to augment the amount of information able to be processed in the brain. Michael Erard coins the term will to plasticity, directly modeling Nietzsches famous phrase will to power, to describe a seemingly universal feature of the tribe. Nietzsche states that it is this very will to power that drives the natural world and its inhabitants away from static states of existence. In terms of neurology, Pascual-Leone(2005) states that plasticity is an intrinsic property of the human brain and represents evolutions invention to enable the nervous system to adapt to new environments. Substitute language for environment, and it is easy to see the advantage of a malleable brain for tribe members. Relating the two ideas, [hyper]polyglots will to increase their brain plasticity would be the driving force separating the common and extraordinary language learner. In essence, the neural tribe theory attempts to neurologically group together those with high language aptitude. If in existence, members of this tribe would be born with an innate talent for language learning and would pass this gene down through the generations. This genetic predisposition would then manifest itself given a culturally specific context, in which it could flourish. Moreover, members of this tribe would all exhibit a will to plasticity in language learning. The borderline obsessive desire to learn as many languages as possible is what drives them to succeed and separates the tribe from the ordinary. As a whole, each
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tribe member has the tools necessary to become a [hyper]polyglot; however, those outside of the tribe will never be able to do so. Similarly, the neural tribe would share other traits aside from a genetic ingenuity for languages. The subsequent section will deal with the discovery of the Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis and its implications for the neural tribe. 2.3. The Geschwind-Galabura Hypothesis Norman Geschwind and Albert Galabura (1987) carried out neurological experiments on fetal rats. The goal was to test whether there would be differences in the brain if the testosterone levels were increased at critical points in fetal development. The two observed that decreased brain development occurred in the rats left hemisphere if the dosage of testosterone given was increased at particular stages of growth. Although the neural connections in the left hemisphere had slowed in development, the case study showed those cells moved to the right hemisphere, acquiring more raw materials for building dense brain connections, as explained by Erard (2012: 165): Geschwind and Galabura suggested, that asymmetry could create clusters of talents and deficits. Their theory might explain why children with left-hemisphere-related disabilities (such as dyslexia or stuttering) tended to have higher-than normal abilities in right-hemisphere abilities, such as putting together puzzles. And it may explain why left-handedness (or ambidexterity), homosexuality, autoimmune disorders (such as asthma or allergies, learning disorders, and talents in music, art, and mathematics all seem to happen together, if not in the same individuals, then in families. The implication of this finding was that if human brains functioned in the same manner, then these neural clusters could be responsible for what are perceived as talents and deficits. Moreover, the hypothesis groups together co-occurrences of language and other traits such as gender, sexual orientation, and autism, and hypothesizes that language will be represented in both hemispheres of the brain in talented language learners (Erard 2012: 173). Consequently, Erard (2012) constructed a survey which sought to gather more information about [hyper]polyglots around the world and test the implications of the Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis. Could there be a defining neurological connection amongst language talents that would feed into his neutral tribe theory? The design of the survey anonymously collected information about those who considered themselves to be [hyper] polyglots. Specifically, the questions elicited responses regarding polyglot beliefs about language learning, behavioral traits, and facts about their experiences as language learners,
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and a list of their other cognitive preferences. The survey ran from 2009 to 2010; after which, the results would be analyzed by an academic statistician, as listed below (Erard 2012: 168): People who reported knowing 6+ languages and who said that learning foreign languages was easier for them were more likely to report homosexual behaviors, preferences, and/or orientations than would be predicted. The same group also was more likely either to have immune diseases themselves or to have family members who did. BUT other traits such as handedness and twinning had no meaningful relationship with either number of languages or ease of learning. Attempting to discover any characteristics that would group the neural tribe together, the only significant findings amongst language talents were homosexual tendencies and a high chance of autoimmune diseases within the family tree. Erard further explains that these results are in no way suggesting that all homosexuals are [hyper]polyglots, but rather it just so happens that there are more gays and people with autoimmune diseases that make up the talented language tribe. Paradoxically, perhaps there is more to this discovery of language talent, testosterone, and sexual orientation. On the one hand, Erards appears to be on the cusp of proving his neurological argument; the Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis provides good reason for investigation into a neural tribe theory. Even so, the Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis ultimately fails in its attempt to draw a convincing connection between language and neurology. On the other hand, Erards investigation has inadvertently uncovered the first ever link between language and a homosexual gene. Moreover, the many questions posed by this finding are the equivalent of an entire careers worth of research. Can this really be the atypical neurology that separates the gifted from the mediocre language learners? The answers might indeed have its origins in this hypothesis; however, only time and research will reveal if the interaction of homosexuality and autoimmune diseases would epitomize a neural tribe identity for offbeat language gurus. 3. [Hyper]polyglotism Decrypted 3.1. Ideology [Hyper]polyglot ideology at its core embodies a principle of fluidity. Those who follow its codes will be well on the road to victory. The journey ahead requires its travelers to

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be steadfast, diligent, and adaptable. Michael Erard elaborates on the transitive nature of [hyper]polyglots(Erard 2012: 56). You don't want to get lost in a community where the language is spoken because knowing a language isn't about blending it, it's about moving through communities, and indeed moving from one community to another with no obligation to stay. Flowing through languages, flowing through the world. It is precisely this flow that is integral to the linguistic, ideological principles that guide the [hyper]polyglots language learning journey. There have been many famous [hyper]polyglots who have written essays, articles, and even novels on the art foreign language learning. These works have served as manifestos for the aspiring [hyper]polyglot and continue to inspire all foreign language enthusiasts. Every word written illustrates the amount of rigorous, systematic study required to achieve a multilingual, hybrid subjectivity, a concept coined by Austrian artist, Rainer Ganahl, in his article entitled Traveling Linguistics. Ganahls work observes language learning within the context of art and its effect on the human psyche. He contends that the touristic quality of language learning leads to psychoanalytical and identity-shaping effects aside from humanistic influences for multilinguals as they incessantly move away from their mother tongue (Ganahl: 4). If such consequences are foreseen of multilinguals, what sort of repercussions would become a reality for the [hyper]polyglotal, hybrid subjectivity? The written works of [hyper]polyglots serve to provide glimpse into the multi-faceted mindset of what creates such language talents. The dogma endorsed in each piece of literature advocates the adoption and internalization of a highly autodidactic, disciplined, and motivated philosophy. This reoccurring theme is the ideological canvass that sets the stage for intensive language study. A prominent leitmotif in [hyper]polyglotism is that you dont need to be surrounded by the language or live in the country to learn a language. Even in the 18th century, Giuseppe Mezzofanti successfully mastered 30 languages without ever leaving Italy (Russell 1858). The same has been found to be definitely possible for [hyper]polyglots living in the 21st century, where globalization provides easy access to sufficient language materials, social media, telecommunications, and cheap travel. As a result, there is a large tendency for [hyper]polyglots to be autodidacts. As seen below, an excerpt from the female, Hungarian

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[hyper]polyglot Kat Lomb illustrates her method of learning languages whilst never leaving Hungary (Kat Lomb: 50): There are language learners whose lack of motivation or pressing schedule restricts their progress. My book is not for them. I have no doubt that they will be educated by our professionaland competentteachers. By transmit- ting my humble experience, I would like to increase the joy of learning and reduce its difficulties for those who are not satisfied by the pace of teachers. In her book, she describes her experience as female [hyper]polyglot and her approach to learning multiple languages. As a woman, Lomb is actually a rarity. In comparison to men, there are very few women who are [hyper]polyglots. As such, her talent precedes her as well as notoriety for her unique perspective on language learning which is simultaneously delicate, tenacious and meticulous in nature. Kat Lomb also supplies her readers with language hacking tips designed to lighten the cognitive load learning many languages carries. She emphasizes that language learning are for those that are motivated and have the time to dedicate themselves to studying a language, a theme which can also be found in Ganahl (1995). Ganahls belief that language learning is a privileged activity for those free of time restraints in echoed in her work; however, Kat encourages her readers to always make time by filling in mundane activities in life with language learning. In doing so, one need not be privileged in order to enjoy the benefits of learning a foreign language. Above all, her book sutures a belief ingrained in [hyper]polyglotism regarding speed and efficacy of traditional teaching: the necessity of self-study. The teach yourself approach to languages demands that learners not only are disciplined, but also have the right attitude in language learning. While dedication does indeed play an essential role in [hyper]polyglot ideology, a deeply rooted belief in the capability for learning the language is of equal importance. [Hyper]polyglots believe without a doubt that they will succeed in learning any language they put their mind to, as noted in the excerpt from the hyperpolyglot project written by Steve Kaufmann (Cartaginese 2010: 180): Attitude: you not only have to like the language, and at least some aspect of the culture of the language, you have to believe you can learn it. You also have to be willing to leave behind your own culture, and unquestioningly project yourself into the role of a speaker of another language, and therefore a person carrying many of the behavioral traits of that culture.
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[Hyper]polyglots dont have any qualms about the difficulty of language learning. In terms of difficulty, languages are all difficult in differ respects. It all depends on how one would tackle the challenge. The bottom-line, they know without a doubt that they will succeed no matter how long it takes. They accept the fact that the new language will be unclear for a long time before gradually making sense. They put in thousands and thousands of hours of listening, reading, writing, and speaking. However, the most important factor is that they believe in their heart of hearts that they will truly learn another language by sticking to a variety of regimented and motivation-promoting method(s), adopting another culture in return for theirs, and assuming an identity as speaker of another language and culture. At heart, super language learners code breaks down into attitude, work ethic, and adaptability. Success can always be achieved no matter the environment. Systematic work will always yield positive results, if not, change the approach. With each new language comes a new set of ideas, concepts, and cultural identities to be internalized; all of which will construct an identity as a language learner. Furthermore, these guidelines are not specifically for those who are gifted at language, rather they are explicitly outlined for those who choose to begin the lifetime journey of a [hyper]polyglot, or in Erards words, the will to plasticity. 3.2. Polyglottery Professor Alexander Arguelles is a firm believer that all human beings are able to train and become [hyper] polyglots. Within the online polyglot community he is known as The Professor and seeks to counsel interested parties on autodidactic language studies that lead to [hyper]polyglotism. Both an American scholar of foreign languages and polyglottery he desires to create a polyglot language academy where students will be trained in the study of Polyglottery (Arguelles 2006). Polyglottery is a scholarly discipline. It embodies a quest to develop an encyclopedic mind and to philosophically understand the nature of your own consciousness through the passionate, in-depth, and respectful study of as many different languages as possible, focusing both upon their diachronic evolution as actual entities and upon the intellectual heritage they have left in the form of great texts. As an academic discipline, Polyglottery is the direct descendent and heir of Comparative Philology. However, whereas Comparative Philology had a tendency to focus inwards upon the origins of the Indo-European family in a nationalistic sense, Polyglottery faces outwards towards expanding the individual scholars horizons by
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imparting the ability to read classic texts of Great Books in the tongues of other civilizations. The rhetoric of a scholarly discipline such as polyglottery implies that any person can be taught how to study any multitude of languages. Beyond the scope of language learning, polyglottery explores the nature of human consciousness by experimenting with the upper limit of language acquisition. In other words, pious language learners would discover the art of human cognition in its application to language learning. In regards to academia, the focus of learning so many languages would be to read all of the great texts in literature in their original languages. Essentially, there must be some method(s) to the seemingly inherent madness of tackling such a wide array of languages. Does the professor hold the key to sifting through the babel, and if so how? The professor serves as a role model for inspiring [hyper]polyglots, [hyper]polyglots, and language lovers alike. Like most [hyper]polyglots, he shares the belief that the ability to learn multiple languages is an innate human ability. As the professor, he seeks to support those who desire to tread the path of the polyglot, as stated below (Arguelles 2006): I would like to encourage and counsel those who wish to tread the path of the polyglot that if you can conceive of learning a large number of languages or language families as a lifetime's intellectual engagement and you are willing to work long, hard, and intelligently enough at doing so, you can succeed. The path of a [hyper]polyglot is a journey through time. Learning such a large number of languages requires taking active control of the learning process. Moreover, [hyper]polyglots put in the work required of language learning. In turn, the only shortcuts in language learning are created by the effort required to internalize previous languages. The professor explains that the secret behind the successful study of Polyglottery is quite simple: drive, discipline, countless hours of systematic hard work, sustained interest and motivation, access to good materials and intelligent methods and procedures for using them (Arguelles 2006). There are no smoke and mirrors to mask tenacity. No one becomes a [hyper]polyglot overnight. Sustained, intensive work is the recipe for success. A [hyper]polyglots daily linguistic routine is their secret weapon employed to conquer the kingdoms of language. In other words, these routines are what separate the amateurs from the professionals. In a video interview with Michael Erard, Alexander Arguelles (2009) explains his ostensibly ritualistic study habits. He begins at three in the
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morning and works until about seven. During this time, he records the various language activities he does and how long each one takes. What is fascinating is that he does not just stick to one activity. Most activities last about 15 minutes can vary according to individual preference. Nevertheless, Arguelles confirms that a systematic regularity of language study is a commonality recognized by all those who want to become [hyper]polyglots and has been proven by the community to be the most effective. A daily language learning regiment further illustrates the professional approach to the craft. Above all, this sort of linguistic workout not only keeps a [hyper]polyglots body, soul, and mind fit and ready for action, but also lays the foundation for how [hyper]polyglots learn languages.

3.3. The [Hyper]polyglot Project The polyglot project outlines a broad view of methodology used within the [hyper] polyglot community. The concept was created by Claude Cartaginese, an autodidactic lover of foreign languages. Active within the online polyglot community, he wanted to create a manual for those interested in becoming [hyper]polyglots written by both inspiring and actual [hyper]polyglots. Within the 21st century, the perfect location for the exchange of ideas is the internet. Claude states in the preface that YouTube is what made him aware of others like himself, studying foreign languages for their own sake. Therefore, he decided to ask his YouTube polyglots, [hyper]polyglots, linguists, language learners, and language lovers to help in his endeavor to create teach-yourself-manual for all interested in [hyper]polyglotism. The project itself is a compilation of short pieces and anecdotes, all of which offer foreign language learning advice, tips, and learning strategies. Each article presented speaks to the challenges of learning multiple languages and how to overcome them. A contribution from Christopher Sarda discusses the struggles finding what works best for him in language learning (Cartaginese 2010: 160): I had to decide what worked best for me. These are things that I do know. I know that I will always be studying a language. I know that I will find a method, or more precisely a combination of methods, that work best for me. I know what ideas will encompass that method. They are: motivation and discipline; massive input; not allowing yourself, for any reason, not to use the language when you can (especially concerning speaking).

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The entire project shows that there is no set way to learn a language. The book offers scores of various methods and approached used by the language gurus themselves. Particularly, the use of a minimum of four to six methods is reiterated in each piece as absolutely necessary for any serious language study. Moreover, motivation and discipline also appeared to be key; no matter which method is used. Steve Kaufman proclaims, In language learning, it is attitude, not aptitude that determines success (Cartaginese 2010: 310). All the methods in the world will not help lead to mastery of a language if the correct attitude towards learning language is non-existent. Psychologically, the [hyper]polyglot must be prepared for his or her journey. Three major mental foundations for success in language learning by John Fotheringham are listed as follows: interest, motivation, goal orientation (Cartaginese 2010: 311). Interest in context is an absolute must; the more interesting a person finds the context, the more time will be dedicated to the language. As for motivation, the materials chosen will affect a learners motivation level. Although multifaceted, motivation is fueled by interest, enjoyment, and perceivable progress (Cartaginese 2010: 311). Regarding patience and discipline, a [hyper]polyglot must be artful in setting appropriate goals. Fotheringham argues that it is not necessary to set serious pragmatic goals, rather what is important is to have a general idea of a final destination that can be tracked. He proposes that language goals are SMART; Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, and Timely (Cartaginese 2010: 311). For example, speaking a language perfectly within a year is not a smart goal. That is, the concept of perfect is too broad, hard to measure, possible but very unlikely, especially within a year. Instead, he suggests setting smaller, manageable goes that can definitely be achieved, i.e. finishing a Chinese comic book in a week. (Cartaginese 2010: 311). Over time, the progress made in language learning will be visible and, in return, contribute to the learners interest, motivation, and above all attitude to learning the language. A true [hyper]polyglot is able to create SMART goals to make learning highly effective and provide sustained incentives of language learning. Every [hyper]polyglot has experimented with various methods and found the best ones that suit them. The message of the polyglot project is clear. To all those interested in training to become [hyper]polyglots, there is not magic concoction. The best method is:
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every method or combinations thereof (Cartaginese 2010: 154). Content is king; choosing the right language material is half the battle. Every language learner must find the best method(s) that are suited to his or her learning style. Fiddle with the target language every day; fill in the dead space. Set constructive language learning goals and you will succeed. And above all, if the right methods, attitudes, and materials are adopted, the [hyper]polyglot community believes these make the ingredients that make a language super learner. 4. Approaching the Analysis In approaching the analysis of the theories put forth by Michael Erard, a cognitivist view of language acquisition is addressed. This section will focus on David Newbys theories of cognitive and communicative views of learning and language acquisition. How much of [hyper]polyglots talent only belongs to a select group of people? What is it that they do with language that makes it neurologically exclusive? Could cognition play a role in how someone acquires L2+ languages? And if so, how would this relate to all human beings?

4.1. Cognitivist Language Acquisition Theories Cognitive linguistics is a relatively new field within linguistics that interprets language in terms of concepts. At its core, cognitivists reject the Chomskyan view of universal grammar, understand grammar as a conceptualization of forms, and believe language knowledge comes from language use. Cognitivists believe that a common set of cognitive processes exist to assist in the storage and usage of language and language learning. Language learning is concept learning; learning is semantically driven and goal directed (Newby 2011: 12) In other words, most of the cognitive processes used to learn a language would be shared with the cognitive processes of learning any other skill. David Newby argues that a cognitive and communicative view of learning (C+C) involves four categories of cognitive processing: learning processes, processing preferences (styles, learning strategies, and commitment (Newby, forthcoming). Although separate, these categories are interrelated with one another. Cognitive operations (CogOps) within the brain are how all humans perceive the world around them. Largely unconscious mechanisms in the brain, this learning process control how information is perceived. These perception and conceptual processes become

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active when language is used. More specifically, these cognitive operations can be divided in Language and Learning CogOps(Newby 2011: 15): Processing for language and learning (Language-CogOps) engagement, relevance, economy, salience, novelty, focusing, shaping, analogy, generalising, inferencing, categorising, mapping Additional processing for learning (Learning-CogOps) reflecting, hypothesising, heuristic testing, monitoring, transferring L1 knowledge, apply L2 metalanguage/rules According to Newby, he states that these learning processes happen in general human learning; thus, it would follow that they would also have to occur in language learning as well. He notes, however, that whereas these processes are present in all humans, some may be lying dormant and require activation. The appropriate form of activation would depend on the methodology used to facilitate language learning. It happens not infrequently that learning processes are stifled in pedagogical settings (Newby 2011: 15). Further, cognitive operations are trifold; they must recognize the new information that is to be learned, conceptualize and convert it into previously existing structures, and store it in the brain where it can be accessed easily. This occurs within three stages: registration, storage/consolidation, and retrieval (Newby 2011: 16). That is, short-term, longterm, and working memory are governed by how efficiently cognitive operations are activatedlong-term and working memory being the most important to foreign language learning. Newby stresses that remembering is in no way a passive process. Instead, he states that it involves active, constructive process that is meaning dominated and links new information to existing knowledge structures. Together these processes facilitate the process of memory. In addition to memory, there are certain cognitive learning styles that affect how well information is processes. According to Skehan (1998: 237), a learning style is the characteristic manner in which an individual chooses to approach a learning task. Every person has a specific style of learning that best allows him or her to learn. These can be general processing preferences or multiple-intelligences. Brown lists the general processing preferences as analytic, holistic, field dependent, independent, reflective, impulsive, convergent, divergent, serial, whereas co-occurrences of multiple-intelligences are logical18

mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical-rhythmic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. (200:113) Depending on the person, he or she will have a preference as to how he or she learns. If the learner, and teacher for that matter, can construct methodology around, learning will be the most effective. Learning strategies can be adopted by students or teachers alike to foster learning. These can be behavior patterns, routines, and actions tailored to a learners specific style of learning, ultimately assisting cognitive operations to store long-term information. Newby defines learning strategies in the following broad categories: global strategies, strategies for managing learning, specific learning tasks, ongoing strategies, and communication strategies. Global strategies can be seen as writing to a pen pal, reading novels, or watching films in foreign languages. Strategies for managing learning involve keeping a vocabulary book or lists of errors, self-assessment, or questionnaires. Specific learning tasks can be learning vocabulary by memorizing lists or putting words into semantic fields or relating them to images or symbols or using flash cards. Ongoing strategies would be asking for clarification or looking up words in dictionaries. Lastly, communication strategies would be risk taking, error avoidance, paraphrasing, translating from the native language into the second etc. Above all, Newby states that the learner should realize which learning strategy he or she benefits from the most, especially in language learning. Once a suitable method(s) has been chosen, efficient learning will take place and will feed into ones motivation to continue. It has been argued that the most important factor in learning a language is a learners motivation. Newby models this ideal in the brain as the commitment filter, which reflects the learners own standpoint to learning and which will influence the quality of learning within the learning triad (Newby 2011: 20). Based off of Steven Krashens affective filter, commitment can be broken into motivation, alienation/identification, autonomy, affective needs, and cognitive needs. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors exist within the realms of motivation, all of which result in the learners will to learn a foreign language. Likewise, how a learner responds to the pedagogical methods employed will determine how well a person will identify or feel alienated from the material. Autonomy is the key ingredient for successful language learning, as it illustrates the degree to which a learner will take full responsibility for their own learning. Autonomous learners will be able to reflect on their own learning processes and make the correct learning19

related choices the further their learning. Affective needs which feed into motivation are positive reinforcements that boost a learners confidence in language learning. Lastly, the competence of being able to speak another language should satisfy the same cognitive needs in the first language such as problem solving, the discovery of knowledge, and the processing of new information. The commitment filter is of upmost importance to language learning (Newby 2011: 20): The commitment filter will decide whether learners engage with a learning activity, situation etc. By engagement, I mean the willing commitment and need-driven release of mental energy to perform a task or to attempt to make sense of a new situation or concept. It may be conscious or unconscious, and may be the result of planned or incidental factors. It can facilitate or block aspects of learning. If all of these conditions are met, a learner will be fully engaged with a learning activity or situation. More importantly, the lack of a learners engagement will lead to fruitless attempts of [language] learning. Similar the idea of expanding brain plasticity is alluded to. If a person is truly committed to an activity, the brain will release mental energy need. If this function could be manipulated consciously, a will to plasticity could increase learning efficiency, and in turn, facilitate to the ability to learn multiple languages. It is this type of quality of processing that will determine how well a person is able to learn [language]. Ultimate what comes into play when a person learns is how cognition and working memory work together when carrying out a pedagogical task. Newby distinguishes between rote and meaningful learning inasmuch that rote learning is separate from storing items in according to existing cognitive structures. Therefore, a deeper level of processing is needed to promote long term memory storage, in which material being rehearsed is related to other material already stored in memory. Newby outlines eight factors which support and optimize learning processes, as listed below (Newby 2011: 21): 1. Engagement. Learners must attend to input and engagement must be maximized in activities. 2. Meaning-driven processing. Learners memories will be enhanced if language meaning, and the learners own interpretation of meaning, is at the heart of pedagogical activities. 3. Associations. Learners should be encouraged to associate new items with their existing schematic and language knowledge. 4. Depth of processing. Learners should be given tasks which require intense, focused and qualitative processing. 5. Repetition. Learners need multiple contacts with new language.

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6. Multi-modal processing. Learners should process language through a variety of senses and processing modes, including affective. 7. Social learning: Learners must be given opportunities to learn from each other. 8. Cognitive and affective needs: Learners will commit themselves to activities more strongly and process information more deeply if cognitive needs (to solve problems, satisfy their curiosity etc.) and affective needs (reduction of negative stress, fun, self-actualization etc.) are fulfilled. In essence, those who are deemed super learners have optimized their learning processes. First, they are able to fully engage with whatever learning activity is being done. Second, learning is internalized in meaningful forms. Third, all new information is connected to previous knowledge structures and scenarios stored in the mind. Fourth, the study process itself is customized to each specific learners style and uses various methodologies designed to stimulate both cognitive operations and working memory. Fifth, all information learned in reinforced in order to create a strong neurological connections for the storage and quick retrieval of long-term information. Sixth, they take a multiple approaches to processing language. Seventh, input learned is then shared with others, and in return, the output received from others can then be internalized, thereby causing a learner to reflect and solidifying or change connections made. Finally, if a learner is able to fully commit to learning activities, information learned will have the highest likelihood of becoming a part of long-term memory. 5. The Analysis This main question this work set out to answer is whether [hyper]polyglots have a neurological predisposition that makes them superior language learners. In order to do so, an account of [hyper]polyglot history, ideology, and methodology has been taken into account. Additionally, both the neural tribe theory and Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis have been considered under the scope of cognitivist theories of language acquisition and learning. In reality, it is apparent that there is no difference of neurology. Every human is born to be made into a [hyper]polyglot. Since the dawn of the allegedly first [hyper]polyglot, [hyper]polyglots have been doing what applied linguistic cognitive theory is just now only able to explain. Clouded by the Chomskyan view of language acquisition, the focus remained on a person simply acquiring a large number of languages in the same fashion as his or her native language centered on grammatical forms and structures. Alas, this is not the case at all. First, [hyper]polyglots learn languages by comparing and contrasting differences between foreign
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languages or the foreign language and the native language. Second, while grammatical forms and structures are important to know, grammar is a conceptualization of meaning. That is, the way in which humans perceive and categorize the world around them is a reflection of grammar.Although never taken into consideration by nativists, cognition proves to be key in dispelling myths about first and second language learning and acquisition, particularly in understanding the nature of [hyper]polyglots. [Hyper]polyglots have mastered the art of learning and use that knowledge to consciously and systematically acquire foreign languages. Now more than ever in the 21st century it is easy to find proper language material, this [imagined] global community, and the tips/tricks/motivation needed to become a polyglot. People simply think that if a person speaks 11 or more languages that they learned them instantaneously. There is a lack of consideration when it comes to the time, effort, and dedication put in, particularly on how a person learns. Moreover, the idea that talented language learns actually apply the same techniques used in general learning to learning language is simple, yet revolutionary. It is not how many languages a [hyper]polyglot is able to speak, but how he or she learned how to do so. In accordance with cognitivist theory, this work also finds suitable cause for the rejection of Chomskyan language acquisition and learning theories. Second language acquisition does not occur in the same manner as first language acquisition. [Hyper]polyglots negate the argument for a little black box solely responsible for language learning both in L1 and L2. Universal grammar fails to take into account the acquisition of cognition, schematic constructs, and speech acts learned in L1 that are then used when processing L2. It is therefore logical for second+ language learners to employ the same set of cognitive operations used in any other type of learning. While the acquisition process is largely unconscious, there are areas of language learning that can be accelerated. Language is learned through usage. If language learning is undeniably semantically driven and goal directed, then it follows that there is strong emphasis is placed on the usage of intelligent methodology, learning strategies, and the aforementioned SMART goals within the [hyper]polyglot community. This idea of a [hyper]polyglot overnight success is an illusion. The amount of work that goes into language learning has a tendency to be oversimplified. A person is simply born
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gifted or talented. In actuality, this turns out to be incredibly incorrect. What is more, this phenomenon not only occurs in language learning, but also manifests itself in other fields. Research has proven what makes people the top performers in music, math, science, medicine, and so forth. In his book Outliers, Malcolm Gladwellreveals decades of data affirming 10,000 hours of hard work is the secret behind success (Cartaginese 2010: 132). He states that these 10,000 hours typically happen from infancy onwards. As this paper has depicted, those who have become a part of the upper echelon [hyper]polyglot league have put in the time and effort and found pleasure in doing so. Therefore, 20 years of sustained, disciplined work would naturally yield results. The downplaying of a [hyper]polyglots journey is borderline offensive as it devalues a truly cultivated skill. However, the differences amongst the gifted and inept would admittedly lie in an individuals learning processes. The speed of language learning depends on how efficiently new information and language is stored, consolidated, and retrieved from the brain. Of course, full immersion into a language and culture will speed up the results of language learning. Those who have the time to dedicate to the craft will surely progress faster to those who do not. Nonetheless, those who work slowly but surely will also make progress. In actuality, the time required to learn a language is irrelevant to the [hyper]polyglot. The point is essentially the harder and longer a person consistently works over a period of time will ultimately determine the level of success. A daily linguistic workout routine will ensure the digestion of language and, in turn, facilitate both the exploitation and consolidation of neurological connections. The analysis of [hyper]polyglot history, ideology, and methodology reveals that the [hyper]polyglot use the same cognitive mechanisms with which all humans are equipped. Extraordinary language learns are able to consciously manipulate their learning processes. In doing so, they implement learning strategies based on their individual learning styles, which speed up the learning process, while utilizing efficient learning techniques and exploiting cognitive operations that promote long-term memory storage. The [hyper]polyglot is, in essence, the master of his or her own cognition.

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6. Conclusions Although not entirely the focus the research topic, the Geschwind-Galabura hypothesis holds some weight. Admittedly flawed, more technology is needed to discover if brain asymmetry could create clusters of talents and deficits, and in doing so link those to other traits such as autoimmune disorders, learning disorders, autism, handedness, sexual orientation, and poor visuo-spatial recognition. The link between language talent and sexual orientation is of particular interest, seeing as it is the first connection ever to hint at a potential homosexual gene. A further examination of language present in both hemispheres of the brain could be not only be key in understanding the nature versus nurture debate but also provide insight into why [hyper]polyglots and autists are predominately comprised of men. All in all, there is a lifetime of research to be done to either strengthen or weaken the hypothesis. If successful, the implications thereof would be groundbreaking. In researching this topic, there are many new and exciting future areas of research that can be done. Michael Erard does a fantastic job pioneering the first academic search to understand one of the worlds greatest enigmas. It is because of his work that this paper can even suggest what needs to be improved upon. First, a [hyper]polyglot-specific proficiency scale is lacking. There is no way to truly determine a [hyper]polyglots skill. A scale, for example, that would aggregate synchronic and diachronic proficiencies, measure proficiency decay, and the amount of time needed to reactivate a surge language, has yet to be created. If such a scale could be developed, academics would have a better grasp of measuring language talent. Second, cognitive psychological tests could be administered to a group of [hyper]polyglots and a group of controls. The neurological project would focus on testing the differences, if any, of executive function and working memory tests between the two groups. These two suggestions and more research on prenatal testosterone cognitive outcomes are the future of [hyper]polyglot research. What is important to note in this papers research is the perception of [language] talent. Although people equate language aptitude to how easily someone picks up a language, it doesnt matter how quickly or slowly one manages to acquire multiple languages as long as he or she is successful in the end. There very well may be differences in memory or neurological shortcuts that hyperpolyglots are able to manipulate in language learning, but these differences, if any, can be exploited and improved upon over time. Language learning
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is not a race; and it is unequivocally not treated as such by the [hyper]polyglot. What is more, it is applicable to those who have an expressly strong will [to plasticity], discipline, an understanding of becoming a linguistic outsider within their speech community, and access to the polyglot community and the variety of language methodologies employed by its members. Throughout legends and myths in history, [hyper]polyglots have been portrayed as supernatural beings who have cunningly managed to evade the curse of babel. However, the reality is that for those of us who are not born to be made, we too can be molded into the supernatural with a motivated will to dedication, the proper utilization of at least four to six different methods, and a committed understanding of your identity as a language learner, not native speaker. The reality: resilience is what it means to be a [hyper]polyglot.

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7. Bibliography Arguelles, Alexander. "Foreign Language Expertise - The Website of Alexander Arguelles."Foreign Language Expertise - The Website of Alexander Arguelles.N.p., n.d. 2006.Web. 5 Dec. 2012. <http://www.foreignlanguageexpertise.com/>. Arguelles, Alexander. "A Polyglots Daily Linguistic Routine." Online video clip. YouTube. YouTube, 10 July. 2009. Web. 5. Dec. 2012. Cartaginese, Claude. The polyglot project: YouTube polyglots, hyper-polyglots, linguists, language learners and language lovers, in their own words. United States: CreateSpace, 2010. Print. Colomer, Josep M. "To translate or to learn languages? An evaluation of social efficiency." International journal of the sociology of language 121.1 (1996): 181-198. Erard, Michael. Babel no more: the search for the world's most extraordinary language learners. New York: Free Press, 2012. Print. Ganahl, Rainer. "Traveling Linguistics."Rainer Ganahl Homepage.New York, n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2012. <http://www.ganahl.info/t_travelling_linguistics.html>. Geschwind, Norman, and Albert M. Galaburda."Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology: III.A hypothesis and a program for research." Archives of Neurology 42.7 (1985): 634. Micheloud, Francois. "Learning Languages."Learning Languages.N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Nov. 2012. <http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/index.html>. Newby, David. "Cognitive+ communicative grammar in teacher education." Theory and Practice in EFL Teacher Education: Bridging the Gap 22 (2011): 101. Obler, Loraine K., and Deborah Fein. The Exceptional brain: neuropsychology of talent and special abilities. New York: Guilford Press, 1988. Print. Pascual-Leone, Alvaro, et al. "The plastic human brain cortex."Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 28 (2005): 377-401. Russell, Charles William. The life of Cardinal Mezzofanti; with an introductory memoir of eminent linguists, ancient and modern.. London: Longman, Brown, and Co., 1858. Print.

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