PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PUSHLIKE MOVEMENTS Pushlike activities are characterized by the body parts moving simultaneously or nearly so.

There are three mechanical purposes related to pushlike patterns: to manipulate a resistance (force activities), to generate maximum power (power activities) , or to maximize the accuracy of projection (accuracy activities). To effectively manipulate a resistance, the performer is unconcerned with creating the highest possible velocity of the object being manipulated. Rather, the performer wishes to move a large external load from one place to the other such as performing weight lifting events such as the squat, the deadlift, and the bench press. The squat, the deadlift, and the bench press are associated with strength or force production. To generate maximum power , the performer must produce great force to accelerate the resistance in a limited amount of time (before the object leaves the body or the body leaves the ground). In measuring this force, researches often identify the magnitude and location of peak force in the time history of the performance. In maximum power activities, the limited time available for the application of force in the time history of the performance. And the peak velocity of the body always occurs after the peak power record (Lakomy, 1987). There are four categories of activities for which the generation of power is paramount: jumping activities, takeoffs for aerial events, starts in events that have the overall performance objective of to move the body over a prescribed distance as fast as possible, and continuous events in which there is an intermittent application of force such as rowing. Last, pushlike patterns are used for activities in which the overall performance objective is the maximum accuracy of projecting an object. These pushlike patterns are at the pushlike end of the throwpush continuum and were introduced at the end of Module J. 10.1 Force Activities Power lifting events are the bench press, the squat, and the deadlift. Unfortunately, power lifting incorporates very little power per se in that the velocity of the lift appears to contribute little to the effectiveness of the performance. Maximum strength seems to be paramount. The term power lifting is a misnomer, because the lifting is associated with force production throughout a range of motion without regard to the velocity of moving the weight . It is the Olympic lifts that incorporate power to great extent; those lifts are the clean and jeark and the snatch and are discussed in Section 10.2, Power activities. Power Lifting Events The power lifting events do not require much power. That is, a performer in the deadlift, the bench press, and the squat is required to move the weight from A to B. How fast he or she lifts the weight is really insignificant as long as the weight is moved through the required displacement. In studying skilled and unskilled adolescents performing the deadlift, Brown & Abani (1985) found that the skilled lifters took a longer time from lift off to knee passing than did the unskilled.

Thus, the magnitude of force application is highly important. The performer is required to summate the segmental torques to achieve the maximum force against the resistance. In maximum force activities, such as those shown in Figure 10.1 a-c, simultaneous segmental rotations are necessary. Whereas sequential segmental rotations produce curvilinear or rotational displacement of the end point, simultaneous segmental rotations cause the end point to move in a straight line. Straight-line movement s are important for activities such as weight lifting, in which balance is extremely important as is maximum force against a resistance. The movements in a squat exercise involve slight extension of the intervertebral joints, extension of the hip and knee joints, and slight plantar flexion of the ankle joints. All of these movements should occur simultaneously so that the weight or resistance moves in a linear fashion vertically and rarely deviates horizontally from its vertical path. Additional examples of this type of movement occur in a maximum accuracy type of activity. Because of the action of the joint muscles of the lower extremity and the mechanics of musculoskeletal interactions (angles of pull, length-tensions, etc.), the velocities of the bar during descent and ascent of the squat do vary slightly , more so in the less skilled lifters (Garhammers, 1989). Accelerations in force activities such as the squat should be kept to a minimum. The faster the lift, the more likely injury may occur due to greater muscle forces and torques. The force velocity relationship also tells us that the faster the lift, the less tension is produced; therefore, a given resistance will require a greater percentage of maximum tension of the muscle involved. Similarly, in performing the bench press, peak shoulder torques were greater when lifts are performed at higher speeds. The greater torques were found when lifting the same amount of weight. Thus, the velocity of the lift did little for obtaining the overall performance objective of manipulating the resistance. If one is in training , however, increasing the speed of a lift may call for greater muscle tension. In the deadlift, Brown and Abani (1985) found that for skilled lifters, vertical bar acceleration was very low while unskilled lifters reached accelerations almost two times as great as the skilled. Skilled performers apply a consistent vertical force to the bar which minimizes acceleration and inertial resistance. Garhammer (1989) reported power values for the power lifts to be less than one half those in the Olympic lifts. 10.2. Power Activities Power activities are similar to force activities in that both ask for a high amount of force. In addition, power activities require a high velocity. We know from the force-velocity relationship that when velocity increases, force decreases and vice versa. And as reported in the previous section, the percentage of maximum muscle tension required for lifting a given resistance faster is much greater. In power activities, the velocity of the projectile or the velocity of the object being moved must be established in a relatively period time (high acceleration).

As was introduced earlier in this text, power events may be placed on a continuum, from those in which the force application in more important to success to those in which the velocity of moving an object is more important. Force-dominated power events take on some the characteristics of the force activities previously discussed in this chapter, such as rectilinear or curvilinear movement of the object. These events do have time limitations, however, and the objects or the body must be accelerated in a short amount of time. Shot putting is an example. The mass of the shot makes the magnitude of the force application important. However, the putter has a limited amount of time to apply this force, and the velocity of the shot at release is very important to the distance that it travels. Speed-dominated power events are on the other end of a continuum. The object being manipulated is not as massive as the force-dominated objects, and the performers speed of muscular contraction determines the success of the attempt rather than high generation of force. Power activities are presented under the headings of jumping events, punching events, lifting events, and continuous events that require the steady application of force. Jumping Events The vertical jump has long been used as a measure of power. The performer must apply force to the bodys mass to accelerate it as much as possible while it is still in contact with the ground. The vertical velocity of the body at takeoff is primary to the height achieved. Jumping events include the jumps that are discrete skills in themselves, such as high jumping, long jumping, and triple jumping, and jumps that are part or larger skill, such as the jump preceding a volleyball spike, the jump preceding a jump shot in basketball , and takeoffs such as in gymnastics tumbling and diving. Whenever the body is projecting itself, the movement pattern resembles that of pushing the body into space by segmental rotations. The segmental rotations act to move the bodys center of gravity (CG) in a rectilinear path. A series of rotational movements producing a linear path of the bodys CG is illustrated by the basketball player in Figure 10.2. In contrast to the others models, the jumping model shows the most massive segment, the trunk, located at the open end of the link system and the least massive segment, the feet, located at the fixed end. The segmental movements are in reverse order; that is, beginning at the most free segment and ending at the most fixed segment, the feet. This is slightly different order from that seen in throwing, striking, and kicking skills. To project the body, one must have an external force; that external force is the ground reaction force (GRF) that the jumper creates by pushing against it. In the pushing pattern, the sequential application of segmental power is used to produce a greater GRF on the body. The GRF is an external force applied to the feet and as other forces has a line of action. The line of action ideally should pass through the bodys center gravity. Voigt and others (1995) warn, however, that frequently prestretch of the muscles causes forward and backward rotations of the segments resulting in the GRF passing in front or behind the bodys center of gravity. This sets up a rotation moment and results in loss of muscle work applied to the height of the jump.

The jumping motion consists of sequential application of musculotendinous power from the hip proximally through the ankle distally. Zajac (1993) proposed the coordination of this power application wa predominantly from the uniarticulate muscle. The biarticulate muscles of the lower extremity were used to fine tune the coordination. This sequencing of some of the segmental rotations is done to accommodate the neuromuscular properties of the muscles involved. For example, the prestretching of muscle fibers enhances the force-velocity relationship and the pre-tensing of a muscle provides a shifter platform from which to launch the body upwards (Zajac,1993). The initial upward motion of the sequence is flexion of the arms at the shoulder joints. During their upward acceleration, the arm exert a downward reaction force on the segments below them. This sequeezing of the lower segments enhances the negative work or eccentric action of the antigravity muscles. Sometime during the midst of their flexion, the arms begin to decelerate. This deceleration phase of the arms, the optimum time to begin extension of the trunk about the hip joints begins. Thus, the performer can use the elastic recoil of the lower segments. The lower and less massive segments are subjected to a large downward reaction force during the upward acceleration of the large trunk segment above them. Because the lower segments are acting under such influence, they may be unable to begin their extensions simultaneously with the trunk, as would be expected in such a pushing type of movement. Even though the muscles of the lower segments may be attempting to produce the force for upward acceleration, they are so heavily loaded with the acceleration of the more massive segments above them that they may be unable to produce the force necessary to counteract the load. Thus, these lower segments may in fact be squeezed into a greater range of flexion before their extensions. Because the extensor muscles exert tension during their joints flexions, they are functioning with eccentric tension and therefore can use the elastic recoil action. Furthermore, as Bobbert and van Ingen Schenau (1988) point out, the hamstring, which are functioning concentrically during the hip extensions, are also knee flexors. The flexion tourques of the hamstrings at the knee during this time may also prevent the extension of the knee although, when the foot is fixed as in jumping, the hamstring torques at the knee may actually cause its extension. Bobbert and van Ingen Schenau (1988) provide further evidence of the sequential nature of the muscular action in jumping. In noting the time history of the peak maximum muscle activity of the uniarticulate muscles of the lower extremity, these researchers found that the gluteus maximus achieved its peak at the start of the push-off, whereas the uniarticulate extensors of the knee were at 62% of their peak at initial push-off and peaked at 190 msec before leaving the ground. Similarly, the plantar flexors of the ankle were at 26% of their peak at initial push-off and peaked at 100 msec before leaving the ground. Dowling and Vamos (1993) studied the force and power-time curves or subjects jumping onto a force platform. While it was difficult for them to conclude anything from the variable patterns in application of force, they did find that several subjects had low jumps in spite of generating high peak forces. They concluded that the pattern of force application was more important in jumping height than strength.

Jensen and others (1994) studied the coordination and control mechanism of young jumpers. They concluded that the nearly simultaneous nature of the coordination patterns was consistent between young children and adults. However, control variables that tune and refine performance such as strength, balance, perception, and motivation were often lacking the young children. There are two important advantages to the sequential nature of the jumping action. First, the lower segments are allowed to extend through a greater range of motion (ROM). Second, and more importantly, the extensor muscles of the lower segments are stretched to greater extent before their contractions. The stretch reflex is evoked, which enhances the muscles contractile force, and it allows a greater use of the series elastic component of the tissues surrounding the joint. Note that merely increasing the ROM during flexion does not necessarily produce a greater extension force. The extensor muscles must be tensed during the joint flexion phase for the recoil of the elastic component to contribute to the extension of the joints. The acceleration and deceleration of the arms in a vertical jump or of the arms and free leg during a high jump or of the arms and free leg during a high jump are commonly referred to as the transfer of momentum from the arms or the leg or both to the total body. The momentum of the arms or of the leg (created by their upward acceleration during ground contact) is conserved within the entire system; therefore, as these segments decelerate, an increase occurs in the velocity of the bodys CG upward. Consequently, the force resulting from the final extension of the supporting knee and ankle joints is used to further increase the momentum of the already upward traveling CG. Figure 10.3 illustrates the timing of the arms and of the free-leg and support-leg movements in the high-jump takeoff. Dyson (1977) called the impulse provided by free swinging arms and legs, as in the case of a high jumper, a transmitted impulse, as opposed to a controlled impulse, which is produced by the direct muscular effort against the supporting surface. Punching Motions Punching events include boxing , karate, and taekwondo. The force of impact is important as is the speed with which the punch is thrown. In boxing, a right-hand punch is performed most effectively by using the hips, trunk, and shoulder girdle segments as wheel and axle mechanism about the supporting opposite hip joint. The right upper extremity is used as a lever system consisting of shoulder joint flexion and elbow extension. Figure 10.4 illustrates a right-hand punch. The importance of maintaining a straight-line movement of the fist is understood when one considers the speed with which the punch must be thrown. In a straight-line movement, the fist will have a smaller linear displacement and hence arrive at the intended target sooner. Whitting, Gregor, and Finerman (1988) provide evidence that the jab is performed in a more straight-line motion than the hook, which is more angular. The importance of the acceleration of the hand cannot be overemphasized when one considers that the impact is determined by the sudden deceleration of the hand on the opponents face. The larger the velocity of the hand on initial impact, the larger the deceleration of the hand must be. Thus, the

effectiveness of the punch in part relies on the instantaneous power at impact. The other part of the effectiveness relies on the accuracy of the punch. As discussed in the last section, rectilinear motion provides the best possibility of accurate movement. The turning hook kick in taekwondo serves as a second example of a punching pushlike movement. The turning hook kick is shown in Figure 10.51-c. While the performer is rotating in a clockwise direction, as viewed from above, about supporting left lower extremity, the actual kick is a pushlike punch performed near the end of rotation. Figure 10.5a and b illustrate the fighter just before and at contact. As the fighter nears the target, the hip, knee and ankle joints are quickly extended so that the foot arrives at the target as quickly as possible. The speed of the foot at the instant of contact is crucial for the same reasons that the speed of hand arrival is important in the boxing motion. A higher velocity at impact results in a greater deceleration of the foot and a harder blow and of course less time for the opponent to dodge the blow. In taekwondo the rules state that points are scored when the punch is delivered with sufficient force to cause trembling shock. Olympic Lifts As was stated previously, those competitive lifts called power lifts are not truly powerful in nature. The Olympic lifts, the clean and jerk, and the snatch have a high component of power in their performance. Garhammer (1985) states High power out-put capacity was the most distinguishing characteristic and is likely necessary for successful participation at the elite level The Olympic lifts require the application of force to the bar such that the lifter causes the bar to be moving upward as fast as possible. Both lifts have several discrete parts. The first discrete part of the clean and jerk begins with the initial lifting of the bar from the floor (Figure 10.6a). in the clean and jerk, the body must drop under the upward-moving bar si that the bar can be held at the shoulder level (Figure 10.6b). the faster the bar is moving upward during the lift, the more time the lifter must use in flexing the hips and knees. During the second half of the lift, the bar must be accelerated upward from the shoulder area such that the lifter can drop under the upward-moving bar so that the bar comes to rest on the arms, which are fully flexed overhead (Figure 10.6c-d). The same power moves are required; that is, a large application of force is needed to achieve the largest possible accelerations. The application of these forces is limited to a very short period of time. In the snatch lift, the lifter must bring the bar to the overhead position during the first part of the initial lift, as shown in Figure 10.7a-c. The lifter does this by using a greater range of motion for hip and knee flexions and dropping under the upward-moving bar and ending in a full-squat position (Figure 10.7c). A large power requirement is necessary to apply a large force to the initial lift so that the bar is moving as fast as is possible before the bodys drop under it. The second half of the snatch may be classified as a force activity with little power required.

The lifter rises to a standing position while maintaining the bar overhead (Figure 10.7c-d). The speed with which the lifter does this is of little importance to the success of the lift. Continuous Power Events Whenever there is a limited amount of time to accelerate an implement or an object, power is involved, because power includes force and velocity of movement. Whereas the previous examples were discrete skills, many examples of continuous power events exist in sports. Two examples are an oar person applying force to an oar in rowing, wherein there is a limited amount of time to apply a large force, and the sprinter attempting to produce a large amount of force against the ground in a short period of ground contact. Rowing After the initial start-up period, very little if any slippage occurs between the oar and the water. Thus, the athlete has a limited amount of time to apply a large amount of force against the oar to displace the shell maximally as fast as possible during each stroke. Nelson and Widule (1983) state that power training is more important than sheer strength training and should provide greater knee and trunk accelerations. The rowing motion involves two blocks of segmental movements-the extension of the trunk, the hips, knees, and ankles and the retraction of the shoulder girdle, extension-transverse extension of the shoulder joint, and the flexion of the elbow. While the movement within the blocks themselves are initiated in an overlapping sequential fashion. The first block , consisting of the larger, more massive segments (lower extremities and trunk), initiates the action. In skilled rowers, the knee extension occurs before trunk extension, whereas the hip and trunk extend somewhat simultaneously (Nelson & Widule, 1983). Powerful trunk and lower extremity angular accelerations are used to accelerate the oar. The arms must serve as rigid linkages from the legs to the oar. The trunk and lower extremity joints experience angular decelerations during the latter half of their ranges of motion, and at this time the upper body actions occur. These muscles contract fast enough to keep up with the oar; whether they can contract faster to surpass the speed of the oar to apply force is questionable. Wrist flexion and extension will follow to free the blade from the water on the recovery and to catch the water on entry. After the start, the oar moves at the same speed as the shell. Therefore, the oarsperson must generate enough force (must contract the muscles fast enough) to surpass the aerodynamic and hydrodynamic drag forces and to apply additional force if possible. The start-up may be thought of as a forcedominated power event while the rest of the race os thought of as a speed-dominated power events. Lamb (1989) compared the kinematics of ergometer and on-water rowing. He concluded that while there were few differences in the kinematics of ergometer and on-water performances, there were important findings about the contributions of the segmental kinematics to seat velocity, hand velocity, and total oar velocity.

Relative seat and oar velocity were not constant throughout the drive phase of rowing. During the first 40% of the drive, the relative seat velocity was much greater than the relative hand velocity. During the last 60%, these contributions were reversed with the greater contributions coming from the relative hand velocity. Lamb (1989) reported that the trunk velocity contribution to the total linear oar velocity was maximized at 70% of the drive phase. The lower leg was responsible for initiating the drive phase, but between 40% and 50% of the phase, the trunk contribution equal and then surpasses the contribution made by the leg. The trunk was found to be the major contributor overall to generating total linear oar velocity. Sprint Running In sprint running, the runner experiences the same power aspects as in rowing. Both are continuous events in which after the start, the body is moving at a speed that is under the influence of aerodynamic drag forces. In additions, the runner must continually support the body weight. The power surge comes during the short period of time that the runners foot is in contact with the ground, it has been well established that the speed of the runner is correlated with the stride length and the stride frequency. Thus, the greater the power during push-off (the greater the force applied in that short period of time), the greater will be the stride length. In addition, the faster the runner can get the foot back down to the ground surface, the more frequently the power can be applied. The pushlike simultaneous extensions of the hip, knee, and ankle joints provide the power required in this skill. 10.3 Accuracy Activities. Accuracy activities include those events in which an object is projected to a target such as archery, shooting, field goal kicking, basketball shots and field hockey shots for the goal; pushing an implement or an object to place it in a specific location such as a fencing lunge or a volleyball set; and parts of events in which the body must project itself to a specific location in space to accomplish a total body movement. The latter category is discussed in Chapter 12 and applied in Chapters 15 and 16. The specific location or target in space was called a point target. In the following section, projecting an object to target and pushing an object to a specific location will be discussed. Projecting an Object to a Target In all activities in which one is projecting an object to a target, consistency of movement is of primary importance. Consistency of movement depends on stability of the body during projection; maintaining the end point, a body part, or an implement in a straight line just before and just after release; and assessing the angle of release for distance projections. The angle of release for projectiles is discussed in Chapter 12. Pushlike activities are characterized by the simultaneous rotations of two or more body segments so that the end point moves in rectilinear path. In shooting a basketball, the shoulder id flexed, followed by simultaneous extension of the elbow and flexion of the wrist. The two rotational motions allow the player to move the ball in a rectilinear path before release and thus increases the precision of the release direction.

In tossing a dart, the performer stabilizes the body with a wide base support. The trunk and legs remain relatively motionless while the shoulder is moved along some diagonal plane between ful flexion and full abduction. Simultaneously, the elbow is extended to produce a straight-line motion od the throwers hand and dart. Although there may be some wrist flexion or ulnar flexion, the third segmental rotation produces a rotational motion of the hand. Thus, more successful is the toss in which the wrist is stabilized. Similar simultaneous rotations are seen in a volleyball set in which the setter must place the ball in a precise location. While the ball is touching the fingertips for a very short period of time, the rectilinear path of the fingers preceding the touch ensures that the ball is placed exactly where the setter wants it. During activities in which the overall performance objective is distance of the projectile but in which accuracy is also a factor, creating a flat space in the path of the rotating implement is an important part of the skill. Such flat spaces occur in a golf swing, tennis forehand and backhand, and somewhat in a baseball swing. Releasing or striking an object while it is moving in arotational path may be accurate; however, the performer has an extremely short time in which to do so. The rectilinear path surrounding the release allows the performer a longer time in which to release or strike the object and still maintain accuracy to the target. Finally, the more the performer is in a state of static (in the case of archery and shooting) or dynamic (in the case of moving basketball shots) stabilitity the easier it is for the performer to perform the movements consistently. In accuracy, consistency enhances the effectiveness of the movement.